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Nanres: Worcester, Thomas, editor.
Title: T'he Cambridge er-rcyclopedia of the |esuits / general editor, Thomas Worcester, S];
associate editors, Megan C. Arrrstrong, Iarnes Corkery, SJ, Alison Fleming, Andr6s Ignacio
Prieto; assistant editor, Henry Shea, SJ.
Description: New York: Can-rbridge University Press, 2017. I

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: [,CCN 2017022402 | ISBN 97805?-1769051 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSFl: Jesr.rits - Encyclopedias. I BISAC: RELIGION /
Christian Church / History.
Classification: LCC BX3702.AI C36 2017 | DDC 2711.53003-dcl3
LC record available at h ttps ://lcc n.1 oc. gov/2 0 17 022402
ISBN 978-0- 521-7 6905-l Hardback

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 Art Patrcnage
FollorviLrg papal approval of the order in 1540, the SocieV of Jesus underwept a period
of growth and expansion. In the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
the Jesuits established residences in the great Catholic centers of Europe and sent
missionaries to new territories in Asia, South America, and Africa. To accommo6ate
their growir-rg order, the )esuits contributed significantly to the building of new com-
plexes, which included churches, professed houses (residences for fully trained
Jesuits),
colleges, chapels for their lay'congregations, and novitiates. They,further enhanced their
urban Presence by orgar-rizing festivals and theatrical performances, apcl by publishir-rg
nreditational treatises and devotional prints. As patrons of ma jor church .o*pl.r.s, the
Jesuiis played a leadirrg role in redefining sacred space in the early modern p.iio.l. They
cotlceived of the interiors of tl-reir churches as theatrical spaces that not or-rly framed tra-
ditional litr-irgical rituals but also served to overwh.l*, ,rplift, and persuade the vielver.
By far tl"re most in-rportant comrnission undertaken by the
Jesuiis was the building o{
tlre rlotherchurch in Rorne, the Gest (1568-1 575). Nanni di Baccio drewthe eariiest
plans for the church in 1549*50 to replace the older, smaller Cfiurch of Madonna della
Strada, but construction was delayed due to a lack of funds. Their ambitious buildi.g
plan lvas realized only with ihe support of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, the grar-rdson
oi Pope Paui III, who had approved the Order in 1540. Farnese clearly put , I"-p on
the building by commissioning his own favorite arcl-ritect
Jacopo Vignola to draw ,rp th.
plans ar-rd bv stipulating that the church be built with a bariel ,r,rlt rather than a flat
wooden ceiling as the Jesuits had preferred.
The design of the church inaugurated a new conception for post-Trideltine church
interiors. The church boasted a wide, aisleless nave, a dorned crossing, a choir, and
a series of side chapels on either side of the nave. Its nave was articulatecl by pairecl
Cori[thian pilaster, .ro*r."d by a continuous entablature. This vast, clearly struc-
tured interior was designed to hold large crowds ar-rd to serve as an appropriate setti'g
for preaching, an activity central to the Society's program of reforgr. ff-,"
Jesuits also
promoted the frequent reception of the Holy Sacrament. To this er-rcl, they createcl a.
irnpressive settir-rg for the high altar and incorporated numeror-rs side chapels where
rnasses could be celebrated simr_rltaneousl;r. In tl-re Gesri the uninterrupted
entablature
leads the eye to the choir, rryhich origir-rally housed an altarpiece by Girolamo Muziano,
a painter favored b1' F-arnese. Notably, the Jesuits did not sing the liturgical hours in
common, so they did away with the cl-roir screen, which separated the laity from the high
aitar in rnendicant churches.
Ciacomo della Porta, who succeeded Vignola as the main architect of the church in
1571, was resPonsible for the fagade (completed in 1575). FIis desigr-r, w6ic6 replaced
the more densely decorated plan by Vignola, adopts the idea of a flaidouble-storied ele-
vation connected byscrolls, as seen on the fagade of Santa Maria Novella in Florence.
}'et Della Porta gave the fagade a more robust appearance by focusing op tl-re interplay
between tl-re paired Corinthiar-r pilasters and the niches and half-coltlmns flankir-rgt6e
main entrance- Moreover, by reducing tlie number of niches to four a1,J by elirni.Iting
some statues atld ornatnental decoration, he created a faqade of great clarity,
monumen-
tality, and restraint.
IJesides their main church, the Jesuits established a number of eclucatior-ral institu-
tions throughout Rorne in the ser:ond half of the sixteenth century. As in the case of the
Art Patronage 5'

Gesr), they employed both )esuit and lay artists and attracted weaithy patrons to realize
their ambitious building projects. Remarkably, at this early stage in the order's clevelop-
ment, the Jesuits relied especially on the charity of female patrons, principally wealthy
widows of noble farnilies. For example, in 1560, Marchesa Vittoria della Tolfa offered
financial resources and private land for the building the Collegio Romano in Rome.
Likewise, Isabella della Rovere, wife of the Neapolitan nobleman Nicolb Bernardino di
Sanseverino, supported the construction of the nerv Jesuit church in Naples (1 585) and
paid a staggering 90,000 scudi for the renovation of tl-re novitiate Church of San Vitale
(1596) on the Quirinal hill in Rome.
The late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries saw a virtual building boom of
Jesuit churches worldwide. Building programs from the Jesuit provinces had to be
approved by the Roman general, and certain plans and designs circulated rvidely. The
Roman church of the Gesri exerted an especially strong influence. Perhaps the closest
example of a church built according to the Roman model is tl-re Clrurch of Saints Peter
and Paul in Krakow (1597*1625). For this building, the Jesuits attracted several Italian
architects, inclucling Matteo Castello and Giovanni Tievano. The flagade displays a hvo-
story elevation with paired Corinthian pilasters and half-columns marking the ba1,s, s5
seen in the Gesil. The Italian architects also adopted the niches with statues of saints as
well as the IHS emblem above the entrance. The impetus for the emphasis on Italian
architectr-rral design may not have come directly from Rome, however, but rather from
the patron, King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland. Sigismund favored ltalian culture, as
exemplified by his employment of Italian musicians and his collection of Italian art.
The )esuits were especially active in centers on the frontier rvith Protestant territo-
ries, including Anhverp, Mrinster, Dtisseldorf, Freiburg im Breisgau, and Krakou,. Yet
they also had a strong presence in Catholic strongholds such as Spain and Portugal. In
Spain, Portugal, and later Latin America, we see a greater development toward sr-rmptu-
ous, multimedia church interiors that moved away from the starker Roman model. The
Church of San Ildefonso in Toledo (also called the Iglesia de Los Jesuitas), begun in
1629 and consecrated in 1718, ranks as one of the earliest examples of Jesuit Baroque
architecture in Spain. The church is attributed to |uan Bautista de Monegro. Pedro
Sdnchez and Francisco Bautista, both Jesuit architects, oversaw the construction. The
fagade rises to three stories and includes hvo large bell towers or-r the corners. It is fr-rrther
brought to life by wall planes set forrvard and by the application of ornarnents visible
in the consoles and sculptural reliefs. The whitewashed interior still follows the ground
plan of the Gesir, but it distinguishes itself from the Roman model in its use of decora-
tion. The interior features richly decorated consoles, carved reliefs, and niches, which
were filled in the eighteenth century with polychrome statues of the apostles, attributed
to Gerrndn L6pez. Color is introduced not only in the gilded altarpieces but also in the
yellow stained glass window containing the IHS emblem of the ]esuit order, filling the
interior with a glowing, golden light.
The most ornate early |esuit church erected north of the Alps is in the city of Antwerp
(1615-Zl). Franciscus Aguilonius and Pieter Huyssens, hvo local Jesuit architects,
designed both the churcl-r and the surrounding professed house and sodality hor-rse, but
it was Peter Paul Rubens who transformed the church into a visually stunning and splen-
did sacred space. Among the patrons of the chr-rrch were the Spanish governors of the
Southern Netherlands, the archdukes Albert and Isabella, King Philip IV of Spain, the
city government, and the population of Anhverp. As in Rome, rich, unmarried women,
 lvho received spiritual guidallce from Jesuit priests, played an importalt role as wel1.
T'he <iaughters of Godfried Houtappel, Maria, Anna, and Christina, and their cousin
Antra 's Crevens paid large sums of money for the building and decoratiol of a side
ctrapel dedicated to the Virgin.
The first building in the world to be dedicated to Ignatius, the Jesuit church featured
a three-story fagade fronted by a piazza as seen in Rome. But unlike t|e austere exterior
of the Cesil, the Anhverp fagade teems with ornament and, like the Jesuit church i.
Toledo, displays two bell towers. In deviating from the advice of Rome to avoid "super-
fluous ornaments," the Antwerp Jesuits favored a type of architecture that fulfilied t6e
same goals as ancient rhetoric, namely to teach, delight, and move the viewer.
The interior of the Antwerp church was partly destroyed by a fire in 1718 but was
rebuilt in ihe early eighteenth century. Early descriptions and paintings provide a good
idea of its original appearance. Like the Gesir, the Antwerp cl-,,rr"h had a bnrr.l-u^,]lt.d
nave, yet with significant new changes. Foilowing the model of early Christian churches,
the cliurch shorvs a three-aisled basilica ground plan. Equally innovative was the profuse
use of colored marble. Moreover, the church was the first
Jesuit building to showcase a
suite of ceilir-rg paintings (destroyed in the 1718 fire), which were designed by Rube,s.
T'he light rellectins on the polished n-rarble and the illusionistic ceilin[ paintings trans-
forrned the chr-rrch interior in what early commentators described ,, u'Gurenllfcourt.,,
At the sarne titne, the integration of art, sculptr-rre, architecture, and light created a new
tvpe of theatrical church environment that was directed at rnoving the minds of the
congregation.
This predilection tor ornate, theairicai church faEades and interiors culmilated
in the ntissionary churches that sprang up all over the Americas and Asia. Perhaps
the rnost characteristic of these is the novitiate church of San Francisco
)avier in
Tepotzotl6n, north of Mexico City (1670-82, faEade restored i. 1760-62). The
church (today the Museo de Arte Virreinal) is a prin-re example of the ultra-Baroque
style. The three-tiered faEade, which features one bell tower, dissolves in a weajth
of elaborate ornament. Most prominent are the inverted pilasters and half-columns)
called estipite, rvhich are overlaid by densely decorated ornaments, rangilg frour
garlands and vegetal motifs to sl-rells, scrolls, masks, and figures. The bryl, ii trrrr,,
are heavily decorated with niches containing .statues arr,i crrtouches featuring relief
sculp:tr,ire. Yei the higl-rpoint of the churcl, is the interior, an amalgarlation of el.ve,-,
iinposing gilded retablos and drarnatic indirect light sources, w6ich envelop the spec-
tator, Replicating the der-rse ornarnentation of the faga{e, the retablos create ,., l*.,-
berarrt environrnent that evokes the earthly paradise.
Building churches ftrlElled an imr-nediate need for the ]esuits to foster religious com-
rnunities in Europe and territories overseas. In addition to acting as patro^ of archi-
tectut'e, the ]esuits also maintained a sustained interest in images. Not only did they
invest in ambitious church decorations, but the1. also promoted the use of devotional
prints, illustrated meditational treatises, and emblem books. Their interest in the visual
arts was predicated on the idea that irnages could serye as tools to instruct tl-re faitli-
ful in the articles of Christian faith. Jesuit missionaries, such as Francis Xavier, relied
heavily on images as ieaching and preaching tools to evangelize the local population
of the countries they visited, including India, China, and
Japan. Moreoyer, thl Jesuits
used images in engaging the viewer/reader in the practi.., oi,r.ditative prayer. Indeed,
images l\'ere a r-ratural extension of Ignatius o[Loyola's Spiritual Exercisis, adevotiona]
 '
ffi*':
ffi
Art Patronage 57
ffi;
$r{',
trlr., .
text first published in 1548, which clirected the devotee to vividly imagine the place,
ffi;;

*1,
personages, and sounds of the Christiar-r subjects suggested for meditation. The )esuits
1li, also recognized the rhetorical power of images to persuade the viewer and move him or
ffi*
her to pieV.
flii
The late sixteenth- and seventeenth-century fesuit church ensembles were conceived
tr as unified iconographic programs that focr-rsed on the lives of Christ, the Virgin, ancl
pqi,

&l,r the saints. The decorative program of the Gestl (1580s and 1590s) progressed along a
ffi
[: series of coordinatecl altars displaye'd in the paired side chapels of the nave. Decorated
qt; l

e:4 by Ciuseppe Valeriano (a Jesuit artist), Federico Zuccaro, Scipione Pulzone, Caspare
IL:
.fi. :
Celio, and others, the chapels were dedicated to the Apostles, the early martyrs, the
tu:
l,*
#;
Infancy of Cl-rrist, the Passion of Christ, the Trinity, and Angels. The transept altars,
h*r, in turn, were dedicated to the Crucifixion and Resurrection while the high,altar dis*
ffis
Hi
played Muziano's Circumcision of Christ The Circumcision represents the moment
ffi::' not only of Christ's first blood shedding, but also of his naming. Since the Society was
HI,
named after Jesus, the sr,rbject and feast day of the Circr-rmcision fr-rlfilled a particularly
$:
i+.:'
important role in Jesuit worship - and by extension within ]esuit church programs.
tu:
9i':i' Important examples include Federico Barcocci's high altarpiece for the )esuit church in
$hi
ti:ll
f,irr. Pesaro (1590), Jrran de Roeias's altarpiece for the professed house in Seville (1604), and
llri,
Rubens's altarpiece for the high altar of Sant'Ambrogio in Genoa ( I 60 5 )
?.,1

ff, '
fii
hr;- Besides iconography focused on the life of Christ and the Virgin, the fesuits also
s:
fi .
ilfltr:.,,, favored cycles dedicated to the early martyrs, as exemplified by the frescoes of N.iccolb
Ii,,,
$lii
Circignani for Santo Stefano Rotondo (l 581), the clrr-rrch of the Collegio Gernranicc in
,- 1i:.; ,
Rome. Circignani painted a series of thirty-nine frescoes of grr-resome martyrdom scenes.
il:,
!i' The focus on the martyrs aligned with the Jesuits'airn to shol their practices and belief-s
*iir'i'.
ir,i'' as a direct continuation of those of the revered early Christian Church. Furthermore,
$li;,
d.: the terrifying images of dying martyrs fulfilled the Society's goal of promoting rhetorical
s:[
and vivid imagery that had the power to persuade the young novices to go as missionaries
ffi to non-Catholic lands.
ili,,1 :
!6{!,'
!&'..,
i:rJi;.i
Eariy )esuit programs outside Italy typically followed the Christological and Marian
[,, focus of the Gesri. St. Michael's in Munich (1583-97), which was patronized by Duke
r]
fiir,, Wilhelm V of Bavaria, featured side altarpieces dedicated to saints and marlvrs, the
I
Bil:r,
[,[1: life of Christ, the Trinity, and the Name of Jesus (both paintings executed by Antonio
#i,
&-1i:

ihi:r' l
Maria Vianai), and a l-righ altarpiece of St. Nlichael and the Fall of tlte Rebel Angels by
ki":,
[i,j
Christoph Schwartz (l 589). This Christological focr-rs l-ras led schoiars to conclrrde that
$r: .'

H,r the iconography of the early Jesuit programs was firmly rooted in Ignatius's Spiritu.al
iT
ffii;r,,'
Exercises.In Ignatius's instructions, the devotee is led thror-rgh a four-week program,
kr" progressing from meditations on Hell, the Nativity, the Passiorr, and the Resurrection of
it,r'
liLt l, ,:

St+:r
Christ. Yet, although there are sorne parailels behveen the thenres and struchrre of both
&irtlr:l

ffi,:
the Spirftual Exerclses,.and the images laid out in Jesuit churches, Ignatius's text should
not be identified as the primary source for )esuit programs. Rather, Jesuit art draws on
il.,'
a wide variety of texts, from s.ermons and exegetical writings to liturgical practices and
ffii early devotional books.
ffi
i!fl
;ili:.
Following the canonization of Ignatius and Francis Xavier in 1627, ensembles glo-
Fi rifying the history of the Order and the lives of the first )esr-rits gradually replaced pro-
$:'
ir[ grams centered on the Circumcision and the life of Christ. The Anhverp church rvas the
ifrrii'].,'
first )esuit edifice to display altarpieces of Ignatius and Francis Xavier on the high altar
Hi
$i (1617-18). Rubens's altarpieces, which were completed a few years prior to their official
ffi:
W"'
hi,
,*.
58

of onlookers'
triu.rphantry standing among a group
tr-re sair-rts
canonization, s}rowed
Fra,cis Xavier preaches to , gro,-rp
oi"*ri."[y clothed pagnr-,r as an'-rdia. idoi crashes
in a glowing chasubl""t"Id' i, a
church interior as he
to the ground. Ig'atius, dressed
cures i"o fig.r,ti po"t""d by demonic forces' artars in the Gesir were rededicated
I' t'e wake of their canonization, the transept paoro oliva (father general, 1664-
Gian
to Ignatius and Francis Xavier. However, the )esuit saints ar-rd the
B1) corn,rissioned the more
extravagant programs to honor
t'a'"'sforn-red ihe barrel vault of
the
Andrea Porr-'r,fJ,
order. Jesr-rit artist
t*'*ile,
i,, Ro*. into a, e*ublrant display of iliusionistic foreshorte,-
,aw of Sant,Ignazio of ( 169I-94)' the
ing. I-{igt-rtighti;;;h e iriumph.of
the Missionory Effurti !h? lesuits
h.n,enly lighf by personifications of
ceiling fresco ,1-*, Ignatir-rs ir-,'" "-,,tot,,tcled
meditation, the Jesuits
\j?UliJffiiltiteir recognitio. of irnages as aids to private and
alrotional books ancl prints' Popular
estabrisired a reacii,g rore ir-r the froa,r.tio,J3r (A,twerp'
such as ]an David's veridicus christianus
widely circ*rating crevotionri boJkr, Sucquet's
spirituelle (Lyon' 1611)' ancl Antonius
I601), Louis Ricieorn e's La peirt'nre relationships between words
all reliecl o"
Via vitae aetentae(Antwerp, 1620) 'Iggt'tive (Antwerp,
yet Jer6,irno Nadai,s Adnotatioru, ul"*nditations in
Evangella
ancl images. at trre recommer-rdation of
worldwide. D.rigr-,.d
r595) had trre greatest inflr_rence by the wierix
a series of r53 eLborate engravi,gs
Ignatius rriniself]the book features Nadal's book
brotr-rers of A,,twerp, wl-rich
d.;i.t christ s rife, death, and Resurrection'ideas,
of because
was instrumentar in trre Jesuit
prr;..t of the curtr-rral transmission
,reditative tooi'
America used it as a teachi,g and
missionaries in cr-ri,a and Souih the Adnototiones
and china copied iilustrations of
Moreover, artists in South Arnerica Giulio Aleni in 1637
as evidenced by trre iilustrrt.a
iii. christ published by the ]esuit
"f
in the Chinese citY of Iinf iang' of remarkable
centr-rries, which saw a period
unrike the sixteer-rtl-r and seventeenth Spurred
ce,tury inaugurated a period of decline'
gror,vt' fo, tl-,. So.J!, tn. eightee,th XIV issued a decree
by the expulsions of iesuits in
Po*ugal and Spain'?ope Clement
of
suppressi,rg th" Society of Jesr-rs
ir-r\lll.The decrtt tttl not o,ly to the dis,-rissal
of the }esuits,
aiso to tlre and sale of }esuit property. Vlany
Jesuit priests but "o,.,fi,.ntiorr as parish nt happened in Diisseldorf'
magnifice,t cl-rurches were repurposed "hrrr.h.r,
N.Ibu,rg anr Donau, Municl-r' and Antwerp' order. was tl-re dispersal' sale'
Perhaps the greatest loss to the
artistic he'itagt 9f
'lt
Nowirere was the da.rage tg the"
artistic patronage
ancl destruction of church property. which l-roused some
in the Southern Netheil.r",dr,
greater ti,ran in tl-re Jesuit folndations I774 and l7J6'
nn'oqt': * Between
of the gr.at.st treasu.es of seventeenth-centtt'y II, who
Netherlands, Maria Theresa a'd ]oseph
the Austrian rurers of the Souther, best paintings
rracl ,-rar-rdatecl the expursion
oith. Jesuits rn r777,obtair-red_thirty of the dow. of
a.d Brussers and ord.red tlre melting
from the chr-rrcrres i, Antwerp, Ghent, altarpieces of tl-re
losses to a"t'"'P wel: Rubens's
liturgicai obiects. A,rong th. gr.rt.st which were moved to
lhe Miraclen of FrutcisXavier'
Miracles of lgnatius of Loyol,J*d
directorof the rmperiai Garlery in vienna,
also
vienna in r776.)oseph de Rosa, the Daniel Seghers from
van Dyck, Int Brueghel,. and
selectecl rnasterworks by ,tr-,trrorry Flemish masters
1777 itn g" group of pair-rtings by
Fremisrr reside,ces. Moreov.r, i"
were sold at pr-rblic auction ir-r
in )esuit fo'ncrations in the Fie'rish-Belgiar-,-p-ui*ce
AntwerP'
Art Patronage 59

Figure 7 Portrait of Alessandro Farnese (1520-89) and Odoardo Famese (1573-1626),ltaliart

Cardinals who Financed the Chiesa del Cesi in Rome (unknown artist), l Tth centr-rry, Church of
Il Gesii, Rome. Pl-rotograph @ Cianni Dagli Orti / The Art Archive at Art Resource, New York

Despite the clispersal of ]esuit property, scholars have been able to reconstrltct the
role of the Jesr-rits as patrons of ma jor works of art, architecture, prints, and books. Thken
together, the Jesuits not only transformed the post-Tridentine church interior into a
denseiy decorated, theatricai space but also acted as agents of cr-rltural transfer and trans-
mission, creating networks between Europe, the Americas, and Asia and r-rsing art as a
key instrument of communication and conversion.
Today, Jesuits continue to work as artists and to serve as patrons of the arts. Jesr-rit colleges
and universities, such as in tl-re United States, may be seen as prominent patrons, commis-
sioning buildings and arhvorks in myriad forms. These proiects are execllted by lay artists
and members of the Society, as has always been done. The Chapel of St. Ignatius at Seattle
University (Steven Holl Architects, 1997) is an excellent example of contemporary Jesr-rit
artistic patronage, as are, nlimerous academic buildings on other campuses, including the
College of the Holy Cross, Boston College, and Marqttette University. These institutions
continue the significant legacy.of Jesuit artistic patronage in t]:e restored Society.
See also Antwerp; Arcl-ritecture; Arts, Visual; Baroque Art and Architecture; Cestt,
Rome; Pozzo,Andrea, S|; Rubens, Peter Paul; Wierix Brothers
Bailey, Gauvin A., Art on the lesuit Missiorzs in. Asia andLatin Atnerica, 1542-1773.Toronto: University
of Toronto Press, 1999.
Melion, Walter, The Meditative Art: Studies intheNorthemDevotional.Print, .1550-1625. Philadelphia,
PA: St. Joseph's Universilv Press, 2009.
O'Malley, )ohn W., and Gauvin A. Bailey, eds., The lesuits and the Arts, 1540-1773. Phrladelphia,
PA: St. Joseph's University Press, 2005.
Snritl-r, )effrey Chipps, Sensuous Worship: lesuits and the Art of the Early Catholic Refonnation in
Cennany. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Anna C. Knaap

Arts, Performing i r

The performing arts creatively express perspectives on the world and l-rurnan experi-
ence. Uniike visual or cinernatic arts, however, the performing arts communicate via the
bodies of performers who are n-Iost often physically present to their audiences. Theater,
music, and dance exist less as static artifacts and more as dynamic events. The "art" is
not simply the play text or score or libretLo but rather its embodied realization at a given
time and place; hence, performance "struts and frets its hour" in the space between
those exercising iheir craft and those apprehendir-rg it.
Prior to the Order's suppression in I773, the Jesuit investment in the performing
arts was considerabie. Jesr-rits employed theater, music, and dance not or-rly in global
educationai contexts but also in pastoral and missionary settings. In the latter half of
the sixteenth century, dramatic production became a staple of academic life in Jesuit
schoois and colleges. Not only did the theater exercise the students' growing compe-
tence in eloquentia perfecta Latina, but it also deepened their understanding of human
and Christian virtues by aiiowing them to experience the challenge of choosing well
by en-rbodying dramatic characters. Despite some initial reticence, the Society regu-
iarly ernployed music to texture drarnatic productions and to enhance the trar-rsporting
nature of worship in its schools and churches. At the same time rnusic was also used to
facilitate religious edr-rcation, particularly in rnission territories where the content of the
catechism was set to melodies or the lives of the saints became the subject of music dra-
mas. Dance, particularly in France, affirmed that eloquence was as much a rnatter of the
body as of tl-re tongue. The ballet, iheorized by Jesuits like Claude-FranEois M6nestrier,
airned to irelp students grow in the physical graces required for active participation in
early modern society. 'Ihough the historical record of Jesuit-related performance since
1814 requires rnore sustained investigation, it is clear tl-ratthe restored Society utilized
a range of performance for,ms in its apostolic wolks. Schools and other ministries in
the yor-rng United States, for example, employed dramatic and musical productions to
assist with ianguage aicqr-risition, to develop a persuasive public presence ir-r a democratic
society, to integrate Cathoiic anci emerging American identities, and to publicize the
reputation of the apostolic work in the larger corlmunity. Even in tl-re contemporary
world, Jesuit investment in the perforn-rir-rg arts is noteworthy, not sirnply in educational
institutions but also in the work of Jesuits who engage the performing arts to serve faith
and promote justice (e.g.,'leatro la Iiragua in Honduras, Magis Theatre Company in
New York City, InterPlay in India).
The Society's cultivation of the performing arts has never been irnmune to either inter-
nal or external criticisn-r; yet these embodied aesthetic forms have proven consistently
useful in giorilyir-rg Cod and "helping souls." Early modern religious rigorists ror-rtinely
condemned the performing arts because of their associations with carnal sin and social
disn-rption. Tl-rough some of these critics were themselves JeSuits, the Society discovered
Arts, Visual 61

that, when rightly ordered, the performi.g arts could effectivell, teach, move, and please'
The somewhat risky ventures into theater, music, and dance reflected the Society's distinc-
tirie approach to engaging its mission by accommodating itself to broader cultr-rral contexts.
Furt|er, the inherent relationality of performance made theater, music, and dance apt
media for pursuing effective, meaningftil, and sustained communication rvith individuals
and communities, "a consLlmrnation devor-rtly to be wishecl" by all Jesuit minishies.
The affinity between ]esuits and the performing arts has been nourished by a spiritr-r-
ality that emphasizes imagination as a means of encounteri.ng and responding to God's
grace made flesh in Christ. Fresh explorations of the Ignatian charism in the wake of
ih" S."orcl Vatican Cour-rcil r-rot only resulted in a rener,r,ed appreciatior-r for the place of
irnagination (and affectivity) in )esuit spiritual practice but also likely set the stage for a
more adequate understancling of the performing arts rvithin the Society's mission' In an
important 1973 essay reevaluating the place of art in Jesuit life, Clement McNaspv, SJ,
noi.d that "fw]hoever wor-rld love )esus with a self-giving generosity must bring him into
view - by an imagination which is historical; by an empathetic imagination to the point
of tears, joy, chagrin, pity; by a recreative imagination that not only envisions the cross
but also that final state of union rvith the three-personed God" ("Art in Jesuit Life," 103).
This kind of imagination addresses the ylrcle person ancl calls forth a resPonse, certainly
in prai,er but also in the performing arts.
See also Arts, Visual; Dance; Music; Theater

Arrupe, Pedro, "Art ancl the Spirit of tl-re Society of |esus." Studies in tlrc Spi.ritttali4, of lesuits 5
(1973),87-92.
McNaspy, Clement J., "The Place of Art in Jesuit Life." Studies in th.e Spiritualitl) of lenits 5, 3 (1973),
93-l 11.
O'Malley, )ol'rn W., and Gauvin A. Bailev, eds.,The lesuits a.n.d the Arfs, I 540-1773. Philadelphia, PA:
St. |oseph's Liniversittt Press, 2005.

Michael A. Zampelii, S]

Arts, Visual
Ignatius Loyola bequeathed a sensibility, an appreciation for the revelatory power of
the imagination that was a breakthrough ir-r the western spiritual traclition. Inspirecl by
lris conversion-period readings of Lr,rdolph'sVita Christi and Voragtne'sLegen.da au.rea
and the currents of tl-re d.evotio modenta he encountered at Montserrat and elservhere,
Ignatir-rs ir-r his Spiritual Exercises (SpEx) encouraged retreatants actirrel)z to use their
imaginations as well as their intel]ects. While some of the exercises are analytical or
content-driven, the most important are exercises of the imagination: "contemplations"
of tfie life of ]esus wherein the retreatant enters into the scene with eyes, ears, and heart
open. They begin with a visuai composition "made by imagining the place," arld eacl-r
day ends with an application of the senses: "to see the persons with the imaginative
sense of sight . .. to hear what they say or could say, to smell and to taste ... to touch
witlr the sense of touch . . . always seeking to derive some profit from this" (SpEx ##l2Z-
26). Ignatius thus connects the spirituai realm to the concrete world of the retreatant's
own sensory experience. No stranger himself to the uncharted and sornetimes confusing
places such practices can lead to, he moreover laid out a simple yet effective check-vah,e
mechanism for the overactive imagination in his ruies for discernment.
Figure B Interior vierv of Church of St. Iirancis Xavier, New York, 19th century. Photograph
Nison Fleming

Dr-rring his lifetirne , Ignatius did not hesitate to iavish money on the building and dec-
oration of Jesuit churches. Although he elirninated the requirement of choral office for
)esr-rits, he himself loved music. Even before lgnatius's death in I 5 56, full-scaie plays and
musicales were being perfonled with l-ris blessing at Rorre's flagship Roman College,
and at Jesuit colleges at Ingolstadt and Messina.
The i 586 Ratio studiontnz recognized the dual vah-re of perlormance for the young
as training in poise and memory: "Our students and their parer-rts become wonderfully
er-rthusiastic, and at the same time very attached to our Society when we train the boys to
show the result of their study, their actir-rg ability and their ready memory on the stage."
From these beginnings, a rich and complex tradition of biannuai plays grew up in |esuit
colleges. Across the rvorld, tire work of the colleges gave way to vast spectacles that filled
the courtyards ar-rd theaters of the colleges. In France, irnportant court colnposers like
Vlarc-Antoine Charpentier and Jean-Baptiste Lully pLovided the scores, royal ballet mas-
ters like Pierre Beauchamps and Jesuit Father Joseph Jor-rvancy provided the choreogra-
phy. Jesuit theorists and historians produced five of tl-re most importar-rt early treatises on
ballet at the Collbge LouisJe-Grand. An estimated 150,000 plays were performed across
the worid over the first two centuries of Jesuit education, and countless nlore since the
nineteenth-century restoration.
This theatrical and artistic tradition was about more than entertainrnent and diversion.
The arts were not considered as ends in themselves but were always seen as useful edu-
cational tools tl-rat forrned rnorally astute citizens and socially competent persons who
could comport themselves in public in a convincing way.Nthough what are now called
studio arts were not formally taught, appiied arts were part of the progiam: Students
learned to sketch, construct, and paint trompe I'oeil scenery and were given practical
Asceticism and Mysticism 63

lessons in rudimentary engineering so that tl-reir confrdres cor-rlcl fly safely above the
stage on painted clouds.
From the very beginning, the Jesuits used the arts for persuasion. They built grand and
beautiful churches and imposing college buildings, recruited artists to ioin the Order,
and employed a stable of some of tl-re best lay musicians, arcl-ritects, and artists of the
early modern and Baroque periods. Bernini was a friend of General Gian Paolo Oliva,
and Carlo Fontana designed the basilica of St. Ignatius at Loyola in Spain. Rubens was a
devout member of )esuit sodalities. The arts urere always seen as instrumental, never an
end in themselves: concrete, visible, audible ways to come into contact rvith tl-re invisi-
ble and inaudible realm of spirit.
The lB14 restoration after the trauma of the Sr-rppression saw the Jesuits return as
shell-shocked survivors. Old artistic styies were embracecl anew. Novelq, u,as escherved
at all costs, and a kind of benign philistinism came to rttle in the )esuits'approach to the
arts. For all practical purposes, no great art was inspired b), ot carle out of Jesuit institr-r-
tions, witl-r the exception of the brilliant, unpublished verse of English Jestrit Gerard
Manley Hopkins. Surnmarizing the attitudes of the age he wrote sadly, "Br illiancv does
not snit us."
In 1973, Pedro Arrupe's landrnark essay "Art and the Spirit of the Socielv o[Jesus"
invited the Society to honor and reclaim its artistic heritage, and encouraged lesr-rit art-
ists to put tl-reir talents again at the service of the Church and societ1,.
See also Architecture; Art Patronage; Arts, Performing; Images

Arrupe, Pedro, "Art and the Spirit of the Socieq, of )esus." Studias in the Spiritualin of lesuits 5, 3
(r973), 83-92.
O'Malley, )ohn W., and Gauvin A. Bailey, eds., The lesuits andtlu Arts, 1540-1773.Philadelphia,
PA: St. ]oseph's University Press, 2005.
O'Malley, |ohn W., Gauvin A. Bailey, Steven j. Harris, and T. Frank Kennedy, eds., The
lesuits: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arfs, I540-1773.Toronto: University of Toror-rto Press, 1999
ancl 2006.

Tl-romas Lucas, S]

Asceticism and Mysticism

Tl-re mid-twentieth century witnessed a shift frorn the understanding of iesuit spirituality
primarily as a form o[ascetici.sm toward a greater emphasis upon its place in the mystica]
tradition. Yet, tl-ror-rgh usefr-rl as conceptual distinctions, asceticism and mlrsticism must
always be considered witl-rin the whole of Ignatian spirituality
Tl-re term "asceticism" comes from the Greek word askesis, or exercise. It designates
those spiritual and pl-rysical disciplines applied to tl-re liberation frorn vices, the growtlr
in Christian virtue, and, above ail, the pursuit of divine trnion.
One rnay highlight three important eiements of tl're Society's asceticism. The first is
Christological: Growth in virtue is sought through a more intimate knowledge and imi-
tation of Jesus. The SplritualExercises, for example, inspire a series of encounters with
tl-re |esr-rs of the Scriptures that foster affective responses, ranging from love to sorrow.
Sucl-r experiences, in turn, iead to a concrete application in the Jesuit's life thror-rgl-r a
separation frorn disordered desires and a greater zeal to serve under the banner of Cl-rrist.
This imitatio Cltrisfi has become a hallmark of |esuit devotional literature and practice.
 Second, Jesuit spirituality emphasizes the mortifications of service and the exan'Len'
Wrile traclitiopal ascetical practices such as fasting and physical deprivation have had
their place in )esuit life, from the beginning |esuits have ieaned toward mortificaiions
that piovide apostoiic formation. Experiments with the sick and the poor, the education
of yith, "low and humble tasks" withir-r the community - all of these experiences disci-
pli.,. a |esuit for mission. Even the practice of averting the gaze fion-r temptations, tl-re
so-calied custody of the eyes, allows a Jesuit to avoid distractions and negative influences
wlrile working in the apostolate, Above all, the exdmen stands out as a daily spiritual
practice that aids the )esuit in the elimination of disordered attiactions and the discern-
ment of God's wiil.
Finaily, the vows of poverty, chastity, and, above all, obedience, have given form to the
inserted their enterprise
Jesuit vocation. In assuming these vows, the first Companions
into the disciplilary framework of Christian religious congregations; yet they iived these
vows apart from some of the generally accepted structures (the office in choir, the fixed
etc.) for the sake of mission. Obedience to the superior and to the pope
"orr-rrrrnity,
in regard to missions both hurrbles the individual )esuit and frees him to embrace the
Society's apostolic initiatives.
may gener-
Jesuit spirituaiity also has a place ir-r the mystical tradition. Mysticism
ally be defi1ed as a personal and transformative experience of God. It rnay embrace
nurrrerous clivilely bestowed phenornena: infused prayer, visions, ecstasies, physical
manifestatiols such as tears, a heightened awareness of God's presence. Ignatius hin-r-
self described mystical experiences ir-r his life ranging from visions (..g., Manresa,
l,a Storta) to floods of tears when celebratir-rg tl-re Mass, and one may find other
examples in tl-re accounts of Jesuit saints (..g., Peter Faber, Ciaude la Colombibre,
Alberio Hurtaclo). Yet the Jesuits have always maintained a sober mistrust of tl-re
rad,ical impr-rlses in such experiences and have demanded a careful discernmer-rt of
spiritual phenomena.
Jesuit rnysticisrn emerges from a living experience of the God
who encounters human-
ity personally and historically. Karl Rahner highlights that this God is Trinity, the wl-rolly
Oiher, who, at the same time, has definitively revealed hin-rself in Jesus and continues
to draw creatior-r into personal union with himself. Jesuit spirituality therefore fosters a
state of readiless to respond to the free and transformative presence of divine grace in
the world.
Furthermore, the Society's mysticism involves an affective movement toward eccle-
sial service. As already noted, the Exerclses foster an encour-rter with Jesus that both stirs
deep affections and leads to an election. The authenticity of spiritual gifts may be tested,
above all, by the fruit that they bear in the exercitant. In the Contemplation to Attain
Love (SpEx #230), for instance, Igr-ratius stresses that love is expressed more fully in
deeds than in words.
There is not, in the end, a radical bifurcation between the ascetical and the mystical
in Jesuit spirituality, but rather they are unified in tire Society's end: the Greater Glory
of God. The simplicity, flexibility, and practicaliff of the Jesuit experience have made
it one of the most accessible and influential spiritualities in the Christian tradition for
both religious and laity.
S ee also Examen ; Missior-r; S piritual Exercises
Egern, Harvey D.,Igtatius Loyola the Mystic. Collegeville, IVIN: The Liturgical Press, 1987'
Asia 65

de Gtribert, Joseph, The lesuits: Tlrcir Spiritual Doctrine and Practice. Trans. William ). Young.
Chicago, IL: Loyola University Press, 1964.
Rahner, Karl, "The Ignatian Mysticism of )oy in the Wbrld." Theol.ogical Inttestigations. Vol. III: The
Theology of the Spiritual Life.Trans. Karl-l{. Kruger and Boniface Kruger. New York: Seabury Press,
1967, pp. 277*93.

)ohn Gavin, SJ

Asia
The )esuits arrived in Asia in the early days of the Society, when Ignatius Loyola sent
Francis Xavier (l 506-52) to the "East Indies." Xavier landed in Goa (1542) before head-
ing eashvard to Malacca (1545), the Moluccas (1546), and finalIy to )apan in 1549.
On his second trip to the east from Goa, Xavier had hoped to reach China, but unfor-
tunately he died on Shangchuan Island in 1 5 52 without setting foot on the rnainland.
The Society continued to send )esuits to Asia, and eventually missionary headquarters
were set up in Goa and Macau. The chief architect of the Jesuit missionary endeavor
in Asia was Alessandro Valignano (1539-1606) who believed that the key to successful
evangelization involved learning the local languages and adapting to the indigenous cul-
tures, as long as there was no conflict with the Christian message. Valignano's approach,
il modo suaye (the smooth way), departed from the tabuld. rd.sct (blank slate) method
employed by )esuits in the Americas and was applied by most missionaries to Asia.
Many |esuit missionaries became masters of language. Together with native lay assis-
tants, they composed lexicons, grammars, prayer.books, and catechisms in the local
languages in order to spread the Christian message to the people. A few |esuits, such as
Matteo Ricci (1557.-1610) in China or Roberto di Nobili (1577-1656) in India, learned
tl-re sacred texts of the people and befriended the religious and civil eiites by introducing
them to western sciences, arts, and ideas. Others, like Alexandre de Rhodes (l 591-1660)
in Vietnam, adapted to the civil customs and ordinary life to reach tl-re mass popula-
tion. Cultural accommodation is the )esuit way to evangelize among people of all social
strata. The Spanish Jesuits in the Philippines also made some adaptation based on their
experience with the reducciones (planned settlements) in South America.
The Jesuits in Asia were cultural transmitters and contributed significantly to knowl-
edge of Asia for Eufopeans. They translated Chinese and Indian classical texts, wrote
travelogues, composed books on the culture and customs of the local people, as well as
taxonomies of the local fauna and flora.
However, the Jesuit missionary enterprise was not withor-rt difficulties. It was Rome's
decision to set up its own mission office , Propaganda fide, in 1622 to direct the evange-
lizing activities of the whole Church. Consequently, Jesuits were often car-rght in tension
and conflict behveen".'loyalty to their royal patrons and obedience to the new bishops
appointed by Rome for the missions in Asia.
Other obstacles abounded, from a lack of cooperation between Catholic religious
orders and the fierce political and economic competition behveen the Portuguese,
Spanish, and Dutch kaders. In Japan, conflicts of commercial interest and fear of a
European expansion resulted in a series of edicts against Christianity beginning in 1587.
Furthermore, European prejudice and fear of syncretism also prevented an understand-
ing of missionary needs at the frontiers, and the controversies on the Chinese Rites