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 (iii)

4171
II. GEOLOGICAL STUDIES OF GEOTHERMAL PROSPECTS

Lecture Topic Authors Page

1. Overview of geological. studies P.'R. L. Bgowne, J. Heatg 47

2. Permeability in geothermal fields P. R. L. Browne 50

3. Surface mapping: Introduction P. R.L. Browne, ,55

4. Surface mapping: Introduction to

, remote sensing G.R. Cochkane 57

5. Surface mapping: Analysis of 7.2.L. r lont

remote sensing data -6 62

6. Surface mapping : Photogeology in

geothermal .studies P. R. L. Browne 65

7. Mapping of geothermal discharge

features P. R. L . Browne, 67

8. Igneous petrology I.E.M. Smith, R.F. Heming 70

9. Igneous rocks I. E.M. Smi.Mi, R.F. Hemi 119 74

10. Cooling plutons and their hosts P.R.L. Bratelle, M.P.. Hoctistel.en 76

11. Modelling of a cooling pluton,

Coso Hot Springs, California P.R. L. 8/LOW,le, M.P. Hooll3tein 79 -

12. Logging of drillholes:

geological logs P. R. L. B.te,tetie 81, ·

13. Hydrothermal. alteration P.R.L. Btdivile 85

References 90

47
GEOLOGY 1
II. GEOLOGICAL STUDIES OF GEOTHERMAL PROSPECTS
1. OVERVIEW OF GEOLOGICAL STUDIES
Planning and organisation of geological
studies may be considered in relation to the work
plan presented under "Scope of Scientific Disci-
plines" in Week 1 (86.100) , beginning 'with an
initial study in any country wishing to identify
and develop geothermal energy resources.
RECONNAISSANCE
Aim: To identify and catalogue known active,
inactive and extinct geothermal features, make a
preliminary assessment of their significance, and
recommend initial areas for investigation with
regard to actual or potential energy requirements.
Compilation of data from local knowledge, maps,
published and unpublished reports and other liter-
ature is best done by a local agency, usually
governmental. Locations of thermal features should
be marked as accurately as possible on local and
regional geological or other maps. This may take
1 - 3 months, and will almost certainly not include
all existing features. It can be done by one
person, preferably a geologist working full time.
The data should also include all available temper-
atures, chemical analyses of waters, descriptions
and other relevant facts about thermal springs, as
well as a compilation of shallow (groundwater)
bores in the area.
Preliminary assessment of data requires a geologist
experienced in geothermal studies (working together
with a geochemist) to examine the data, inspect
LANDSAT images and aerial photographs of as many
areas as possible, visit selected areas to appraise
local geological and hydrological features, and
prepare a report with recommendations. For this
purpose the aerial photographs are usually borrowed
from, local civil ormilitary agencies. The time
involved :is likely to be 1 - 2 months, but as it is
usually necessary to collect additional water
samples for chemical analyses, completion of the
preliminary summary report may be delayed until the
chemist reports on the analyses.
EXPLORATION
Aim: To prepare a detailed geological map and
report of a selected geothermal prospect and
specified surrounding area, including detailed
mapping of geothermal features in association with
geochemical, geophysical and hydrological personnel.
To recommend sites for exploratory'wells.
Field geological surveys should cover a sufficiently
large area around the geothermal field to obtain
an unders tanding of the geological structure and
stratigraphy associated'with it. Including the
report this should occupy 6 - 12 months, and
involve 1 geologist, 1 geological assistant, and
1 - 2 field assistants.
4/7 f
BROWNE and HEALY
Petrology
The roles of field geologist and petrologist. could
be filled by the same person provided that he/she
had the time and the experience to do both jobs.
However, because petrological facilities are
expensive, and a petrologist need not be used all
the time, only the larger geothermal projects are
likely to employ a full-time petrologist. Except
for organisations such as oil companies which explore
for geothermal energy, petrological work is usually
done under contract, for example, by:
(i) the National Geological Survey,
(ii) the Geology Department of a University,
(iii) a geological consulting company large
enough to have adequate instrumentation.
Equipment required will include aerial photographs
of the area to be mapped, a mirror stereoscope, and
a pocket stereoscope for field use. Draughting
facilities are required for preparing field maps and
diagrams, to be shared with chemical and geophysical
personnel, together with office accommodation,
drawing and writing materials, and miscellaneous
office and field equipment.
A petrologist will need:
(a) ' section equipment comprising rock saw
thin
($2,000) , lap ($2,000) , consumables ($800
per year ); a grinding unit is optional
($8,000). Also, a reasonably skilled
technician. The alternative is to get the
thin sections made under contract ( say, $10
each in New Zealand) .
(b) a petrographic microscope ($5,000 for one that
is of minimum quality for the· job; but get a
microscope with a binocular head).
The petrologist would be helped by ( i.e. it is not
absolutely essential to have ) :
(c) an X-Ray Diffraction unit and ancillary
equipment, especially useful for studying
clays ($50,000);
(d) Differential Thermal Analyses unit ($6,000);
thermogravimetric attachment ($3,000);
(e) Infra-red S pectrophotometer ($10,000) ;
(f) Flame P,hotometer ($4,000) .
Prices for contract petrology work vary
enormously depending on the services offered and the
nature of the samples; it is possible that thin
section descriptions supplemented by X-ray diffrac-
tion studies and an interpretation of the hydrothermal
alteration mineralogy may cost between $25.and $50
per sample.
 48
GEOLOGY 1
BROWNE and HEALY
Costs cited are for New Zealand and will vary
greatly depending, for example, on local sales
taxes and import duties.
EXPLORATORY DRILLING
Introduction
When all data have been collected by all
scientists of the varous disciplines, a decision
will have to be made whether or not to proceed with
exploration drilling; this decision will depend
on various factors, not all necessarily scientific
( see relevant lectures in 86.100). Choice of an
initial drilling site should be made after
consultations between engineers and scientists.
Aim: To obtain geological information in depth
about the 'field, and establish the relationship of
temperature and permeability to the geological
structure and the surrounding area.
Geological specifications for taking of cores and
collection of cuttings are prepared for the initial
wells sited as a result of the exploratory surveys.
If possible, preliminary geological profiles should
be prepared as a basis for the initial easing
specifications. In a new field, especially in a
volcanic area, coring is important, but it is not
always possible to predict in advance what the
coring interval should be .
Well logging includes inspection of cores and cut-
tings, as' drilling proceeds, for identification and
correlation of the rocks encountered, and for the
identification of minerals formed by hydrothermal
alteration, as these give an indication of subsurface
temperatures and permeability. In relation to
these, drillers' logs and downhole measurements
of temperature and pressure are also studied. This
work involves a field geologist and a 'petrologist
with experience in hydrothermal alteration.
Geological profiles through the field and
surrounding area are constructed by the geologist
and, based on the interpretation of the data,
additional exploration wells are sited. Total
time for this exercise is probably at least a year.
Equipment additional to that required for the
exploration surveys is a binocular microscope
($1,500 ) for examination of duttings.
The petrologist's needs are the same as those
used in exploration; she/he will also need a
binocular microscope for examining cuttings and
cores.
At this stage, other specialist geological
work may be required; it could include the
following services,which may be contracted out:
(a) rock geochemistry, i.e. partial chemical
analysis of cores and/or cuttings ;
(b) applied geochronology of,key samples,
e.g. by C14 , K/Ar methods ;
(c) paleontology; usually micro- or palynology;
this presently costs $60 per sample, but ihe
necessary 0reparation equipment - if you
decide to do it yourself - costs about $3,000.
All these services are expensive and should
not be used routinely. However, a paleontologist
may need to 'be used extensively when drilling a
geothermal prospect in sedimentary rocks. All
specialist work should be arranged or organised by
either the field geologist or 'the project petrologist.
PRELIMINARY TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT
Aim: To assist in co-ordination of all results to
date and a decision on 'the extent of further
development.
Geological contribution is a report summarising
geological information with recommendations ·with
regard to further drilling for exploration or for
development and production.
DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION DRILLING
Aim: To advise on selection of well sites and
record geological information obtained by drilling.
Geological servicin8 continues as previously.
Preliminary well logs to be prepared, and specifi-
cations supplied for necessary coring. Well logging
continues, and, additional well sites recommended.
Petrologist: Needs and work are similar to that :in
Exploratory Drilling although samples will be fewer;
model of the field will be refined and a re-exam-
ination of samples recovered earlier may be needed.
No extra equipment.
-
FEASIBILITY SURVEY AND PLANT DESIGN
Aim: Analysis of all field data for an economic
and technological appraisal of the resources prior
to ordering plant. Site investigations, assess-
ment of slope stability, volcanic risk and geological
hazards will need to be made by an engineering
geologist or volcanologist.
Final geological report is prepared May include
requests for wells for monitoring purposes, and
recommendations for future developments. Well
servicing continues at this time because drilling
may not be completed.
For a modest size power plant, the engineering
geologist will require about $3,000 worth of contract
lab. work including load and plate bearing tests,
plus strength and soil mechanics tests. Equipment
needed for this work costs over $100,000, so that
in mosts cases the work is better done under
contract. 036A
few shallow drillholes to test
foundation materials must also be allowed for.
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
During this period the geologist will probably
be involved in other fields, but should be aware of
changes occurring in the field under development,
and possible geological factors influencing these.
 49
GEOLOGY 1
BROWNE and HEALY
The petrologist may need to identify mineral
scale deposits or well ejecta; thia requires the same
facilities as for Explora tion, and Exploratory
Drilling'.

,The ,above summary is somewhat arbitrary' and

·includes sharp divisions 'where overlap occurs;
there .is an obvious need for close co-operation
between scientists, technicians and. engineers.

Question 1.1:
Construct 'a diagram plotting time, or the
stage of the·project investigation, on one axis
and the. intensity of input .of ·the, following
methodology on the other:

LANDSAT 'investigations
foundation testing
initial preparation of a stratigraphic column,
paleontology
mineral isotope analyses
photogeology
petrology of surface alteration
twell sitting"
well siting
slope stability' analyses
e.g.:

1• 7
8 9
8 M>
*I. C
0 ..1
M te
S
%
m ill: •1 1 1
Reconnaissance
STAGE OF INVESTIGATION >
 50
GEOLOGY 2
BROWNE
2. PERMEABILITY IN GEOTHERMAL FIELDS
INTRODUCTION
Geothermal fields which can be successfully
exploited have the 'following qualities:
(a) sufficient storage of thermal energy in
fluids and rocks of the reservoir
i.e. heat.
(b) a significant pressure gradient and good
permeability which ensures that hot fluids
can move through the reservoir to be
tapped by a drill-hole.
In this lecture we shall discuss ( b), permea-
bility, which can be considered as the capacity of
a rock and its adjacent surrounds for transmitting
fluid.
In general, fields which have good permea-
bility are rarer than those which are hot but
rather impermeable; for example, the'Waiotapu
Field (TVZ) has not been exploited, partly because
of its poor permeability despite subsurface temp-
eratures in excess of 295'C. Similarly, poor
permeability has denied or postponed development
of fields at Reporoa and Te Kopia and limited the
exploitation of Olkaria (Kenya), and Heber
( California).
On a local scale, more drillholes at Broad-
lands turned out to be non-productive through en-
countering poorly permeable rocks than failing to
encounter hot reservoir rocks .
However, the exact permeabilities in a geo-
thermal field are very difficult to measure in
situ and impossible to predict prior to drilling;
even results of permeability measurements made on
cores in the laboratory are not a reliable guide
to subsurface permeability. Some promise is
offered, on the other hand, by the recent success
achieved through downhole pumping tests and
injecting radioactive tracers and monitoring
their return in surrounding drillholes.
PRIMARY PERMEABILITY
All rocks, of course, are somewhat permeable
but permeability as a physical parameter depends
on the structure, shape, and occurrence ofjoints
and small and large scale fractures within a given
volume of re servoir rocks. Permeability is
therefore not linearly related to the porosity of
reservoir 'rocks. Porosity can be classified into:
intergranular (sediments) and vesicular ( some
volcanics) porosity, joint porosity ( all rocks ),
and vug porosity consisting of variable sized
irregular cavities ( usually in limestones,
occasionally also in volcanic lavas ). In the
average reservoir, intergranular porosity is
dominant ( usually about 5 'to 25%) whereas the
joint porosity is always low (< 12 ). Standard
measurements do not allow for independent
assessment of these two types of porosity; if no
intergranular porosity exists, the observed
porosity can be interpreted as "joint porosity".
The greywacke/argillite reservoir rocks at
Ngawha are a good example of joint porosity
( 6 1.5%)
For convenience, 'primary permeability', as
used in this lecture, includes permeable features
whose formation significantly' predates the onset
of geothermal activity.
Other examples of primary permeability
include bedding surfaces, unconformities and
ancient solution features, such as those which
occur in the limestones and dolomites of the
Larderello Field. Joints and faults, whose
formation predated the onset of geothermal
activity, should also be classed in this category
as should dykes and fractures resulting from the
intrusion of a magma not related to the present
geothermal activity.
Where the reservoir is composed of rocks
whose permeability varies because of differences
in lithology, the reservoir may be viewed, in a
hydrological sense, as consisting of an alter-
nating sequence of aquifers and aquitards.
Examples of this type of field occurring in
sedimentary rocks are those of Cerro
' Prieto (Mexico) and the Imperial Valley (Southern
California ). The main aquifer at Wairakei
consists of silicic pumice breccias (Waiora
Formation) plus minor brecciated andesite over-
lain, and partly capped, by lacustrine sediments
of the Huka Falls Formation. At Broadlands,
two aquifers consisting of pyroclastic rocks
(Upper Waiora and Rautawiri.Breccia Formation)
are effectively capped by rather impermeable
rhyolite (Ohaaki) on the wp.st and dacite (Broadlands)
in the east. Imperlueable rocks need not always
be unwelcome in geothermal fields since they
restrict convective heat loss to the surface
and form a barrier to descending cold meteoric
water.
SECONDARY PERMEABILITY
This broad grouping includes permeable
features whose formation immediately predates, or
is contemporaneous with, the present geothermal
activity.
Faults
These result from tectonic forces responding
to regional or local stress and have long been
recognised as being of major -importance in
providing good permeability in many fields; it
is certainly no accident that most of the world's
geothermal areas occur in places where active
faulting is common. Drillholes at Wairakei, for
example, were sited to intersect steeply dipping,
normal faults at depths where temperatures are
sufficiently hot to supply usable thermal 'fluid.
 51
GEOLOGY 2
One might expect that faults formed as a
result of tension ( normal faults ) would be more
permeable than those resulting from the forces
of compression ( reverse or thrust ) and this
seems to be the case since the latter type of
faults seem to be rare in active geothermal
fields. Major transverse or lateral faults
and their associated splinter faults occur in
several fields ( Tongonan, Philippines and Southern
California ) where they seem to have effectively
broken up the reservoir rocks to generate good
secondary peI:meability.
Obviously the age of a fault is important
as one would expect the youngest faults to be
the most permeable (why?) ; at Ngawha, for
example, faults have been encountered by drill-
holes that are too old to now transport fluid.
Mr. Wan, one of our 1980 students, identified
many young faults in several of our geothermal
fields and showed that the geothermal systems
of the TVZ are located where the dominantly
northeast striking faults intersect those with
a northwest orientation.
Reservoir engineering models usually do not
require extensive deeply penetrating faults to
model fluid movement within a reservoir and
it is possible that only segments of such faults
provide preferential passage for thermal fluids,
especially since there is some evidence that
the average horizontal permeability in well
studied hot water fields is significantly greater
than the vertical permeability. It must also
be admitted that many suggested faults have
minimal surface expression and that the dis-
placement of subsurface units and formations
through faulting is sometimes slight; however,
exploration drilling based upon a model whereby
faulting generates good channel permeability has
been remarkably successful. Further, recent
measurements of natural radon discharge from the
Wairakei shows that higher rates of discharge
occur from over zones.
Hydraulic Fracturing
Some reconciliation between the pro- and
anti-fault model proponents is possible by con-
sidering the nature and role of natural hydraulic
fractures that can be associated with normal
faulting. An excellent paper describing the
formation and characteristics of hydraulic
fractures has been published by W.J. Phillips
( 1972). G.W. Grindley and P.R.L. Browne (1975)
applied his work to active geothermal systems
in a paper published in the Second UN Symposium.
They noted that many wells drilled
into active fault-zones at both Wairakei and
Broadlands encountered strongly silicified
breccias adjacent to the open fissures. These
breccias comprise angular fragments, mainly
derived from the enclosing rocks and cemented·
by quartz, adularia, and usually pyrite; at
Broadlands they are occasionally accompanied by
calcite and base-metal sulfides. For a long
time it was thought that these were silicified
fault breccias; however, this interpretation
is too simple because dominantly normal faults
do not produce thick breccia zones, due to
BROWNE
lack of friction on the fault plane. Further-
more, similar breccias have been encountered
directly below aquicludes where a direct fault
association can be ruled out.
Hydraulic fracturing is suggested as a
mechanism for producing these silicified
breccias. Theoretical studies ( such as that by
Phillips ) indicate that active normal faults in
water-impregnated strata propagate upwards,
either along the inclined plane of the fault or
vertically, by natural hydraulic fractures
following accumulation of hydrothermal fluids
at the apices of "blind faults". Where the
fluids are prevented from reaching the surface,
either by self-sealing at the top of a dormant
fault or below an aquiclude, pore fluids pressures
will increase. Whenever pore fluid pressures
exceed the least principal stress by an amount
equal to the tensile strength of the rocks ( usually
20 to 30 bars ) fissures will propagate by
hydraulic fracturing.
Laboratory experiments and numerous case
histories of induced hydrofracturing in oil-
fields have shown that the rate of fracturing
is extremely fast, about the speed of sound in
fluid. Rapid extension of the fissures takes
place in a vertical direction perpendicular to
the least principal stress. At the top of
geothermal aquifers, pore fluid pressures may
increase sufficiently to fracture the rock
repeatedly and produce numerous vertical fissures;
these,have been intersected below rhyolite and
dacite domes. At Broadlands, propagation of
fissures through the siltstones that seal the
aquifers would be more difficult because of
their plasticity and impedance to fluid flow.
Rapid extension of fissures by hydraulic
fracturing results in a sudden drop in fluid
pressure , especially at the ends of fissures.
The rate at which pressure restores is
proportional to rock or fissure permeability,
and is inversely proportional to fluid viscosity
and the square of the distance from a reservoir
of fluid at constant pressure. If recharge is
rapid, ·fluid pressures may be maintained above
the minimum values needed for fracturing and
some fissures may extend further. Usually,
however, fluid pressures are not maintained by
recharge, the rocks remain dilatant, those adjacent
to fissures fail explosively to form angular breccias
within the fissure. The fragments of rock
filling the fissures keep them open as fluid
channels; later movements may transport
fragments within the fissures. Eventually,
these will become cemented to the fissure walls
by hydrothermal minerals; successive accum-
ulations in long-active fissures may reach
several meters in thickness as at Wairakei,
Broadlands, and the fossil hydrothermal fields
of the Coromandel Peninsula ( N.Z.).
Joints
Joints form readily in dense rocks, such
as welded ignimbrites and greywacke, in .response
to any one of several causes; for example,
 52
GEOLOGY 2
BROWNE
cooling, folding and faulting; thus joints can
produce channels of either primary or secondary
permeability.
Although very narrow, where joints are
present in large numbers, they are capable of
transporting large quantities of fluid before
they seal. It is believed, for example, that
fluid moves through the dense greywacke and
argillite rocks of the Ngawha reservoir by way
of closely spaced ( about 15 per metre ), narrow
( 0.5 to 1.0 mm wide ) discontinuous joints
oriented in at least three different directions.
One would expect 'joints to become fewer add
narrower at greater depths but this is not
necessarily the case. For example, in a recent
(1981) paper Knapp and Norton analysed the stress
and strain forces generated in a cooling pluton
and the host rocks that it intrudes. Both are
subj ect to tectonic, gravitational, magmatic and
thermal forces causing stress that results in
fractures; although Knapp and Norton do not
define the nature of these fractures they can
be expected to be either joints or faults with
small displace*nent. Because the host rocks heat
faster and the pluton cools more quickly in
the fractured regions, further additional strain
causes still more fractures to develop and hence
increased permeability again results.
Thermal stresses are proportional to the
local temperature gradient and it is likely that
fracturing due to thermal stresses occurs where
such gradient reaches a high value; high
temperature gradients (0 10(/m) should occur in
the vicinity of heat sources if high heat transfer
takes place through a thin shell or layer. Another
zone with high thermal gradients is the condensate
layer which caps the 2-phase reservoir of a
vapour dominated system; here, gradients of
0.5 to 0.70C/m have been measured. These
values can be sufficient to produce some frac-
turing in the presence of another stress field.
Remember also that during the life of a geo-
thermal system it will undergo many changes
in its temperature gradients.
Hydrothermal Leaching
Because the concentration of dissolved mineral
constituents in geothermal fluids is governed by
water-rock equilibria, upflow channels into the
fields should widen due to dissolution of silica
from the walls, although calcite or anhydrite
might precipitate because of decreasing solubility
of Ca(03 and CaS04 with increasing temperature.
In some places, aquifer permeability may increase
by fluids dissolving,but not replacing, primary
minerals as in some reservoir sediments at
Tahuangstsui, Taiwan, and also in parts of the
Broadlands Field ( BR28,990 m) where primary
feldspar has disappeared. Silica specimens,
including quartz, lowered to the bottom of a
Wairakei well for a week, lost weight by
dissolution, but calcite was not appreciably
dissolved. This experiment shows that in some
active faults and fissures in upflow zones,
hydrothermal sclutions leach elements that are
deposited at higher levels. However, over the
long life of a hydrothermal system, water-rock
equilibrium should be attained, at least close to
channels.
A good example which documents hydrothermal
leaching was observed during the testing of a
hot dry rock experiment at Los Alamos ( U.S.A.)
recently. A poorly permeable hot dry rock
reservoir at about 2 km depth was perforated and
hydrofractured so as to establish a connection
between two deep wells; cold water was padsed
down one well and was extracted as hot water
from the second. It was expected that the
output of the second well would decrease with
time due to the closing up of the fracture. The
experiment showed, however, that the induced
production rate could be maintained and that
the Si02 concentration in the hot water
increased continuously. Hydrottermal leaching
must, therefore, have occurred to maintain
near constant permeability.
RECOGNITION OF RESERVOIR PERMEABILITY
This is a difficult topic and is still only
semi-subjective at best; no reliable method
for predicting deep permeability in a field
without needing exploratory drilling has yet been
developed.
Well Tests
The identification and location of production
zones in drill holes is obviously important;
among other reasons this information is useful
in deciding drilling and casing depths. Circul-
ation losses during drilling indicate permeability,
as do well completion tests such as pumping
cold water down the well at various rates and
measuring the rise in borehole pressure. In
Iceland, circulation losses during drilling are
measured at the many narrow permeable zones
encountered, 'providing a useful estimate of the
ultimate well production.
Temperature runs indicate depths of high
permeability through monitoring downhole heat-
ing rates. Since permeable zones heat up the
most rapidly, (provided fissures are not, cooled
excessively or sealed by drilling materials )
heating runs prior to discharging of a new well
indicate differences in formation permeability
below water-level in the we],1. However, within
the casing, convective flow may occur during
heating, masking temperature reversals due to
permeability differences.
Few attempts have been made to determine
permeabilities in geothermal wells, but downhole
pressures measured in discharging wells provide
direct estimates of drawdown. Since drawdown
is large if permeability is low, drawdown data
provide some information to locate areas with low
permeability in a reservoir. In many high-
output wells (which intersect fissures ) at
Wairakei, however, little or no drawdown takes
 53
GEOLOGY 2
place during discharge. In Broadlands wells,
drawdown is greater and recovery times are slower
than in Wairakei wells, indicating lower average
permeabilities, both in aquifers and channels.
Petrography
During initial well discharge, rock fragments
are usually ejected, making it possible to infer
originating depths by matching lithologies and
hydrothermal mineral assemblages with cores
obtained during drilling. Where channel
permeability is present, ejected rocks are usually
derived from fissuredwalls and indicate production
zones. In poorly permeable holes, substantial
drawdown leads to caving of the producing
formations; ejected rocks in this situation
derive hainly from the weakest rocks.
Interpretations of hydrothermal mineral
assemblages in cores ( and cuttings) often provide
information about subsurface temperature and
permeability and such studies have proved useful
in recognising permeable zones in geothermal
fields in New Zealand. However, details will be
given as part of the 86.102 course. As a
supplement to petrography, recent accurate
measurements of the isotopic composition of hydro-
thermal minerals comprising veins and replacing
primary minerals in the rock matrices provide
information about the relative amounts of water
that have flowed through the different parts
of a reservoir ( see p. 33 ). Much further work
is needed on this subject.
Fossil hydrothermal systems that have been
exhumed through erosion or made accessible
through mining are excellent places to learn how
fluids move in active geothermal fields. One
such field occurs at Ohakuri which you visited
in March; other excellent examples are located
in the Coromandel Peninsula. One obvious
lesson that they tell is the close structural
control of deep and near surface permeability and
the episodic nature of fluid movement.
PERMEABILITY CHANGES WITH TIME
Self-sealing and a resultant permeability
decrease have been recognised at several liquid-
dominated fields. Self-sealing was also recog-
nised as a factor in reducing permeability at
Reporoa, N.Z. and El Tatio, Chile, and is
probably partly responsible for low rock
permeabilities at Rotokawa, N.Z. The Dunes,
Imperial Valley, Southern California, is often
cited as a self-sealed geothermal system also.
The Geysers, California, is a vapour-dominated
field whose aquifer ( 2-phase reservoir ) consists
of fractured and fissured Franciscan greywacke
in and near active strike-slip fault zones, while
the aquiclude consists of the same fractured
rocks,possibly sealed in the top 300 m with hydro-
thermal minerals. However, there is evidence
that a condensate layer exists here ( as it does
at Kawah Kamojang), since early shallow ( about
200 m deep) drillholes filled with water; this
may mean that the reservoir of the Geysers field
BROWNE
consists of a deep two- phase reservoir originally
covered by a 300 m or so thick condensate layer.
Typically, quartz or opaline silica,
deposited near or at ground level ( from cooling
silica-saturated waters ) blocks or reduces
further fluid access to the surface. Quartz
is also commonly deposited in aquifers where it
reduces porosity and permeability, but this
process will be slow in an aquifer of near-
uniform temperature. Quartz deposition ih
likely to be greatest where the temperature
decrease is most abrupt, such as at the margins
of fields where steep horizontal thermal gradients
can be expected. Thus, the Rautawiri aquifer
at Broadlands may have been sealed south of
BR29 and east of BR16. A sealed northern margin
to the Wairakei field is also inferred
from steep pressure gradients between hot wells
inside and cold wells outside the field. The
higher viscosity of cold water may also inhibit
its inflow, since no pronounced increase in
mineral deposition is noted in marginal wells.
Although quartz is the most abundant hydro-
thermal mineral in mbny geothermal systems,
permeability may also be reduced by deposition of
clays, calcite, zeolites, feldspars, pyrite and
hematite; where subsurface boiling occurs,
calcite ( sometimes with quartz and adularia)
deposition further reduces permeability.
Hydrothermal mineral deposition in aquifers
is not always deleterious to permeability, since
it makes rock harder and denser, and hence more
susceptible to later fracturing with creation of
channel permeability.
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF RESERVOIR PERMEABILITY
The preceding discussion is qualitative;
however,·some numbers for reservoir penmea-
bility have been arrived at by
modelling based upon well tests and other
considerations. Malcolm Grant (DSIR), for
example,reports that the average permeability
inside a hot water system like Wairakei is
0.1 to 0.5 darcys ( 0.1 - 0.5 x 10-12 m2 ); the
same value probably applies to the productive
parts of Broadlands, Kawerau and Ngawha although
we know from well teAts and the time wells need
to recover after their discharge that permeability
at these later fields must vary greatly. Most
systems also show evidence of anisotropic
permeability with, perhaps surprisingly, their
horizontal permeability ( 100 - 500 md ) being
at least an order of magnitude greater than
their vertical permeability ( 1 - 10 md )
( estimated, from natural throughput and the
measured pressure distribution).
Little quantitative information is available
about subsurface permeability outside the
reservoir since drillholes there are rare; the
observed pattern of fluid drawdown, with sharp
thermal and pressure gradients at the edges of
the Wairakei field, however, indicate that
permeability outside the field is probably lower,
possibly. due to marginal self sealing.
 54
GEOLOGY 2

BROWNE
The average permeability for the productive
parts of so-called vapour-dominated systems (The
Geysers, Kawah Kamojang and Larderello) is similar
to that of the hot water systems although some
geologists would disagree; Malcolm Grant cites
values for Kh ( permeability x thickness) exceeding
100 darcy-metres in some parts of these three
fields. There is also some evidence for aniso-
tropic permeability in vapour systems; at
Larderello this is associated with a formation
contact,and Wells 11, 16 and 18 at Kamojang
encountered subsurface permeability due to both
vertical and horizontal fluid movement; the
same situation may also apply to The Geysers'
reservoir.

( Incidentally, a well with a Kh of

10 darcy-metres is a good well; one with
30 Kh is excellent.)

Question 2.1:

Arrange the following rock types in groups of

decreasing order of porosity ( e.g. highly
porous, very porous, moderately porous, etc.):

well sorted sandstone

poorly sorted sandstone
mudstone/claystone
pumice
unwelded pyroclastic flow
welded pyroclastic flow (ignimbrite)
blocky andesite lava flow
spherulitic rhyolite
non-vesicular basalt lava
scoria
limestone
marble
granite

Question 2.2:

Would you expect rock porosity to decrease with

age and increasing depth in a reservoir?
Explain.

Question 2.3:

Why would you expect a transverse fault of

varying strike to produce zones which have
greater permeability than a transverse fault
of uniform striket Explain with the aid of
sketches.

Question 2.4:

Draw up a list of geothermal fields where

cross faulting is known to occur.

Question 2.5:

Pumice blocks and lapilli erupted from a

submarine volcano located in the South Atlantic
Ocean floated for many years, and some washed up
onto beaches all over the world. Comment on the
porosity and permeability of the erupted pumice.
 55
GEOLOGY 3
3. SURFACE MAPPING : INTRODUCTION
The procedure needed to prepare a geological
map of a geothermal field as part of pre-drilling
investigations is essentially the same as that
needed for any other geological mapping projects;
however, there is, of course, a difference in
emphasis. In addition to mapping lithology, you
should also pay attention to past and present
superficial hydrothermal alteration and to the
structure of the area. One of the initial
objects should also be to predict the subsurface
stratigraphy and to determine the deep structure of
the system and hence to make deductions about its
hydrology. This should aid in locating sites for
the early drillholes and advising what rocks they
will encounter. Obviously these investigations are
best done in conjunction with the geochemistry and
geophysics but the geologist will probably need to
spend more time outside the thermal field.
This is because some critical, and perhaps
best, exposures may be located a considerable
distance from surface activity. Descriptions of the
mineralogy and physical character of such rocks are
needed, and measurements of their thickness and
attitudes; it is also important to recognise
unconformities and, where possible, to date them
and the rocks using standard geochronological
techniques, such as ( 14, fission track methods
and also, where suitable, tephrochronology.
If their absolute ages cannot
be determined then the different units
should be dated relative to one another; in this
way a preliminary stratigraphic column can be
established for the field although this will
undoubtedly need to be changed later in response
to results of drilling.
The problems and detailed procedure will vary
greatly depending on exposures, circumstances and
time constraints, but in general terms consider the
following points:
Geological Mapping
A geological map is a map that shows the
distribution of rocks and geological structures.
Geologists also use and produce many specialist
types of maps but a geological map is the main
and commonest one; in 86.102 we will deal with
structural contour maps and maps of thermal features.
Geological mapping is an extremely important
part of geothermal investigations and should start
as soon as possible.
Scale
The scale of the proposed mapping depends on the
purpose of the investigation and especially the time
available. Reconnaissance mapping of a large area,
for example, could be done on a scale of 1:250,000,
but with luck much preliminary information will
already be available from earlier basic mapping
or perhaps university work. Mapping on a scale
BROWNE
of about 1:50,000 is quite common and enables an
area several times that of an individual geothermal
field to be investigated. Detailed large-scale maps
of geothermal fields are important once an area
becomes of more than just of reconnaissance intereso -
mapping at a scale of about 1:5,000 to 1:10,000 should
provide enough detail. Remember that geophysicists
and geochemists will also be concerned with mapping
and it might be'useful for all to use the same scale.
What to map on ( see Compton pp 49-51)
Obviously one needs something to plot geological
data on. There are three main possibilities: base
maps, air photographs, and now enlargements of
LANDSAT images.
(a) Base Maps. Two types: planimetric maps which
show drainage and man-made features, and
topographic maps which are potentially more
useful. Unfortunately they are not always
available, certainly only rarely on a large
enough scale for the detailed mapping of. a
small area.
(b) Aerial Photographs. These are very important
in geothermal investigations and often provide
an ideal base from which to prepare a geological
map. They show an actual picture of the ground,
not a symbolic one as is the case with a map,
so it is usually easy to locate features; .in
many cases these photographs are immediately
available at a scale ideal for the mapping of
a geothermal area. Even if good base maps are
available, aerial photographs should also be
studied since they show many structural features
not otherwise visible; they are also useful in
locating construction roads and. sites ( see
Lecture 6 ).
(c) LANDSAT photographs ( see Lectures 4 and 5 ).
What should be mapped? ( see Compton pp 57-63)
This depends on the purpose of the mapping,
the scale required, and, in many cases, the time
available. For geothermal fields where large-scale
maps are needed, mapping of rock or lithologic
units and their relationship is the most useful.
Thus one has to distinguish between different rock
types in the field - where the units meet, a contact
can be mapped ( or inferred ).
(NOTE: Many geologic maps show time-stratigraphic
units and not lithologic units. They are not the
same thing; the former shows the strata that were
deposited during a particular time interval, even
though the rocks may be of different lithology. In
terrains where there are young volcanic rocks this
is not always a problem, but beware when looking at
small-scale geological maps of sedimentary areas.)
Stratigraphic Column
When mapping, it is very important to determine
( if possible) the relationship of the rock units,
their thickness and ages relative to one another;
in this way a stratigraphic column can be construc-
ted. The method is described in many of the standard
textbooks on stratigraphy ( e.g. Krumbein & Sloss,
Chapter 3, describing stratigraphic procedures; see
also Le Roy, Chapter 2 ).
 56
GEOLOGY 3

BROWNE
Evidence from the rocks themselves
Mapping in Sedimentary Rocks
1. Slickensides and striated ·fault surfaces.
Many books, including those cited above,
describe how to do this, but we will follow Compton 2. Visible displacement of veins, dykes or strata
( Chapter 12 ). Note especially pp 212-221. on opposite sides of a fault - very strong
evidence but usually seen only on a small scale.
Mapping in Volcanic Environments 3. Fault Breccias in shatter zones - do not confuse
with depositional breccias or breccias produced
This is less commonly described but it is
by natural hydraulic fracturing; includes fault
generally more difficult than mapping in areas
gouge or fault pug.
composed of sedimentary rocks because:
4. ,Drag folds - occur very near the fault.
(a) fossils are rare or absent; 5. Repetition of strata.
(b) volcanic rocks often show rapid lateral
6. Omission of strata.
changes, e.g. rhyolite lavas, but ignimbrites
are exceptions; 7. Abrupt 'termination of structures along, their
trend.
(c) many areas consist of rocks of similar
appearance and composition where finding
Evidence from the topography
key beds may be difficult; ( usually best seen on aerial photographs; see below)
(d) faulting is often more widespread in
volcanic areas; 1. Scarps which intercept the continuity of a slope.
(e) many volcanic rocks were deposited on slopes. 2. Stream offsets.
3. Alignment of springs and zones of hydrothermal
Nevertheless, even bearing these problems in
alteration.
mind it is often possible to construct a good
geological map with an accurate stratigraphic 4. Surface lineations.
column.

Naming of Volcanic Rocks

This has been discussed earlier; see also Question 3.1:

the Appendix to the Week 5 Field Trip notes.
Note, however, that Compton ( pp 253-255 ) uses From your 86.100 notes, review the Introductory
a nomenclature system different from that used Geology lecture and describe methods that may
in New Zealand.
be useful in dating rocks from surface exposures
Mapping Geological Structures near:
Orakei Korako
Many geothermal fields occur in structurally Ngawha
complex areas despite the youthful ages of many of
the reservoir rocks. During mapping, the attitudes
( i.e. dip and strike) of lithologic units should be Question 3.2:
noted so that deformation structures can be recog-
nised. However, in most geothermal fields, faulting How would you distinguish between:
is much more common than folding. Faults are thought
to be highly important in understanding geothermal (a) a fault breccia
hydrology although, as explained in Lecture 2. (b) a flow breccia
(c) an hydraulic fracture-produced
Definition: breccia
(d) a lapilli tuff
A FAULT may be defined as a fracture
along which there has been movement of rock masses Make sketches to illustrate your answer.
relative to one another. Thus points formerly in
contact have been dislocated or displaced. Faults
are of several types depending on whether they
result from compression, tension or torsion; they
usually die out at. both ends but can extend from a
few millimetres to hundreds of kilometres. Dis-
placements are generally greatest in the middle of
the fault. Where faults intersect the ground
surface they produce a FAULT LINE or FAULT TRACE
'which can be mapped. An extremely important point
about faults is that the process of dislocation
often recurs at the same place. Recognising faults
when mapping a geothermal area is not always easy
although there are some useful criteria:

4. SURFACE MAPPINGi INTRODUCTION TO REMOTE SENSING
1. Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is simply a technidue involving
measurement of radiant data from a distance.
Photography, particularly aerial photography, is a
familiar form of remote sensing that has been widely
used for many years. In addition many newer
techniques recording both shorter and longer wave-
lengths than those used in photography (0.4-0.9.Um)
have become important during the last · two decades.
We are familiar, through the use of photography,
with the characteristic colours and surface textures
of features within the narrow spectral band of
visible light, 400-700 millimicrons. Sensors have
been developed that can record characteristic
signals from objects through a much greater range
than visible light. Those most widely used include:
geiger counter; scintillometers; near ultra-violet
cameras; multi-band cameras; near infra-red
cameras (false-colour photography); passive
microwave for infra-red (radiometers) or optical
mechanical scanners; and high resolution radar
with longer wavelengths. Active microwave sensors
such as natural SLAR (side-looking airborne radar)
and. synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can be used at
day or night and in all weather. (see Fig.4.1)
WAVE LENGTH SPECTRAL BANO
.31-6,11.
/GAMMA RAY r/
0.003 nm --'1•l1il'Ili1.
.
0.03 nm 'iii:''lilI
0.3 nm 111' 'iI.:It
EARTH'PEAKS
S 3 nm 1//It.2.•711'
4':/. .!lill
. .•. REMOTE SENSING
ENERGY 30 nin ULTRA--VI OLET
'1'1'Vlilli, PHOTOGRAPHIC
REFLECTI O N -*Evisioit,-fi
0.5Mm 30. - 94 . ' -St,•
RADI9.AlpTImON ----
30 F -- 1;'· 11
t'l i•li l'•
300 pm 3; INFRA
0.3 cm
lIil i111lillI 1I XK BAND
3 cm il,ili,11.
30 cm '11''I''i, L BAND
3m ':
30 m -
300 m illi': 11.•R9AOCA•[111.;
Fig. 4.1: Electromagnetic spectrum showing bands
employed in remote sensing.
57
GEOLOGY 4
COCHRANE
2. Remote Sensors
The development of a wide variety of multi-
sensor remote sensing instruments for use in
highflying aircraft, rockets, and earth-orbiting
spacecraft has removed significant barriers to
geographic and cartographic research. New forms
and great volumes of near-synchronous data
provide a contemporary record for comparison of
future change. They will also provide new
information, filling gaps now linked by inference.
Added to multi-band spectral reconnaissance these
broad surveys have already stimulated many new
ideas. Modification of many existing theories
and traditional methodology has resulted.
The world, including the atmosphere, the
oceans, the continents and their physical and
cultural features are bathed in electromagnetic
energy. Electromagnetic energy is affected by the
physical and chemical properties of obj ects.
Reflection, absorption and re-emission of energy
differ markedly between objects, thus variations
in reflectivity and emissivity measure different
properties of objects. Remote sensors are the
various devices, instruments or hardware that
detect some property of an object or group of
objects at a distance by measuring radiation,
primarily of some category or electromagnetic
wavelength. They can be classified on the basis
of (a) wavelength (b) imaging method, and
(c) source of radiation (see Table 4.1).
.
3. Wavelength Remote Sensors
Ranging from measurement of very short to
increasingly longer wavelengths, remote sensors
BANDS are classified as measuring: gamma rays, X-rays,
visible light, near infrared, further infrared,
BAND microwaves (radar normally) and radiowaves
I THERMAL IR (see Table 4.1).
RADAR
BANO
4. Imaging Method Remote Sensors
These may be (1) slightly directional, e.g.
Geiger counter,scintillometer, photocell; (2) highly
directional non-imaging,e.g. photocell on a tele-
scope, non-scahning radar or radio-telescope;
R. (3) scanning image device, e.g. optical mechanical
scanner, which is usually a rotating mirror with
a photocell or bolometer, scanning antenna, radar
or radiometer, time scanning radar; (4) simultaneous
image remote sensors e.g. camera, multiple antenna
radar or radiometer, data processing antenna,
radar.
 58
GEOLOGY 4
COCHRANE
Table 4.1: Electromagnetic special·bands
Band Wave ength Renlarks
Gamma ay <0 03 nm ncom ng rad atandon from
atmosphere s theavasunab es compl etely absorbed by the upper
rad
as aatprospect
on from ngradmethodoact ve m nera fors sremote
not detectedsensibynlg.ow-flGamma
ying aircraft
X ray 003 to 3 nm 1 ncom ng radsens
n remote at onngs comp ete 1y absorbed by atmosphere. Not employed
U trav o et UV 3 nmto 04 pm ncom ng UVnradtheatupper
by ozone wave 1 engths /0.3 Bm is completely absorbed
on at atmosphere
Photograph c UV 03 to 04;im Transm tted through
detectors but atmospherthe atmosphere
c scatter ngDetectabl
s severe.e with film and photo-
Vsbe 04 to 07 pm Detected th f 1 m05andpmphotodetectors 1 ncludes earth reflectance
peak at wabout
Infrared R 0 7 to 300 pm nteract
w ndowson wareth separated
matter varbyes absorpt
w th wivone ength.
bands. Atmospheric transmission
Aef ected R 0710 3 pm Thabout
s s prtherma
mar y refpropert
ectedessoofarmater
rad ata ons Radi
and acontai ns no0.7intoformati
tion cfrom on
s detectab e w th f 1 m and s ca 1 ed photographi IR radiation.0.9 pm
Therma R 381014
to 5 pmpm These are the pr
magery caat these nc pa atmospherc
wavenotengths w ndows i n the thermal regi o n.
mechan scanners by f sm acqu red through the use of optical-
Microwave 0.3 to 300 cm These ongerredwave
be acqu n the1 engths
act vecanor pass
penetrate
ve mode.clouds and fog Imagery may
Radar 0.3 to 300 cm Act ve form of m crowave remote sens ng.

5. Radiation Source Remote Sensors bands (see Table 4.2) are known as Band 4 (0.5-
0.5 Um, Band 5 (0.6-0.7 Um)), Band 6 (0.7-0.8 um);
These are of three forms: (1) self emitting and Band 7 (0.8-1.1 um). Bands 4 and 5 correspond
e.g. Gamma ray source, measuring radioactive decay, to wavelengths of visible green and red light
luminescent materials, thermal infrared, thermal respectively: Bands 6 and 7 are near infrared
microwave; (2) natural sources other than themselves reflective wavelength energy. Data are available
e.g. ultra-violet light, optical, infrared; as magnetic tapes in computer compatible format
(3) the coherent source is part of the sensors as (CCT) or reconstituted as photographic ·products.
the source of power is known and can be controlled. The most usual form is the standard National
Radar transmits its own signal. All the other Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
systems are defined as passive. Thus infra-red 1:1,000,000 black and white prints of single bands.
signals do not give themselves away as does radar. These conform to the United States Geological
Survey (USGS) national accuracy standards for
6. LANDSAT mapping.
LANDSAT. data provides a useful synoptic tool. a DATA --CID
A range of analytical procedures are available for STORAGE
interpreting LANDSAT data. Four categories of
analytical· methods that are used currently, some
.•\ -3>11.
simple, some more sophisticated, are photographic, "FILTERS"
optical, electronic and digital. 1 1 REDGREEN -X n OSCI
SCANLLATI NG
MIRROR
For each of these methods, economics of cost IR -/ U A
and time can be achieved by using a three-tiered 1R l 918 TKMUDE
sampling model. Broad synoptic surveys that 74 -/ ALTI
provide data acquired at the same time over wide
areas are best achieved using satellite imagery at
small scales, such as LANDSAT 1:1,000,000 images.
A second stage involves aircraft photography at
.56• ..r-z•
intermediate scales (1:15,000-1:40,000) of / DIRECTION STATION
representative sample areas. The third stage is 1I
field recording within the sample Areas, that is
the acquisition of 'ground truth'. /1/1 0-- -»
7. Analytical Data
LANDSAT multispectral scanner (MSS) data are
1 785 /(11/ t-••185 KM
the recorded radiances of objects in four different
spectral wavelength bands between 0.5 and 1.1
micrometre (um). A schematic diagram of a LANDSAT
scanner system is shown in Fig. 4.2. The spectral Fig. 4.2: LANDSAT multispectral scanner. For each
terrain scene, four images are transmitted to a
receiving station. From NASA·
 59
GEOLOGY 4
COCHRANE
Table 4.2: LANDSAT multispectral scanner bands 8. Analytical Methods

The large area synoptic view, the potential

for sequential coverage for analysis of time-lapse
Wavelength, Color normally used
MSS band pm Color for projection phenomena, and, most importantly, the multispectral
format of LANDSAT data provide important advantages
4 0.5 to 0.6 Green Blue for analysis over aircraft photography even at much
5 0.6 to 0.7 Red Green larger scales. Because LANDSAT data are.available
6 0.7100.8 Photo. IR Red in multispectral format both as CCTs and as a wide
7 0.8 to 1,1 Photo. IR Red range of photographic products they can be analysed
in a variety of ways and at a variable range of
different scales. Thuswith·'LANDSAT data, comparative
studies over wide areas are not precise, a greater
range of data can be extracted from narrow band imagery
than from broad spectrum aircraft photographic
products, and the individual bands may be combined
Any two or more separate band photographs in a variety of ways to enhance desired features
can be combined using colour filters to produce or to minimise unwanted characteristics. Also,
colour enhanced ( colour composite ) imagery. Bands a wider total spectral range is sampled thereby
4,5 and 7 are commonly combined to produce providing opportunity for acquiring additional
simulated colour infrared images. Standard film information.
size products are 70mm ( scale 1:3,369,000) and
220mm ( scale 1:1,000,000), These are available 9. Photographic Techniques
as negative and positive transparencies and positive
prints and the larger format as colour composite LANDSAT. photographic products available for
positive transparencies and prints. LANDSAT scenes analysis are (1) single band black and white
of anywhere in the world can be purchased from EROS positive and negative transparencies, prints, and
Data Centre in Sioux Falls, South Dakota 51798 ( see enlargements, and (2) multiple band composite
Table 4.3 ). Individual black and white LANDSAT colour positive transparencies, colour prints and
images have an annotation strip with useful colour enlargements. Conventional photo inter-
information. An example of such annotation strip pretation techniques can be employed. There are
is shown in Table 4.3. no differences in method to working with other aerial
or space photographs. The advantages stem primarily
TABLE 4.3:Anhotation of black and white LANDSAT from the multispectral properties of .LANDSAT imagery
images ( example from Southern California ) whether analysed as separate bands or collectively
as colour composites.
21 Oct 72 Date image was acquired.
C N34-33/W118-24 Geographic centerpoint of Size, shape, tone ( colour), texture, pattern
the image. in degrees- and shadow are major criteria used for
minutes. differentiating features in photo interpretation.
N N34-31/W118-19 Nadir of the spacecraft. On the small scale (1:1,000,000) LANDSAT imagery,
MSS Mullispectral scanner image. tonal contrast is the major differentiating criterion.
4 5 6.or 7 MSS spectral band. Even at enlargements up to 1:250,000 tone is still
SUN EL39 Sun elevation. in degrees the major interpretation tool because of the minimum
above horizon resolution of approximately 80 metres, of the Landsat
AZ148 Sun azimuth, in degrees MSS. However, variations in spectral signature of
clockwise from north
features are recorded as grey scale tones on the
190 Spacecraft heading, in
degrees. LANDSAT images. Thus tonal variations record
1255 Orbit revolution number. different features. Additionally, as spectral
G. A, or N Ground recording station: signatures commonly vary with different wavelengths
G = Goldstone, California: comparisons of the separate spectral bands enables
A = Alaska: N = Network an interpreter to collectively build up information,
Test and Training Facility
at GSFC and frequently to extract details that cannot be
seen even on larger scale vertical aerial photography.
1090-18012 The unique frame identifica- Also, the tonal contrasts over the total area of
lion number composed as the LANDSAT scene are due to real differences taken
follows: at one time rather than possible contrasts due to
lor5 Landsat 1 (5 denotes Land- variations in time, altitude, angle and light and
sal 1 for days greater than
999 since launch). photographic processing inherent in all aerial
090 Days since launch. This was photography covering large areas.
October 21.1972 (Begin-
ning in early 1977 this part
01 the identification number 10. Multispectral Analysis
ts expanded to a four-digit
number. such as 1104. Cumulative compilation of information is
to accommodate 1000 and
higher days ) possible using each band separately to extract
18 Hour at time of observation. data best shown on the appropriate band image.
GMT. Broadly speaking Band 4 images are best for
01 Minutes. analysing water quality, band 5 for landuse and
2 Tens 01 seconds. delineation of urban areas, and Bands 6 and 7 for
physiography and sharp delineation of water-land
interface.
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 61
GEOLOGY 4
COCHRANE

11. LANDSAT Colour Photographs Question 4.1:

Colour composite LANDSAT photographs combine Complete the Geographic Enquiry Form ( Fig. 4.3 )
into one image the advantages of data from three
separate multispectral bands with the added merit requesting coverage of an area which includes
of the grey-tones on the original bands being
portrayed as colour tones. Many subtle grey scale (a) Ngawha and its environs;
differences that are difficult to detect on the
individual black and white images can be recognised (b) a thermal area in your own country.
as distinctive colour tones on the colour composite
photographs. Such tonal contrast often highlights
areas of interest that may require more detailed Question 4.2:
evalutation by second or third-stage sampling.
Colour tones greatly facilitate differentiation. Briefly describe the characteristins of NASA's

High quality colour positive transparencies LANDSAT satellite; show how the MSS can be
represent the optimum photographic work tool for
mapping. The merits of photographic analysis are used for geothermal resource surveys.
its relative simplicity and cheapness, its
practical usefulness as a tool readily taken into
the fi&ld and understood by a wide range of
users, and the lack of necessity for sophisticated
processing machinery. Limitations of resolution
and scale are disadvantages. Enlargements up to
ten times are possible for recording broad
patterns but beyond six times enlargement there is
usually substantial degradation of resolution.

12. Optical Procedures

The use of a colour additive viewer can

provide optical enlargements of imagery greatly
in excess of photographic enlargements without
the loss of detail or colour degradation associated
with photographic products. Projection of such
images on to large-scale base maps allows for
comparison, mapping of distributions or for
updating maps. Sometimes projecting a negative
transparency is more useful than using positives.
Again the multiband nature of LANDSAT imagery
with distinctive spectral properties characteristic
of each band enable cumulative and complementary
data acquisition to be achieved.
 62
GEOLOGY 5
BROWNE
5. SURFACE MAPPING: ANALYSIS OF REMOTE SENS ING DATA
1. Electronic Analytical Procedures
Spectral contrasts of features scanned by
LANDSAT are reproduced as tonal differences on
LANDSAT film. The unaided human eye can recognise
only a very small range of grey scales on black
and white film. Optical analysis, employing
colour enhancement techniques, improves the range
discernible but this can be further increased by
using electronic scanning processes such as an
isodensitometer. Such an instrument electronically
scans a single LANDSAT transparency to produce an
increased range of areas of equal film density.
These density sliced patterns can be viewed on a,
modified television screen coupled to the
isodensitometer. This density slicing capacity of
such machines separates out many more categories
than can be recognised in normal photo interpreta-
tion or with optical processing by additive
viewers. Most isodensitometer instruments register
each of the equal density areas with a range of up
to 32 different colours. Inherent in all such
machines is a fall off in resolution of small
detail, but this is offset by a greatly improved
facility for delineating and depicting in a range
of colours areas of equal density.
Controls on many isodensitometers allow
quantitative measurements to be made, from a
digital read-out panel, of areas portrayed on the
viewing screen. Once a pattern has been established
selective control buttons can be used to black out
all but the desired colour or colours to produce
thematic maps, for example, patterns of thermal
differences. In addition densitometer measurements
can be made of any point or points or of a line
across the image by the use of simple controls.
The use of such a machine has certain short -
comings unless the operator is relatively familiar
with the area being analysed. Otherwise it is fast
and very flexible, being able to produce both
general distribution maps - based on film density
differences - and selective thematic maps of single
categories of phenomena. An added merit is the
instrument's capacity to enlarge up to 100 times
quickly, simply and effectively.
2. Digital Processing
LANDSAT CCTs have two important advantages for
mapping purposes compared with photographic products.
The tapes are a first generation product with
picture element (pixel) resolution not degraded by
successive multiple copying such as occurs with
LANDSAT photographs. Commonly the photographs that
end users employ for analysis and mapping are fourth
and fifth generation products. The CCTs can give
an additional range of information at larger scales
than Photographs. As each pixel records the scene
radiance from a surface area of 79 x 59 metres
considerable detail can be extracted at quite large
scales. Very small differences in radiances of
targets can be distinguished on CCTs but not on
photographic products because there are 128 integral
radiance levels for each pixel for each band except
Band 7 ( 56). This greatly exceeds the registration
capabilities of film products.
In addition to the greater detail and larger
scales possible from 'the use of digital data, thematic
mapping can be carried out either by supervised or
unsupervised cluster analysis. Selected categories
to provide specific thematic maps can be mapped
automatically by computer.
Digital processing offers the most promise for
extracting maximum information from LANDSAT data.
Changes will be required in mapping outlook and new
techniques learned if full advantage is to be taken
of 'the enormous potential provided by CCTs for
mapping. A familiarity with such techniques will
be a prerequisite if maximum use is to be made of
resources surveys from future space programmes
(LANDSAT -C, SEASAT., and SPACE SHUTTLE ) .
A range of very sophisticated hybrid systems
incorporating the advantages of optical, electronic
and digital processing, the speed and diversity of
automatic computer processing, and the versatility
and flexibility of interfacing a human operator at
desired stages are completely revolutionising mapping
from LANDSAT data.
Broadly speaking, the amount of detail that
can be derived increases from photographic
processes through optical and electronic tothe
maximum from digital analytical procedures. For
optimum results from all of these analytical
procedures, dependence, to a greater or lesser
extent, is required upon a systematic substage
sampling programme. Some ground control or
field sampling is a vital component in the
analysis of LANDSAT data.
3. Thermal Infra-red: Think "Thermal"
Infra-red remote sensor scanner systems offer
considerable promise for analysis of geothermal
characteristics of areas.
The infra-red portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum is generally considered to be from 0.7 to

GEOLOGY 5
1000u. A micron (p) is a millionth of a meter.
In this range, infrared radiation of a body is
determined by two factors: (1) the nature of the
object's surface - its emissivity - and (2) its
temperature. An example of spectral distribution
curves as a function of temperature is shown in
Fig. 5.1. Infrared energy is recorded in two ways.
The first is with a radiometer, a device that
records the radiation received and compares it
to a fixed or known standard. The electronics of
the system can then be used to generate an
electrical signal based upon the differences
between the standard reference and the object or
scene being viewed. The other recording device
is an infrared scanner. The scanner is normally
a system of mirrors which rotate or oscillate and
focus the incoming radiation on a detector. The
infrared stimulation of the detector creates an
electrical charge which can be amplified and
recorded on a television tube, magnetic tape,
video tape, or photographic film. Using this
kind of system it is possible to get a "picture"
of the thermal environment that we can experience
without normal human sensors. The capability of
recording variations in infrared radiation has
tremendous application in extending man's observa-
tion of many types of phenomena in which minor
temperature variations could be extremely signifi=
cant or valuable in understanding our environment.
SolANDAREARTH
PEAK.
REFLECTI
PEAK 0.5 OUrNn
i greatly reduced. Variations in surface lithology
%C.
1 geologic imagery is flown at night.
2 rl•\06 r
• I \i\''
EARTHANT
RAD
'*01 \ ENERGY
11'2••16•4•kni'
PEAK 97 Km
10 B 20
WAVELENGTH,
Fig. 5 .1: Spectral distribution curves of energy
radiated from objects at different temperatures.
-/ The development of trimetal detectors with
liquid-nitrogen
has cooling and rugged simple scanners
increased reliability.
Short-wavelength imagery (3-5Um) is acquired
with indium antimonide detectors, and long-wave-
length imagery (8-14 Um) with trimetal detectors or
with doped germanium detectors, which are more
difficult to maintain and operate. Longer-wave-
length imagery usually contains more geologic data.
63
BROWNE
On IR imagery, bright signatures represent
relatively warm areas on the ground.' and dark
signatures are relatively cool. Variation in
target emissivity, as well as temperature,
influences the radiant temperatures imaged by the
scanner.
Until recently scanner imagery was recorded
directly in film so that any operator error in
estimating ground speed, in gain setting, or in
processing the film could ruin a night's flying.
Today, however, most scanners record the imagery
on magnetic tape, which is played back in the
laboratory to produce 70-mm film imagery. The
tape may be replayed to obtain correct image scale,
contrast, and density without reflying the project.
The characteristic distortion of scanner imagery
can also be rectilinearized during playback. Some
scanners record both short- and long- wavelength
IR imagery, and the most sophisticated systems
cover up to 18 wavelength bands from UV to IR.
Examples for IR imagery over geothermal prospects
can be found in Vol.2 of the 2nd U.N. Symposium on
the Development and Use of Geothermal Resources.
For most geologic purposes IR imagery is
normally flown at night to minimize the effects
of reflected solar radiation. Daytime imagery
portrays topography because of differential
shadowing and exposure of slopes to the sun. At
night these effects are lacking, and topographic
expression, except for drainage patterns, is
and moisture content are more apparent on night
time imagery; this is another reason why most
Differences in rock type are more apparent
on the night time imagery, although the IR
signatures are largely controlled by the properties
of surface debris, not of bedrock.
Maximum thermal contrasts generally occur
near sunset, but the radiant temperatures change
as the night progresses. The most stable radiant
temperatures occur in the predawn hours. If a
number of lines are to be flown, more uniform
results will be obtained from predawn flights.
Local weather conditions, such as early morning
ground fog, must also be considered. Imagery
acquired,shortly after heavy rainfall may be of
little use because thermal effects of surface
moisture variations may mask the more subtle
geologic signatures.
4. Active Microwave Remote Sensors - Radar
The preceding discussions of remote sensing
have been dealt with passive sensors which produce
imagery ,from energy coming to them from exterior
sources. In contrast, radar is an active
system.
Radar and,increasingly laser (LIDAR) are
active sensors providing an independent source of
 64
GEOLOGY 5
BROWNE
energy. Radar is a 24-hour all weather remote
sensor; it sends out a radio wave whose
properties are accurately known. Currently most
systems operate at wavelengths between 0.86 and
3.3 cm, (K & X bands, see Table 5.1) although
some experimental systems utilize wavelengths up
to 70 cm ( C, S &.L bands ). The waves are
emitted for brief periods of time, thousandths
of seconds (milliseconds) for targets hundreds of
miles away or millionths of seconds (micro-
seconds ) for close-range targets a mile or less
away. These short, powerful bursts of energy
are called pulses. Radio pulses move through
space, striking targets in the environment
field. Pulses are subsequently reflected or
echoed 'back to the radar set as a much weaker
pulse. In order to distinguish the weaker
returning energy from the more powerful outgoing
signal, the radar transmitter must be turned off.
Thus, modern pulsed radars are switched on and
off thousands or even millions of times each
second. By comparing the wavelength of the
returning wave with that of the transmitted
wave it is possible to determine the Doppler shift,
thereby measuring the relative speed of the target.
TABLE 5.1: Spatial bands of radar
Radar Bands Wavelength (cm)
K 0.93 - 2.7
X 2.7 - 5.8
C 4.8 - 7.7
S 5.8 - 19
L 19 - 77
.P 77 - 133
Radar pulses are sent in a known direction with
a directional antenna which is able to focus the
radio wave into a carefully controlled beam. The
more precise or sharp this beam of radio energy
is, the better it can be used to measure direction.
The size of the antenna, measured in units of the
operative wavelength radio frequency, determines
the sharpness of the beam. A great deal of current
radar researchis concerned with antenna design.
Because the system sends out the beam at. a
predetermined wavelength, the receiving antenna
can be specifically designed to receive returning
energy in the wavelength generated and only from
the immediate direction in which the radar wave
was generated. The time it takes for the wave to
travel to a remote object and return can be
measured. Electromagnetic waves travel at known
speed. ( 3x 108 meters/sec in space, about
186,000 miles/sec ) . It is thus possible to compute
the distance to the sensed object as a function of
time. Therefore, the range or distance of the
target is determined.
Modern radar systems consist of. four major
components. (1) the transmitter, which generates
and then emits the radio wave; (2) the receiver,
which accepts the weak pulses of reflected
energy. In most systems, the transmitter and
:receiver share the same antenna; (3) the
amplifier, which strengthens the echoed signal;
(4) the method of display, the part of the
systemwhich turns the invisible radio wave into
an image that can be seen or photographed.
In the early use of radar, it was noted that
objectsin the surrounding environment, such as
buildings, landforms, and forests, frequently
produced a return or. echo back to ·the receiver. To
the radar engineers this was known as ground clutter.
They worked assiduously to suppress these returns.
As radar was declassified and became more widely
used, scholars from other disciplines quickly
realized the value of ground clutter returns. They
provided a fresh look at the earth"s surface for
the geoscientist. On board an aircraft, radar can
rapidly cover large areas, day or night,, and in
almost any kind of weather. Only extremely
heavy rainfall will attenuate these radio waves.
Once the value of these ground returns was,recog-
nized, the complex problem of systematic inter-
pretation was confronted. Interpretation of radar
returnrequires an interdisciplinary approach.
Engineers,must explain the parameters of the radar
system. Geoscientists must be able to interpret
the diverse nature of terrain illuminated by the
transmitted electromagnetic waves. The intricate
relationship between radar returns and terrain is
due in part to the complexity and variability of
the earth's surface; material composition,
moisture content, vegetation, surface texture, and
temperature all modify radar return amplitude. In
addition, the relationship is further complicated
by characteristics of 254he generated radiowave;
angle of incidence, wave polarization, and
frequency of the emitted signal affect the image
received. Despite this complexity, the radar
image can be interpreted and it does provide
valuable information about the natural environment
over large areas and under adverse weather conditions.
Question 5.1:
(a) Many hydrothermal minerals have well-defined
spectra and characteristic features in the
regions.near.1.4, '1.76 and 2.0 to 2.4 1lm
(Hunt, 1979 ). Read Hunt's paper and list
their reflection minima in terms of mineral
composition, e.g. clay, sulphate, carbonate.
(b) From your knowledge of the distribution and
identity of superficial hydrothermal alteration
minerals, comment on how useful you think
aerial near-infrared remote sensing surveys
of the following fields would be:
Wairakei
Orakei Korako
Ngawha
Mokai
Heber, Southern California
(c) How would you distinguish between results
obtained from aerial near-infrared remote
sensing surveys of active and inactive systems?
Question 5.2:
How can LANDSAT images be used for geothermal work
during:
(a) Reconnaissance evaluation of an extensive but
little known area.
(b) The pre-drilling investigation of a field.

6. SURFACE MAPPING:
I will assume you are familiar with Chapter 5
in Compton.
Introduction
Any geologist with field experience is fully
aware of the great value of air photographs as an.
aid to geological mapping (Note: photogeology is
not a substitute for field geology). This is
certainly true of mapping geothermal fields, since
these usually show a close relationship between
structure and hydrology, and rock exposures are
often poor. In reconnaissance mapping, air photos
are also especially valuable in areas where the
stratigraphy and structure are complex.
Uses in geothermal studies
Air photos can be used for the speedy recon-
naissance of a geologically little-known region,
in which case the procedure for interpretation
follows that recommended for standard regional
mapping ( see references ). Regional photogeology
of this type has obvious and very real implications
for interpreting individual geothermal systems,
but in this lecture we will discuss the role of
photogeology applied at the scale of a single field.
Availability of air photographs
In all but exceptional cases the geologist
takes what photographs he can get, so long as they
are 'verticals'; only rarely, or when it is too
late, does he have the opportunity to select scales
or plan the flight coverage. For 99% of the cases,
aerial photographs are taken for purposes other than
geothermal investigations; typically, photographs
are on panchromatic film at scales between 1:20,000
and 1:50,000.
The scale of air photographs depends on the
focal length of the camera and the height of the
aircraft above the ground; this naturally means
that different parts of a photograph have slightly
different scales although simple corrections can be
made ( see Compton pp 83-84 ). If you have a choice
then for detailed work, a print scale of 1:15,000 to
1:20,000 is adequate; for regional work use a print
scale of about 1:40,000,and for rapid reconnaissance
investigations use a print scale of 1:80,000 or
smaller. For this purpose it is an advantage to
see the structure over a large area on two over-
lapping photographs. Large scale prints ( 1:10,000
or larger), however, usually make interpretation
too difficult; ( strangely enough, geologists seldom
arrange that prints from negatives be made on a scale
of their choice ). On the other hand, for mapping
finer scale features, such as thermal springs,
photos from low level are better.
The method of ordering air photographs varies
from country to country; in New Zealand they are
usually available from the Lands and Survey Depart-
ment. In several countries, aerial photographs
65
GEOLOGY 6
BROWNE
PHOTOGEOLOGY'IN GEOTHERMAL STUDIES
are for military purposes, and the national
Department of Defence is the organisation to
approach to find out about coverage. Many areas
of the Pacific were photographed during the last
war by the U.S. Air Force, and these photographs
may still be available although not always easily
obtained. As a first step, check with your
National Geological Survey or Survey Department
for advice.
Providing the prints are of good quality
there is no reason why old photographs cannot be
used, particularly if they are printed on a suitable
scale, although new ones show the locations of rocks
in the field.
As well as their use in photogeology, air
photographs can profitably be used in other aspects
of geothermal planning. For example, in routing
access roads and in evaluating ground conditions
at suggested drillhole sites, in locating suitable
road or power house foundation materials, and
monitoring changes in thermal activity. Further,
until an area is properly surveyed, aerial photo-
graphs or photo mosaics often have to be used in
place of large scale maps. Those with a background
in photogrammetry will be well aware how well this
can be done with even a minimum amount of ground
control.
Interpretation
The information on a single black and white
photograph is recorded solely by variations in tone.
When stereo pairs are viewed, an additional criterion
for interpretation is available, i.e. the relief of
the stereo model. Thus in using air photographs
we are making interpretations based on relief and
tone. Colour photography is usually too expensive,
although it has been a tremendous aid in a few
places, e.g. Ethiopia, where it has been tried.
Relief and tone
These are not absolute quantities for particular
rocks; for example, different tones can be produced
by different printings. Much more useful are relative
tonal values. The factors which affect the appearance
of rocks in air photographs are:
(a) climate,
(b) vegetation cover,
(C) soil cover,
(d) erosion - absolute and relative rates,
(e) colour and reflectivity,
(f) composition,
(g) physical characteristics,
(h) depth of weathering,
(i) structure and texture,
(j) photographic conditions.
Although at first sight this seems a dis-
couragingly long list, many of these factors are
interrelated and, in practice, identifying rock type
 66
GEOLOGY 6
BROWNE
from air photographs is not called for when mapping
geothermal fields and ground checking is possible.
Nevertheless, common sense and general geological
knowledge often helps you to identify many rock
types, except where erosion is severe, e.g. the
morphology of rhyolites, andesites and bedded
sediments is characteristic, and dikes are
usually readily recognisable. Outcrops can be
identified readily on air photographs, and they
speed late field mapping and checking of the
preliminary photogeological interpretations.
This underscores the point that the geologist
who interprets the air photographs is the best
person to do the field mapping also. More important
than determining rock type by photogeology is to
locate lithological boundaries ( i.e. contacts);
these can be pencilled in and later field-checked
at suitable locations.
Lineaments
This aspect of photogeology is very important.
A lineament is any line on an aerial photograph
that is structurally controlled. This definition
is very wide so that the term 'lineament' can be
used to refer to bedding, lithological markers,
mineral banding, veining, joints, faults, unconform-
ities and rock boundaries; the definition also
covers alignment of springs, streams, or even
vegetation, if their distribution is controlled
by the geological structure. Many lineaments
which show on air photographs are not recognisable
at ground level, and many features, such as eroded
calderas or other ring structures, are most readily
seen in air photos. Of the many structural features
which show on air photographs we will consider, at
this stage, only faults and joints.
Faults
Locating faults in geothermal fields is largely
a matter of experience. There are some lineaments
which all geologists agree are faults, but there is
almost a scale of decreasing certainty and, below
some level,interpretation becomes more subjective;
thus, different geologists will locate different
faults. Many geothermal fields are structurally
complex and it is doubtful if, for some, all the
faults will ever be located. Recognising a fault
on air photos is not always easy as the usual
evidence, such as displacement of bedding or
termination of a structure, is seldom apparent.
Usually, the evidence that a lineament is a
fault may be slight differences, relative to the
surrounds, in relief; unless a fault plane is
vertical its trace will be affected by the pre-
fault relief. Normal and reverse faults often
form scarps which are readily recognisable on
air photographs, even when they have been con-
siderably reduced by erosion. Subtle changes in
vegetation are often reflected as lineaments, and
a favourite fault indicator in geothermal areas
is the alignment of hot springs and thermally
altered ground.
Joints
Joint patterns occasionally show on aerial
photographs as straight negative lineaments, which
unfortunately have the same appearance as do
faults. The text books usually tell you to inter-
pret such a lineament on an air photograph as a
joint until evidence of displacement shows it to
be a fault. In geothermal fields where the surface
rocks are usually young and faulting is common,
it is suggested that you apply the reverse of
this advice until you make a ground inspection.
Question 6.1:
The straight line distance between the pub and
your field camp is 2000 metres. On an aerial
photograph, taken with a camera whose lens has
a focal length of 8 cm, these places are 10 cm
apart. Assuming level terrain, calculate the
approximate height of the aircraft above the
ground at the time it took the photograph.
Question 6.2:
A photograph is taken from an aircraft flying
3000 m above sea level. Directly below the
aircraft at the instant the photograph was
taken was a trig beacon at an elevation of
1000 m; this is located on a small plateau.
A marine beach, oriented east-west, occurs,
at its closest point 3000 m distant from, and
due north of, the trig station; this appears
on the edge of the aerial photograph.
Assuming that the aircraft's camera had a
focal length of 10 cm, calculate the approxi-
mate difference in scale between the centre
and northern edge of the photograph. (Make
sketches:)
Question 6.3:
Give examples of the causes of lineations that
you would expect to show up on aerial photo-
graphs of the following geothermal fields:
Wairakei
Orakei Korako
Broadlands
Ngawha
Question 6.4:
Evaluate and compare the respective roles
that satellite data and aerial photography
provide in geothermal reconnaissance surveys;
give examples where appropriate.
 67
GEOLOGY 7
BROWNE
to them by their sheet district, e.g. Tikitere
7. MAPPING OF SURFACE DISCHARGE FEATURES spring numbers are prefixed by N76/3.

Introduction Warning I

This work is usually done before a field is
drilled and should form part of the reconnaissance
work; ideally the earlier it is done the better.
The reasons for this are:
1. It provides a basis for concurrent and
subsequent geochemical work.
2. A long timelag between mapping and drilling
means that natural changes in activity can be
monitored. These can later be distinguished
from changes induced or resultant from
drilling or exploitation.
3. It provides a basis for estimating the natural
surface heat flow ( see earlier lectures ).
How much detail should be mapped?
This depends on several factors, including:
1. The time and manpower available ( rarely
sufficient ).
2. The number of features, access and type.
Mapping in active thermal areas can be very
dangerous, particularly where the undergrowth is
thick and the ground surface obscured; use common
sense and do not enter an area where the resks are
substantial. Always work in pairs, and avoid the
N.Z. custom of wearing shorts during field work.
Take a first aid kit and know how to treat burns.
Mapping individual features
A large number of items can be mapped or
recorded; the form below is that used by
N.Z. Geological Survey and is a good guide as to
what can be recorded. It can be used in conjunction
with fluid sampling.
...'..'...
FIELD SURVEYS OF NATURAL HYDROTHERMAL FEATURES
NZMS 2 SILET N,1 GRID REF, F..,URE No.
MIR MAP Nu Al<e• FEATURE NAME
MEASURED UY DATE
DISCRiFTION ili/mle rcnili un oppidid Ul lotuic. Hey, 042Ct#m. pcridd,Lity. m..
Iwe. wbr and /*IMe ' ahc dcpos,u: I nd iurioui,d//)

Mapping procedure

Several possibilities exist, although base

maps of adequate detail are seldom available.
Assuming one is making a detailed study of a small
area, then there may be time to make a fairly
detailed plane table map ( e.g. Lloyd 1972, p.47 ) rEMIRATURE ANI WILIC MEASURLD ·C
locating the individual features and then mapping IBEIGHT 01- tallittl/N Cim OVLRI.I.ow 1.tre/".
their shape and nature. Compass and tape surveys U i ER SAW'L C But·t·LE Na GAS SAMPLE BOTTLE Nok
are often of sufficient accuracy. Aerial photo- GAS # 2.... 1 1 Ab•/. 2 5.311.3, M//itc. 4. Strons
graphs can also be used - as was the case for Any PariicUIAr OJour
mapping Tikitere and Taheke; here verticals at DIAGRAM. DIMENSIONS AND Plt(YrO(,RAPH (On diaErant B Wilin.ions of Mu In036 9/ uni,Hud
depih. intl,Late •1[h a,1 -A" po,ilion wher, g.iS i, evolved. 4, mih Wint ,/ direction Ihat pholoit<,ph tvas
t. 036.,
about 1:18,000 were used to locate features which
were then sketch-mapped individually or in groups.
Notice how the hot springs are shown on the three
air photographs in the Orakei'Korako Bulletin -
their positions were accurately pricked onto air
photographs with a sharp, thin needle in the field
and the holes numbered on the rear; thus, they
became a permanent record which can be reproduced
in various ways as in Lloyd (1972) and Espanola
( 1974).

Large scale enlargements of aerial photographs

can often be used for mapping thermal springs.
If certain points on the ground can be identified
on the photos, an enlargement can be made to a
required scale. The degree of contrast should be MWGAMU . DATE TAKEN
selected to give maximum identification, e.g. in NLUITIVE N; FILED IT
Chile, where large areas were covered by pale grey SAMPLED FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS BY
sands and sinter, a slightly dark print without WATER IMPLE BOTI LE Noi
(U* /111/ 1,Je for turilier mi/maii/4 4GASde/ription,
SIMPLE ikclch·n,Aps.
BOrrLE Nos.tic.)
extreme contrast enabled individual features - even ... 036'. 036--.,
sinters - to be identified.

Numbering and naming springs
This presents a problem in some areas,
particularly where there are many numerous small
springs. Old names can be confusing, especially
where features change their shapes or relocate;
one method of naming small features is to refer
The obvious data to record include temperature,
measured, if possible, at several locations with a
maximum or electrical thermometer. A sketch map
is essential and need not be highly accurate in most
cases; mark where you measure the temperatures as
precisely as possible on this map, and don't forget
to record scale, north, location of outflow,

GEOLOGY 7
BROWNE
ebullition, and especially date of mapping. This
last is important in assessing changes to the
features; for this reason a dated photograph is
usually very helpful, with the photographer's
position noted on the map. (Note how all the
photos in the Orakei Korako Bulletin are dated.)
Also comment on the presence or absence of gas.
Springs with much gas cannot be at the local
boiling point because at the surface the partial
vapour has to be less than atmospheric pressure.
Further, the absence of appreciable gas means
that the spring is probably not a main flow
from the deep system.
Measuring flow rates
To estimate the surface heat loss from a
geothermal system it is necessary to measure the
flow rates of discharge features. This can often
be done visually but it is more accurate and usual
to use weir boxes. These are usually either
rectangular-in cross-section, for use where flow
volumes are high, or V-notches. These are
preferable for discharges of low to moderate
volume and are widely used in several branches
of hydrology.
, /,='1 T&%* ),-
»,«
Fig. 7.1: Parameters of a V-notch weir.
The appropriate formula is
Q = Cw 8/15 tan • 42g H 5/2 , where
Q = flow rate
Cw = the weir coefficient, a dimensionless quantity thermal area.should be mapped in any survey of a
which depends on several factors including
the friction of the surface, but use 0.59 in
most geothermal situations.
g = 9.81 m sec -2
H = the distance between the bottom of the V
and the crest of water measured at a position 260 (I) alteration haloes and 117 hot spring
before the water starts to 'fall'.
0 = angle of the V-notch, usually 450, 600 or 900. areas.
Recognition of old thermal features
At Ohakuri on the field trip in Week 5 you saw
a recently (?40,000 years ago) deceased (not RIP,
thanks to Roger Henneberger) geothermal system;
much older (3 million years or so) former fields
have been active in the Coromandel District. In
fact, evidence remains of many geothermal systems
which were active hundreds of millions of years
ago; for example, Mt Isa and McArthur River,
both famous base-metal deposits in Queensland.
68
At the other end of the time scale, some parts of
presently active fields have areas where surface
activity has declined or ceased only recently; for
example, the northern margins of Ngawha, north and
west Rotokawa, and many parts of Yellowstone. In
the past 20 years surface activity has also declined
in the Spa and Geyser Valley thermal· areas of
Wairakei, although this has probably been due to
draw-off from the field and raising of the level of
the Waikato River in the case of the former. However,
such changes can also occur naturally at a slower rate.
It is important to recognise ancient discharge
features because,even though thermal activity may
have ceased at the surface, there could still exist
an exploitable reservoir at depth. In many places,
evidence of recently ended thermal activity may be
as good a guide to exploration as presently dis-
charging hot springs.
Usually, however, only very recently dead
fumaroles and spring vents will be visible, and the
main way of recognising former thermal features is
from the material they deposited or produced during
their lifetime; this includes chiefly calcium
carbonate or silica sinter. The latter is highly
resistant to both chemical and physical erosion
although it ma9 slowly crystallise from its
amorphous state (?via cristobalite to quartz) .
Where extensive and sufficiently well exposed,
sinter deposits may be mapped so that, with luck,
the sites of the old springs can be located. Where
covered by soil or younger ashes, one would expect
that sinter deposits should be detectable by some
geophysical methods. By contrast, the usual deposits
of acid springs and steaming ground consist of
readily eroded or weathered kaolin clays and sulphate
minerals. Fortunately these are usually pervasive
and may be preserved in at least some places so that
their significance can be recognised. Identification
of all the minerals present in altered ground of this
type is usually difficult without recourse to tech-
niques such as X-Ray Diffraction or Differential
Thermal Analysis; nevertheless, the extent of all
alteration
This technique is apparently standard practice
in assessing geothermal fields in Japan following
the success of the method in defining the size and
shape of the Matsukawa field (see 86.102); for
example, Sumi et al (1980) give summary data on
deposits (which do not have alteration haloes)
associated with late Pliocene to Holocene thermal
Question 7.1:
By considering the right hand side of the
flow rate equation, calculate the dimensions
of Q.
Question 7.2:
You are asked to make a survey of a thermal
area about which little is known except that
 69
GEOLOGY 7

BROWNE
(Question 7.2 - continued)

there are numerous surface manifestations of

various types.

(a) What are the reasons for making such a

survey?

(b) Briefly outline the way you would go about

this project; for example, what scale and
type of base map would you prefer to use,
or, if these are not available, what else
could you use?

(c) What features would you record in your

survey?

(d) What simple physical measurements would

you make? Do not discuss detailed
geochemical or geophysical methods.

( Exam, 1979 )

GEOLOGY 8
SMITH
8. IGNEOUS
1. Introduction
Earth is a dynamic planet which is evolving
from an initial relatively disorganised state
toward a more stable organised configuration. Part
of this process involves the segregation of the
upper mantle material into compatible chemical
components ( those which readily enter into the
relatively simple mineral structures which form
under the high pressures and temperatures of the
upper mantle ) and incompatible chemical components
which form a low melting point fraction and under
favourable conditions rise to the earth's crust
as magma.
The movement of magma from its source deep
in the crust or in the upper mantle is the
mechanism whereby heat is transferred from the
depths of the earth through the rigid insulating
layer of the lithosphere. Rock is a very poor
conductor of heat and if heat was transferred by
conduction alone then it would not be possible to
produce near-surface heat anomalies such as those
which result in geothermal areas.
Throughout earth history partial melting of
the earth's mantle has produced magma which has
risen to cool as new crust. Igneous petrology is
the study of magmatic rocks from their origin as
magmas in the mantle through crustal recycling
processes to their ultimate state as crystalline
rocks. It is a large subject using a.variety of
techniques including detailed field mapping,
microscopy, mineralogy, geochemistry and
experimental work.
MAGMA
Almost all magmas are silicate liquids
composed predominantly of silicon and oxygen with
variable proportions of other constituents. On
cooling, magma forms a crystalline or glassy
igneous rock. Although magma has the properties
of a liquid, modern studies suggest that it has a
definite ordered structure. This structure is
defined mainly by strong Si - 0 bonds which form
a framework into which other cations fit as
framework modifiers. The importance of this model
is the way it can explain some of the physical
characteristics of magma.
A large proportion of our knowledge of
silicate melts comes from observations made on lava
'flows and volcanic rocks in general and also from
experimental investigation of simple silicate
systems in the laboratory and of metallurgical
slags and glasses.
2. Physical Properties of Magma
Probably the most important physical property
of magma is its viscosity since it plays a major
role in determining the form of igneous rock bodies
70
PETROLOGY
and also the speed with which it can travel
through the crust or along the surface. Although
at the surface magma has been seen to flow in
a manner analogous to water it is in fact many
times more viscous ( typically in the range
102 - 108 poises ). Viscosity is determined
primarily by the presence of Si - 0 bonds in the
structure, the high-Si magmas are the most
viscous ones. Temperature is also important
because the cooler magma is, the more highly
ordered ( and hence the more viscous ) its structure.
Volatile content is also important; the more
disolved gas in the structure, the lower the
viscosity of the magma.
The density of a magma is dependent on its
chemical composition and to a lesser extent on
the proportion of disolved volatiles. High-Si
magmas are less dense than low-Si magmas.
Estimated magma densities lie in the range 2.4 to
2.9 x 103kg/m3 and the corresponding solidified
rocks have densities in the range 2.6 to
3.1 x 103kg/m3(2.6 to 3.1 g/cm3 ).
The temperature of lava ( i.e. magma at the
surface ) can be measured directly by means of an
optical pyrometer; the temperature of magma can
be calculated using laboratory studies of the
stability fields of minerals - this is the
technique of geothermometry. Tem•eratures of lavas
vary between 1225'C and about 740 C and are in
part related to composition. The liquidus of a
magma is the temperature above which it is entirely
liquid; its solidus is the temperature below
which it is entirely solid ( in effect an igneous
rock).
The solidus and the liquidus of a magma varies
according to its physical environment and temperature.
Most magmas if they reach the surface are a mixture
of solid (crystals) and liquid which means that
their temperatures lie between the solidus and the
liquidus.
3. Chemical Composition of Magmas
Knowledge of magma composition is gained
mainly from study of the composition of igneous
rocks. A serious deficiency resulting from this
approach is.that little is known about the
very important volatile constituents which are
lost from the magma on cooling. Most igneous
rocks consist of minerals, or less commonly glass,
composed of Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na and K along
with minor amounts of Ti, Mn and P ( see Table 8.1 ).
These elements are coordinated with oxygen, and so by
convention an analysis of a rock is reported in
terms of its oxide components ( eg. Si•2' A1203 etc).
Elements present at very low abundances are
presented as abundances in parts per million (ppm)
on parts per billion; these trace elements are
by definition generally present at levels less
than 1000 ppm (i.e. < 0.1 wt % of the element ).
 71
GEOLOGY 8
SMITH

TABLE 8.1: Approximate average composition of some common igneous rocks

Family: Granile Diorite Gabbro Ultrainafic Syeno- Syenite Feldspathoidal Aikaline Sycno-
diorite Sy,enite Ultrabasic gabbro
Rock Granite Grano- Diorite Gabbro Picrite Dunite Monzonite Sycnite Neplictine Ijolite Essexite
type: diorit 254 Syenite
Si02 70·8 65·7 57·6 490 43·1 41·7 56·7 62·5 55·4 43·2 49·3
1102 0·4 0·6 09 1·0 09 1·1 06 09 1·6 1·9
A!203 14·6 16·1 169 18·2 99 0.9 17·1 17·6 20·2 19·1 16·2
Fe,03 1·6 1·8 3·2 3·2 5·5 2·9. 3·0 2·1 3·4 3·9 4·4
FCO 1·8 2·7 4·5 6·0 9·3 5·7 4.1 2·7 2·2 4·9 5·7
MEO 0-9 1.9 4·2 7·6 20·8 47·7 3·3 0·9 0·9 3·2 4·1
00 2·0 4·5 6·8 11·2 8·4 0·7 6·6 2·3 2·5 10 6 9·0
Nalo 3·5 3·7 3:4 2·6 1·3 0·1 3·7 5·9 8·4 9·7 4·4
K20 4·2 2·8 2·2 0·9 0·4 3·8 5·2 5·5 2·3 2·3

Si02 is by far the most abundant component
of igneous rocks and overall shows a range of 35
to 75%. Classification of igneous rocks is commonly
made on the basis of SiO content. The variation in
SiO content imparts ve•y distinctive characteristics
botA to the nature of the magma and to the .rock
which forms from it. For example, rhyolite (high-
Si) lava is very viscous and consequently rhyolite
lava flows are thick and do not spread far; basalt
(low-Si) flows on the other hand have lower
viscosities and consequently when they reach the
surface they spread out forming extensive but
relatively thin lava flows.
The difference in mode of eruption between
rhyolite and basalt can be described in terms of
different behaviour of the gas phase under differing
viscosities. Gas bubbles exsolved from low
viscosity (basalt) magma are able to move upward
at a faster rate than the magma, and are released
at the surface continuously in a gas-magma mixture
forming a 'fire fountain'. Many eruptions from
Kilauea Iki on Hawaii have shown this type of
activity; a spectacular but dssentially·quiet
form of energy release.
in lavas suggests that at depth this gas was
dissolved within the magma. At low pressures this
gas approaches saturation pressure within the
magma and is eventually released, often explosively.
The composition of a magmatic gas is poorly
known ( see Table 8.2 for analyses ). Many
measurements have been made of the composition of
volcanic gas. One of the earliest was made on
Kilauea Volcano,· Hawaii,by Day and Shepherd who
collected gas from a vent on the lava lake through
a glass-lined iron pipe. Analysis of those
samples gave the following amounts of gases except
water; 55.4% ( 02, 4.3% CO, 7.7% H2, 29.6% N2'
2.9% $02· Water could not be determined because
so much had condensed within the glass collecting
vessels when they were flushed of air before a
sample was taken. The presence of small amounts of
argon showed that some air contamination had taken
place.
There are several problems involved with
relating the composition of a volcanic gas collected
from a lava lake or fumarolic vent ot that of a
magmatic gas.

In contrast gas bubbles exolved from rhyolite (1) Atmospheric contamination

magma cannot escape the viscous magma and rise with (2) Reaction with collecting vessels. This
the magma expanding in response to decreasing is negligible when glass is used but
pressure. At some critical depth the gas bubbles many collections made early in the
coelesce and the gas pressure in the magma exceeds century used iron tubes.
that of the confining rocks; a violent explosion
can occur during which highly vesiculated rhyolite (3) Reactions between gas species in the
lava (pumice) is expelled from the vent to fall collecting vessel so that they reflect
as air-fall deposits or to flow across·the equilibrium at atmospheric temperatures
countryside as a pyroclastic flows, sometimes and not at the magmatic temperature.
called ignimbrites or ash flow tuffs. Rhyolite
lava flows constitute a degassed part of the initial The table below shows the wide range in
magma which is typically extruded in a highly composition of volcanic gases collected from
viscous form after the explosive eruption. different volcanoes. Note the range of H20
content from nearly 94% to 43%, which in part is
4. Magmatic Gas related to errors in sampling and determination·
of this constituent.
Volcanic eruptions are accompanied by emission
of large volumes of gas and the presence of vesicles
 72
GEOLOGY 8
SMITH

Other methods of estimating the composition

of a magmatic gas involve equilibria with minerals
which accept volatile components such as C, S, 0
and OH into their structure. Obviously useful
minerals are the oxides, ( i.e. titanomagnetite),
sulphides ( e.g. pyrrhotite) and hydrous silicates
such as amphibole and biotite.

TABLE 8.2: Compositions of volcanic gases ( in volume percent)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
CO: 21.4 46.2 40.9 4.6 10.1 21 15.3 10.4 25.9
CO 0.8 0.7 2.4 0.3 2.0 0.6 1.4 8.3
II2 0.9 0.03 0.8 2.8 0.2 0.4 4.4 1.1 -
S02 11.5 14.3 4.4 4.1 - 0.01 - - 0.0
S2 0.7 0.0 0.5 0.9 0.2 1.3 -
SOB 1.8 38.8
/2 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.3 02 0.4
F, 0.0 0.0 - 3.3 1.5 0.0 0.0
HCl 0.6 -
N + rare
gases 10.1 16.6 8.3 4.5 0.9 0.6 5.2 7.2 11.1
H20 52.7 71.4 43.2 83.1 82.3 93.7 73.2 71.3 63.0
o Included with N.
1. Kilauca, IIawaii; average of the best 10 collections of gas from Hale.moumau lava lake in 1917-
1919 ( Jaggar, 1940 )
2. Mauna Loa, Hawaii; average of two samples collected froin molten lava in 1926 ( Sliepherd, 1938 ).
3. Nyiragongo, Congo; tlic single "excellent" analysis of gas from the lava lake in 1939 for wlticti water
was determined ( Cltaigncau, Tazi:ff, and Fabre, 1980 ).
4. Surtsey, Iceland; average of 11 analyses of sainples laken between Oct. 15, 19(31, and March 31,
1967 ( Sigvaldason and Ellison, 1968 ).
5. Mt. ]'clde. West Indies; gas extracted from lava ( 1,ypersthene andesite ) of the spine fo,1.ted ii, 1039.
( Sliepherd and Ati,nvin, 1927 ).
6. I.assen Peak, California; gas extracted from lava (dacite) erupted in 1915 ( Shepherd, 1925 ).
7. Matina Ina, lIawaii; g.,s extracted from pumicc (basalt) of the 3928 mildion ( Shepherd, 1938 ).
8. Niua[0&11; gas extracted from lava (basalt) of the 1929 eruption ( Shcphi:rd, 1938 ).
9. Kozu-sltima, Japan; gas extracted from rliyolite lava ( Iwasaki, Kntsurt, and Sal(ato, 1955).

5. Mode of Occurrence of Igneous Rocks
Lava flows vary from a few tens of metres thick
to 200 m or more, and in length to a few tens of
kilometers. Very fluid basalt flows may flow for
very long distances but the longest and most wide-
spread flows are pyroclastic flows of rhyolite or
dacite composition. Whereas at 900'C rhyolite magma
containing 2% H20 would have a viscosity of 107
poise, if it is disaggregated by violently explosive
eruptions and then flows as a mixture of glass
particles and gas, its viscosity is greatly reduced
and may only be 10 poise.
In comparison to the largest and most wide•pread
basalt flow known, which has an area of 5.2 x 10
km2 and a volume of 2.5 x 103 km3 ( ROSA FLOW of
E. Washington U.S.A.) some rhyolite ash flows in
Nevada, U.S.A, have mapped areas of 1.8 x 104 km2
and volumes of 1.0 x 103 km3. Recent work on
ignimbrites, suggests that the volume estimates may
be too low by as much as·one order of magnitude (101)
because of erosion of outer edges and top layers
of the flows.
Bodies of plutonic rock ( produced where
magma solidifies within the crust ) vary widely in
form and volume. Smallest are veins and dykes which
may be only a few centimetres across. One of the
largest basaltic igneous intrusions known is that of
Bushveld in the Transvaal of S. Africa. It has
an area of about 5 x 104 km2 and a volume ( assuming
an average thickness of 5km; it approaches 8km thick
in places ) of 2.6 x 105 km: It is in the form of
a lopolith or saucer-shape.
Granite intrusions range from small-sized
plutons, with volumes of up to 60 km3, to very
large batholiths such as the Coast Range batholith
of British Columbia which has a minimum area of
2.3 x 'los km2 and an unknown ·volume which probably
exceeds 4 x 105 km3. Even larger batholiths have
been mapped in Precambrian terrain. More detailed
mapping of large batholiths such as the Coast Range
batholith and the Sierra Nevada batholith has shown
that they consist of many smaller intrusions that
have been emplaced over a long period of time,
perhaps as much as 100 million years.
6. Cooling History of Plutonic Igneous Bodies
Little is known about the cooling history of
an intrusion because of its dependence on so many
factors. Geologists can get some information from
the size, shape and metamorphic mineral assemblages
in contact aureoles. Stability fields of meta-
morphic minerals are to a greater or lesser extent
dependent upon both temperature and pressure, and
 73
GEOLOGY 8
SMITH
and in many metamorphic terrains it is difficult
to unravel tlle contribution to the mineral
assemblages made by regional metamorphism. The 700
appearance of the mineral sillimanite (A12Si05)
implies that temperatures are high, probably in
excess of 500'C,·and may approach the melting 600 -
temperature of granitic liquids. Winkler, for
instance has shown that given a sufficient supply 500
of water from an external source, metagreywackes
heated above 700'C at P20 = 2kb yield a substantial
fraction of granite-granodiorite melt. Some 400 - 64,000
workers regard granites as the culminating P
products of high-grade metamorphism. C 300 - (Soliddicalionofplyears
uton completel
Simple models have been proposed for the 20,000 Yeofs
temperature gradients set up around a cooling 200 - 11,006 yecrs
igneous intrusion. The temperature at any given
time and distance from the contact with the
cooling pluton will depend upon a number of 100 -
quantities. These are size and temperature of
the pluton; thermal conductivity, density, 0
specific heat and diffusivity of the country rock 0 100, 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 :000
and the solidified magma; crystallisation temp- (0) Distonce from conloct, meters
erature and the latent heat of crystallisation of 700
magma, and finally the AH of metamorphic reactions
set up in the aureole. Temperatures adjacent to a 600 •-•
thick vertical sheet intrusion are shown in Fig.8.1, -
a more detailed discussion of this topic will be
given in lectures 10 and 11. 500 - (1)
The distance from the contact at which a
given maximum temperature is reached will depend • 400 - »--42)I.
upon the thickness of the intrusive body, /- 300 - -» \ -»•\
measured normal to its contact, and also on the -. \ \
temperature. One would expect wider aureoles
around basaltic intrusions than adjacent to
granitic plutons but this is not so. 200 -
Important theoretical calculations on the 100 -
cooling of plutons and its effect on country rock
were made by Jaeger. Pluton size is the major
influence on maintaining maximum temperatures over 0 0 100 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 800 900 1000
a long distance ig the surrounding rocks.
Temperatures of 400 C or more could be maintained Distance from con:oct, meters
for tens of thousands of years, 500 metres from
granite plutons 1 to 2 km wide, intruding dry
sediments whose initial temperature was 100'C. Fig. 8 .1: Temperature field adjacent to deep
If water is involved, however the results are "granite" contacts neglecting effects of water
different because vaporisation of pore water will (a) Tabular vertical sheet 2000 m thick intruded
lower temperatures near the contact by 100'C. If at 800'C; crystallization range 800 to 600'C;
that water moves along the contact then greater initial temperature of country rock, 100'C,
cooling of the contact zone will occur. In the
case of granitic magmas which are saturated with
water then transfer of heat outward via water (b) Maximum temperatures attained in contact
escaping from tte solidifying pluton would signifi-
cantly lower temperatures but widen the aureole. If zones of tabular vertical sheets (1) 2000,
(20 1000m thick, intruding shale at 100'C.
plutonic rocks are the heat source of a geothermal Temperature
system then a convective water system is a much
more point, 8000C.of intrusion equals a fixed melting
than efficient
conduction.way of taking heat out of the pluton
Measurements of 0 18/16 ratios in plutonic
bodies shows that they are more enriched in
the light isotopes than expected and this is most
likely the result of flushing of water through
the pluton during cooling. No theoretical models
have been proposed to show the effect of this
process on cooling rate and temperature gradients
in the surrounding rock. Models such as Jaeger's
are useful in giving us an appreciation of the time
scale involved and temperatures reached but they
probably do not realistically resemble the cooling
of plutons associated with geothermal systems.
 74
GEOLOGY 9

SMITH

9. IGNEOUS ROCKS

1. The Minerals of Igneous Rocks The main difficulties encounted by this procedure
are with 'very fine grained volcanic rocks in which
Cooling of magma results in progressive it is difficult to determine mineral proportions
crystallisation of its constituents to form minerals. accurately.
The only exception to this is the situation of super
cooling most often found in rhyolite magmas, where A generally useful classification scheme for
glass forms at the expense of minerals. The minerals igneous rocks is a two-parameter scheme based on:
which crystallise from a magma will be determined
by its chemical composition. (1) proportion of mafic to felsic minerals,
allowing for a division into ultramafic
Igneous minerals are conveniently grouped (< 10% sailic minerals ), mafic, intermediate
into mafic minerals i.e. those rich in-magnesium and sialic rocks (< 10% mafic minerals );
and iron, and sialic minerals i.e. those rich in
silica and alumina. Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole (2) proportion of alkalies ( Na20, K2O) relative
and bio tite mica are common examples of the former; to CaO as expressed in the relative
feldspar, felspathoids, quartz and muscovite mica proportions of plagioc]ase feldspar
are examples of the latter. ( Na Al Si 3 08 - Ca A12 Si2 08 ) to alkali
feldspar (Na Al Si3 08 - K Al Sia 08 ).
In volcanic rocks crystals of minerals which
began to form while the magma was still in the A classification scheme which uses these two
upper mantle or deeper crust are commonly found parameters is given in Table 9.1.
set in a matrix of much finer crystals - those which
formed rapidly during cooling consequent upon
eruption of the magma at the earth's surface. Table 9.1: Classification of Igneous Rock.
This characteristically volcanic texture of larger
crystals (known as phenocrysts) set in a fine Proportion of alkali/plagioclase feldspar
grained matrix is called porphyritic texture. In +
contrast plutonic rocks which cool slowly and 0' % + alkali increase CaO increahe +
evenly are typically made up of larger, roughly U
gm Granite Adamellite Granodiorite M•0
equal sized crystals. This plutonic texture is
3%
referred to as coarse equigranular texture. 8-0 alkali rhyolite dacite 4
.• rhyolite at
Many different igneous rock textures have been Biorite • •
described and named but generally most can be 1 Syenite Monzonite
U.0
considered as variants of one or other of the types trachyte trachyandesite .andesite 3 •
described above.
Monzogabbro Gabbro •
•g •* Alkali Gabbro
alkali basalt trachybasalt basalt •
2. Classification of Igneous Rocks
iM Peridotite • •
The mineralogy of an igneous rock will be
determined primarily by the chemical composition of 2 -'
04 +
the.magma from which it crystallised. The gm
differences between the plutonic and the volcanic
cooling environments causes differences in the
texture of the resultant rock but generally there Note:
is no important difference in mineralogy. The
composition of a magma is determined by the process Plutonic rock types in italics;
of magma generation as well as processes which may.
have acted on the magma to change its composition Volcanic rock types in lower case.
during movement through the crust. A classification
scheme for igneous rocks, which is based on its
composition, should therefore result in groupings
which have real genetic meaning.

Unfortunately chemical analyses of rocks are

expensive and they require sophisticated equipment,
so a classification based upon chemical composition
alone would not be of much use to many geologists.
A compromise which works reasonably well for most
igneous rocks is to use the proportion (which will
depend on chemical composition) of different
minerals in the rocks as a basis for classification .
 75
GEOLOGY 9
3. Igneous Rock Associations - a natural grouping
of an infinite variety
In the preceding section an outline was given
of a useful scheme for classifying igneous rocks.
It is a summary of a very much larger number of
names ( at least 3000) which have been produced
by petrologists over the years; some of these
names are so specific as to be of no use in
describing any rock other than the original one.
The multitude of names found in the literature
of petrology, however, is a reflection of the
almost infinite variety of igneous rocks known
to exist. The very large number of igneous rock
types found in nature at first appears to be a
bewildering if not insurmountable problem to the
beginner in igneous petrology. The problem looks
less formidable when it is realised,as did
petrographers around the turn of the century, that
certain igneous rocks are always found together in
the field. The term "petrographic province" was
used for a region where presumably related igneous
rocks of about the same age are found together
whether they are plutonic or volcanic. The suite
of rock specimens collected form a petrographic
province may superficially resemble an endless
array of types but in detail are found to have
certain chemical and therefore mineralogical
characteristics in common.
The petrographic province concept implies that
the constituent rocks were formed at about the
same time and within a restricted area. It was
pointed out by the American petrologist Bowen
that the term province puts too much emphasis
on place whereas age is also important. He
introduced the term rock association to designate
a group of rocks of the same age associated in
the field. Again the important thing about a
rock association is that its members usually
show certain chemical characteristics and this is
reflected in certain mineralogical peculiarities.
4. Recurring Rock Associations and the Series
Concept
In the Tertiary Otago Peninsula volcanic
province of the South Island ( New Zealand ),
volcanic rocks such as basalt, hawaiite, mugearite,
benmoreite and trachyte are found as flows, lava
domes, and dykes. Elsewhere, for example in the
Auckland - Northland volcanic fields and in
eastern Australia, identical rock types are present
although some representatives may be missing. In
other parts of the world this same association
characteristically high in sodium but with
Si02-rich members such as quartz trachytes and
alkaline rhyolites, recurs in provinces having
different ages.
The recurrence of rock associations, perhaps
with slight variations, throughout the world and
at different geological times suggests that some
common evolutionary process operated to produce
these rocks. If it can be established that each
rock of an association is somehow derived from
another of the association then that association
is referred to as a series. In general the term
SMITH
association should be used because there is usually
doubt as to how the rocks are genetically related,
if at all, and one often studies an association of
rocks to gain some knowledge of its genesis. The
Otago Peninsula association is here referred to
as the alkali basalt association because the
predominant rock type is a basalt which is
relatively rich in Na20.
In direct contrast to the rocks of the alkaline
association are the volcanic lavas low in alkali
elements but rich in calcium that commonly occur
in many circum-pacific volcanic regions or provinces.
In New Zealand the Quaternary volcanic activity in
the Rotorua-Taupo-Ngauruhoe-Ruapehu region contains
a suite of lavas and tuffs that include "high
alumina" basalt, andesite, dacite and rhyolite that
recur elsewhere around the world such as in the
volcanoes of the central parts of Honshu and on the
Izu Peninsula of Honshu in Japan. This association
has been called the "calcic" or "calc-alkaline"
volcanic association, but since the term calc-
alkaline has been abused we shall call it an
andesite-rhyolite association.
Certain rock associations appear to be related
to plate tectonics. For instance, present-day
eruptions of andesite-rhyolite association rocks
appear to be confined to leading edge plate margins
( subduction zones) where oceanic crust is being
consumed under continental crust. Other associations
appear to be confined to island arcs where continental
crust of normal thickness may not be involved.
Questions on Lectures 8 and 9:
1. What are the main physical properties of
magma?
2. How does viscosity affect the way in which
magma behaves during eruptions?
3. What are the important chemical components
of magma?
4. What are the factors which will determine
the thermal effect of an igneous intrusion
on the adjacent country rock?
5. What is the principle behind the concept
of igneous rock associations?
 76
GEOLOGY 10
BROWNE and HOCHSTEIN
10. COOLING PLUTONS AND THEIR HOSTS
1. Introduction
In this lecture we will consider the effects
that the intrusion of a pluton into the upper crust
has on the transfer of heat and fluids. This is
a continuation of the topic "Heat sources and
reservoir characteristics" presented in 86.100,
where a discussion of dimension and cooling
history of heat sources was given. The geometry
of heat sources was idealised ( horizontal plate)
to simplify the numerical solutions. Energy
considerations showed that convective heat transfer
is the dominant mode of heat transfer not only
within a geothermal system but also in the direct
vicinity of the-heat source.
Unfortunately there is not much information
available which gives clear evidence of the extent
and vertical dimension of heat sources beneath
present-day active geothermal systems, apart from
the recent surveys of teleseismic p-wave delays
over some geothermal areas in the U.S. ( see lecture
13 in the Geophysics section). These surveys of
teleseismic signals, however, indicate that cooling
plutons and heated-up host rocks can extend through
most of the continental crust, and in at least one
case (Yellowstone Park), deep into the upper mantle.
Even a thermal system with less vigorous surface
discharge features, such as the Roosevelt Hot
Springs system in Utah ( total natural heat loss
<100 MW) was found to be sitting on top of a crustal
'plume' of hot rocks which reaches from about 5 km
depth to the bottom of the crust ( Robinson and
Iyer, 1981).
The teleseismic data, however, do not allow a
separation of heated host rocks and intrusive body.
Information about ancient plutons and fossil thermal
systems can be obtained from mapping of these
features where they have been uplifted and eroded.
Inferences about cooling processes in plutons can
also be made using information from experimentally
derived mineral phase diagrams.
Some realistic estimates of the physical
processes in cooling plutons and host rocks can be
obtained from mathematical modelling using numerical
solutions of a set of partial differential equations
based on the concepts of conservation of energy,
mass and momentum. This is the same approach taken
by the reservoir engineer to describe gross features
and behaviour of a geothermal' reservoir under
exploitation starting from a set of observed
temperatures and pressure data in deep wells.
[n modelling the physical processes of cooling
plutons and host rocks, however, we are concerned
not only with the upper reservoir but with the
whole system lying between the surface and the
bottom of the pluton, although assumed values for
pluton temperature, average permeability of pluton
and host rocks, etc., have to be used. Despite
some uncertainties in these assumptions, such
mathematical modelling can give good information
about:
(1) the time scale of cooling processes in plutons;
(2) the shape of the resultant thermal perturbations
due to convective heat transfer and changes of
perturbation patterns during cooling;
(3) the paths along which fluid particles will move
within the pluton and the host rocks as well as
the kinetics of fluid movement.
Comprehensive studies of this type are those by
Knapp and Norton (1981) and Norton and Knight ( 1977).
Theoretically these studies are still based on
simplified models, and the work is in its infancy.
However, gross features of heat transport phenomena
and the time scale of the perturbation patterns of
these models show similarities with observed phenomena,
and future studies of this type will undoubtedly lead
to closer simulations of large geothermal systems.
In the following, a detailed discussion of the
study of Norton and Knight (1977) will be given. A
separate set of important diagrams will be given to
you of which only a few selected ones are shown here
in the text.
2. Parameters and assumptions
A detailed account of the derivation of the
equations representing temperature and fluid flow
distribution in several pluton environments, allowing
for host rocks with different permeabilities, has
been given by Norton and Knight ( 1977, pp 938-980).
The treatment of the problem involves using a set of
dimensionless partial differential equations expres-
sing the conserva tion of energy, mass and momentum
( Darcy's Law) and written in terms of a quantity
called the stream function, for flow in two
dimensions.
Numerical solutions for the 2-dimensional case
were obtained by using a finite difference method to
obtain values at discrete mesh points, with suitable
time increments determined by stability considerations.
Variable parameters, i.e. parameters which vary from
model to model, are:
ta) average permeability both inside the pluton and
in the surrounding host rocks;
(b) initial pluton temperature and heat content
( in the granite intrusion range);
(c) system boundaries ( including level of top of
pluton and width of pluton).
Assumptions are:
(i) Pluton geometry (vertical slab) and boundaries
of system are 2-dimensional ( i.e. infinite
length of pluton and system perpendicular to
the section).
(ii) Isotropic permeability within a defined block.
 77
GEOLOGY 10
(iii) Pluton emplacement was rapid, heat loss during
intrusion can be neglected, and no additional
energy input occurred through the bottom of the
pluton after emplacement.
(iv) Fluids are pure H20 and do not react with the
host rock.
(V) The system can be represented in vertical
section by between 200 to 400 mesh points.
3. Conductive system (Model Pl)
Norton and Knight show that for systems where
host rocks (and pluton) have a permeability of
110-17cmz, heat transfer is by conduction only.
.This
with limiting
the input:case is approximated by model Pl
(1) Vertical extent of pluton 4.5 km; top of
pluton at 4.5 km depth, width 2.7 km,
temperature of pluton at emplacement 870'C.
(2) Host rocks and pluton are isotropically
permeable with k = 10-17cm2, the surface
temperature is 20'C, and the normal geothermal
gradient is 200C/km; the thermal condyctivity
of the rosks_is 3 x 10-3 cal(cm sec 'C)
(1.25 W(m C) 1); the effect of latent heat
is neglected.
The results are shown in your diagrams
(Fl-F3) representing the temperature field at
various times between 0 and 1 x loGyr. These
results are similar to those derived for the
1-dimensional case in a 86.100 exercise, showing
a continuous decrease in heat flux with time (F4)
which is too low by more than one order of magni-
tude to explain the anomalous flux (>>1W/m2 )
observed over most hot water systems.
BROWNE and HOCHSTEIN
4. Simple convection in isotropically permeable
host rocks (Model P3)
This model has the following characteristic
features:
(1) Same dimension of pluton as that of model Pl
but temperature of emplacement is 920'C.
(2) Host rocks exhibit a uniform permeability of
k = 10-11cm2 (i.e. about 1 millidarcy .
1 x 10-1502) representing a value at the lower
range of permeabilities of economic geothermal
reservoirs; the permeability of the pluton is
10-14cm2, a value where conductive heat transfer
is still dominant.
The numerical results show that a period of at
least 2 x 104yr is required for the establishment
of a deep-reaching convection cell (F6,7). The cell
moves upwards with time and reaches the surface after
about 1 x 105yr (see also Fig. 10.1) and increases
its lateral extent continuously (F8,9). The anomalous
heat flux also reaches a maximum of about 2.5 W/m2
(40 HFU) after losyr. Temperatures inside the pluton
(Fll) decrease faster than in model Pl; the reservoir
temperatures between 1 and 3 km depth lie between
200 and 300'C, i.e. similar to observed temperatures
of high temperature hot water reservoirs. The
temperature changes with time in the reservoir
above the pluton are complex (Fll) indicating minor
"thermal pulses" which could, however, be a result
of the rather wide numerical mesh.
On the whole, model P3 simulates already
important features of typical hot water systems,
namely the almost constant temperature in the upper
reservoir of 200-300'C and the geological.timescale
of such systems which agrees with that of some. real
systems. The closed convection cycle and the rather
low surface heat loss of the model, however, are
usually not found in known systems.

' 2KM CCHOUCT IVE : NO FLOW 8

1- .- ••I»t'1'1 S'."Ill. •
• -5
E Cv Ci .i-3
1 -\ I rn<
V.-
8-
*U
«»-- It',SULATING -1 NO'"FLOW \
0Z
71
2

1 100000 YEARS

Fig. 10.1: Steady state stream function (left hand side) and temperature
field (right hand side) of pluton model P3 after 105 years.
 78
GEOLOGY 10
BROWNE and HOCHSTEIN
Modifications of model P3 were also investigated
(model P4) by introducing a horizontal stratification
of the permeability of the host rocks and by using a
rather unreal case of higher permeability (k = 10-10
cm2 ) for the lower reservoir overlain by a less
permeable upper reservoir (k = 10-l icm2 ) . This
model indicates a "focussing" effect for the flow
patterns of the more permeable, lower reservoir
(F15-18). A more interesting variation of this
model considers the effect of a more highly
permeable pluton, the permeability of which
I increases with time to simulate fracturing. This
• reduces significantly the time required for
• establishment of the convection cells (F20-23)
and leads to a more rapid cooling of the pluton
(F24).
5. Inhomogeneous host rock system (Model P5).
' The important features of this model are:
The host rocks above the pluton have a higher
permeabilit• (k = 10-locm2 ) than the surrounding
rocks (10-1 cm2 ). The block with more permeable
host rocks is twice as wide as the pluton (i.e.
5.4 km) and reaches down to a depth of 6.3 km;
(the pluton intrudes part of this block).
Otherwise the model is similar to P3 ( i.e.
peremability of pluton k = 10-14 cm').
The higher permeability of the host rocks
above the pluton simulates ·additional fracture
permeability which might be related to secondary
permeability ( see Lecture 2). Although Norton and
Knight indicate schematically almost vertical
fractures for this block in their model P5 (F27),
isotropic permeability is still assumed.
Results derived from this model show clearly
that convection initially is confined to the high
permeability rocks but stream lines intersect
Ehe surface (F28-30), i.e. there is no return
flow. This pattern is similar to that inferred
for many hot water systems in the TVZ. Convection
again develops soon after emplacement of the pluton,
and cooling of the pluton is more rapid than in
model P3. As a result of the more rapid convection,
the temperatures inside the highly permeable
reservoir between 1-3 km do not exceed temperatures
of 200'C. The temperature field for this model
after 1 x losyr is shown in Fig. 10.2.
CONDUCT IVE I FLOW
2KM g
5.50
2•Nji
*2
" 5 -25
5-
INSULAT ING 2 NO FLOW
100000 YEARS
Fig. 10.2: Steady state stream function (left hand side) and temperature
field (right hand side) of pluton model P5 after 105 years.
Although the convection pattern of model P5
approximates that inferred for hot water systems
and also produces a well-defined temperature
boundary with rather steep horizontal temperature
gradients, the temperatures in the permeable block
are somewhat low in comparison to observed tempera-
tures. The permeability (k = 10-1 ocm2. 10 r[lilli-
darcy) of this block lies within the middle range
of inferred average permeabilities for the upper
part of many geothermal reservoirs. Hence, a model
which combines important features of models P3 and
P5, namely an intermediate permeability of 10-11cm2
for the lower.reservoir and higher permeability of
10-locm2 for a restricted upper reservoir, will most
likely approximate a real geothermal reservoir.
Such a model will be discussed in the next lecture.
Another interesting result of the Norton and
Knight study is their assessment of the amount of
fluids passing within a given time interval through
a given section of the pluton and the host rocks.
The fluid:rock mass ratio was found to be quite high
for the plutons (40.3) for all cases discussed,
indicating that fluid movement contributes signifi-
cantly to the cooling of the plutons. The theoretical
ratios are still too low in comparison with values
inferred from isotope studies, since modelling did
not allow for the integrated effect of all fluid
particles and mixing.
Question 10.1:
With reference to material discussed in the
86.100 and 86.101 courses, give specific examples
which show that certain features of model P3 do
not agree with observed features of major
geothermal systems.
Question 10 .2:
Do the same for model P5.
8
=-«,2.2,
\-mo
-\
1.*O.- MA
--II \. 400.
iRL
W
 79
GEOLOGY 11
11. MODELLING OF A COOLING PLUTON, COSO HOT SPRINGS,
CALIFORNIA
Introduction
The findings of the previous lecture were
applied by Norton and Knight to analyse the Coso
Geothermal System, Inyo County, California. This
system occurs in a caldera ( about 40 km in diameter)
infilled by Cenozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks,
including basalts and rhyolites which overlie Mezo-
zoic granitic and metamorphic rocks. Ring faults
are well developed, and large areas of exposed
rocks have been fractured. There is good evidence
that the anomalous heat in the Coso system is
associated with intrusive events which took place
about 105 yr. ago, since most of the surficial
rhyolitic and basaltic lava flows range in age
from 0.5 to 1.5 x 105 yr. The extent of the upper
reservoir has been outlined by a temperature grad-
ient (heatflow) survey in shallow wells which
indicated an area of at least 20 km2 whose heat
flow is above 0.6 W/m2 (>10 HFU), reaching a
maximum value of about 1 W/ml (016 HFU) in the
centre of the Caldera.
Surface activity consists of hot ground,
fumaroles, and sulphate springs with low discharge;
no chloride water reaches the surface, but two
drillholes show that near neutral alkali chloride
water occurs in a uniform body within about 100 m
of ground surface ( Fournier & Thompson, 1980) .
Thus Coso is a hot water system, with
Na-K-Ca equilibrium temperatures of about 240'C -
250'C, and it may be one of the largest hot water
systems in the U.S. The large area with anomalous
heat flow indicates that its top does not reach
the surface ( i.e. it is similar to Ngawha system).
Incomplete resistivity surveys ( roving dipole ' to develop the measured'heat flow. Models with
surveyl ), microearthquake and ground noise studies
have been described ( Combs and Rotstein, 1975).
Apart from heat flow survey data and the
geological time scale indicated by the young
volcanics inside the caldera, seismic refraction
data and hypocentres of local earthquakes, which
define minimum depth (05 km) for the pluton, were
used to restrain the heat transfer model.
Characteristics of the Coso model
1. Orientation: The system was again approxi-
mated by a 2D-structure passing through the
centre of the heatflow anomaly and includes
part of the ring structure.
2. Pluton: Size, position and depth were
defined on the basis of hypocentres of
microearthquakes ( top of the pluton lying
at 5 to 6 km depth, reaching down to 10 km
depth); the width of the pluton was taken
as 4 km; temperature at time of emplacement
as 9600C.
BROWNE and HOCHSTEIN
3. Permeability: This was retained as a variable
parameter. Initial values were chosen which
satisfy a range of permeabilities compatible
with measured seismic velocities, the observed
fracture density at the surface, and using
results of the previous study ( Lecture 10).
Permeabilities within the reservoir ( 8 km
diameter) typically decrease downwards from
about k = 10-scm2 to 10-10 cme to 10-licm2,
and the permeability of the surrounding
country2 rocks decreased with depth from
10-12cm to 10-14 cmz and 10-licm2 to 10-12
cm2 ( allowing for fracturing after the
explacement of the pluton). The permeability
of the pluton was taken as 10-17 cm2 but for
some models this value was increased at the
top to simulate fracturing.
4. Initial conditions: A backup and geothermal
gradient of 30'C/km and a thermal conductivity
of 5 x 10-3 cal(cm sec IC)-1 ( about 2W(miC )-1 )
were assumed.
A typical model representing higher permea-
bilities ( 10 -10 cm2 within the core part of the
reservoir ) is shown in your diagram F 35.
Results
Norton and Knight simulated a series of nine
systems and found that modeld with higher permea-
bilities of 10-1'cm2 in the central part of the
deeper reservoir gave values better satisfying the
present-day heat flow pattern and the inferred
geological time span ( i.e. <1 x 105 yr ) required
rocks of lower permeability of 10 -11 cm2 in the
central part of the deeper reservoir required a
longer time ( i.e. >1 x 105 yr ) to develop the
observed heat flow.
The analysis showed that a model with a
permeability of about 10-1•cm2 in the central part
of the reservoir and about 0.8 x 105 yr old,
simulates the present 'heat flow pattern and
satisfies most of the observed or inferred boundary
conditions and parameters. The development of the
convective pattern and the tem•erature field at
time intervals of about 2 x 10 yrs is shown in
Fig. 11.1. The exercise also allows for the
following predictions:
1. The pluton has now solidified down to a depth
of about 8 km or more below which some molten
rocks might still occur.
2. The bulk permeabilities within the reservoir
are either marginal or too low for commercial
energy production.
3. Subsurface temperatures and fluid flow are
 80
GEOLOGY 11
BROWNE and HOCHSTEIN
now probably similar to those shown in Fig. (b) a two-phase liquid-vapour system locally
11.1 (part D) which implies that: occurs within 1 km of the surface.
(a) temperature gradients as high as 500'C/km 4. Of the anomalous energy of abQUt 4 x 10 18
exist within the upper 0.5 km of the surface to 40 x 10 18 W contained within the pluton
but do not continue below 0.5 km depth; the at emplacement, about one third has been
temperature field below this depth down to transported into the host rocks.
about 5 km depth is characterised by a
geothermal gradient of about 30'C/km
reaching about 400'C at 5 km depth;
' 4KM 1lihO
CONOCTIVE : FLOW ' 4/M , 50 ' COILLITIVE
100 : FLOW

VO 100 100
.-I
2/M 2KM
03-1 V 200
LL 200
>LU
D0U
00Z
-1- 3\
-4 /-- - --22\.--
A B 1
INSULATI•&: AID flad
tEm 100 200 -r--- D. 4. .1 1 11 S.0 .
10001 2000 1 1
100 \\ 9 200 \
30
2KM 200 2., \• 400•
LL-1
>43
-»0
4
-1 •k-
=)0
0Z0

INSULATING : NO FLOW DST.LATING : NO FLOW

STREAM FLECTION 1EPPERATUIE CENTISRADE• STREAM FUNCTION TEr·PERATLRE CENTICREED

Figure 11.1: Development of convective heat transfer of the Coso Hot Springs
system (time interval about 2 to 2.5 x 104 yr; the figure in
part D represents the present-day system).
Question 11.1: Question 11.2:
What would be the main difference in heat The unpublished model study of Norton and
and mass transfer if an ultramafic body, such as Knight of the Coso system was undertaken before the
gabbro, intruded the host rocks instead of results of a deeper (1.45 km) drillhole brought
granite (as assumed by Norton and Knight)? down in the centre of the heat flow anomaly became
available in 1978. These results showed that
temperatures at the bottom of this well were much
lower (.190'C) than predicted by the model (>2500C).
Considering the results of models discussed in
Lecture 10 what are the implications for the
average permeability of the reservoir rocks
of the Coso system?
 81
GEOLOGY 12
12. LOGGING OF 'DRILLHOLES : GEOLOGICAL LOGS
Introduction
The geologist has an important role to play
during drilling. At this stage of an investigation
he/she should work closely with the drilling
engineer and rig chief. It is mainly through
the results of drilling that the geologist develops
a picture of the subsurface stratigraphy and struc-
ture of a field; this helps in understanding the
hydrology of the system and in siting subsequent
wells.
In this lecture we will consider the part a
geologist plays in the drilling of a single
drillhole.
A. Pre-Drilling
Once the geologist knows the location of a
forthcoming drillhole, she/he prepares a summary
account predicting what rocks willbe encountered,
their succession and thickness, and where circula-
tion losses may occur ( such as at faults ). This
should be 'translated' into simple terms and
include information drillers are particularly
concerned with, such as formation hardness and
the depths of possible permeable zones (where
there may be circulation losses ).
(a) The first well in a field
This is obviously the hardest one for which
to predict the subsurface conditions, as the
unknowns are numerous. Nevertheless, the geologist
will be able to make use of information such as
1. detailed andreconnaissance mapping of
surface stratigraphy and structure;
(very hard where formations are flat
and there is little relief in the area).
2. Geophysical results, e. g. resistivity,
gravity, seismic and magnetic measure-
ments.
3. Fluid geochemistry, e. g. B, Mg analyses.
(b) Subsequent wells
Predicting the subsurface geology usually
becomes progressively easier as the number of
investigation and production wells increases.
In addition to using the above techniques, the
geologist can make use of studies of previous
drilling. Even so this is not always easy in
geothermal fields where there are abrupt lateral
changes in rock type. For example, it is more
difficult to predict a drilling sequence for a
well at Kawerau, where there are.many thick
rhyolites of very ,limited lateral distribution,
than it is for Wairakei where the major formations
occur over most of the field.
No matter how hard it is to predict the
stratigraphic sequence, some statement about it
must be attempted by the geologist, with the
BROWNE
uncertainties indicated. This information is
needed for the engineers to plan their drilling
programme.
B. Once drilling starts
The well site geologist has an even more
difficult role during the drilling of a geothermal
latter's work is helped by the use of electrical
and radioactive well logs to aid in locating
formation boundaries and oil-bearing horizons.
These techniques have so far met with little
success in geothermal drillholes because:
(a) equipment is not, at present, widely available
which is capable of functioning at tempera-
tures as hot as those encountered in geothermal
fields.
(b) the stratigraphy and structure of geothermal
fields are commonly much more varied and
complicated than those of oil reservoirs.
One of the few areas where downwell electrical
logging has so far been of any use in a geo-
thermal 'field is Salton Sea (California)
where the subsurface rocks are predominantly
shales and sandstones. Techniques and equip-
ment are now being developed which will be
suitable for use in geothermal systems, e.g.
gamma «logs to assist in identifying permeable
zones where hydrothermal fluids have added
abundant potassium to the rocks.
Therefore in interpreting the subsurface geology,
as revealed by a single drillhole, the well site
geologist relies heavily on his/her examinations of
cores, cuttings and the drilling record ( Fig. 12.1).
Examining Cores
We will soon discuss (86.100) the factors which
determine where cores should be taken. After a core
is recovered it should be examined as soon as possible
( using a hand lens ) by the well site geologist, who
should describe it in detail. The examination should
cover all obvious lithological characteristics such
as colour ( often more significant than in surface
samples ),mineralogy, crystal size and shape, sorting,
visible hydrothermal alteration, and so forth, but
also features such as its density and induration.
Particularly important are the presence of possible
permeable features, e.g. porosity, bedding, joints
(number, width, continuity, orientation), veins
( composition, relative ages, completely or partly
filled ), vugs ( size, shape, connections, origins,
deposits ). The extent of the core recovery (which
can vary from,< 5 to 100%) should also be noted, as
well as how fragmented the cores are. The well site
geologist should examine the entire core and select
suitable samples for the petrologist ( and paleontol-
ogist if needed) to examine under the petrographic
microscope; this should include a piece of 'typical'
core but also any odd or unusual material ( e.g. a
sample where the hydrothermal alteration differs
locally.
 82
GEOLOGY 12
BROWNETo assist the examination the well site Examining the Driller's Log (Fig. 12.1)
geologist often uses a binocular microscope to This is a detailed hourly record of what
make a more detailed study than is possible using happened on the drilling rig; it is immediately
a hand lens; if available, a rock saw can be used
to cut a smooth surface so that the core texture available and contains important information
is more easily seen. It might be helpful for the (together with artistic efforts by the drillers)
petrologist to examine the other half of the cut which the well site geologist should make use of
core so that both people are looking at exactly and learn how to read. It includes information
the same sample. on the circulating mud temperatures ( in and out)
during drilling, and circulation losses. The latter
Examining Cuttings are particularly significant as they indicate perme-
able zones, and the geologist should check their
(see notes for Week 11 (86.100): locations and magnitudes with the appropriate cores
Cores and Core Sheds or cuttings (plus the petrologist's report when
available). Drilling rates are also worth examining,
WARNING: particularly to help locate formation boundaries.
The drilling rate depends on several factors including
It is often tempting to locate a formation the weight on the bit, its speed of rotation, condition,
boundary where there is a sharp change in the size type, the skill of the driller and the condition of the
of the cuttings chips. However, this may simply rig. It also depends on the lithology of the rocks
mean that a worn-out bit has been replaced with being drilled - specifically their relative hardness
a new one. Check the driller ' s record before you and porosity. Drilling rates are expressed either in
infer a formation change from a change in cutting the time needed to drill a specified distance (e.g.
chip size. 15 mins per metre) or in the depth drilled during
•or k ' M isc.· -204 one hour (e.g. 1.5 metres per hour).
INSPECTED • MINISTRY OF WORKS
CROWN BLOCK:AND/. OR TESTED (INITIAL EACHB.ITOEM).P. and GATE:. . • ToHEICASIGHT:NG KELLY HEAD FLAN DR VEE PROJECT:. BORE:.. .
DATE:
PLATFORM:. F1' | ALL DEPTHS BELOW KELLYDRILLING
| LOG SHIFT:. .To.. .
SAFETY SLIDE: DRIV: E DATUM (UNLESS MARKED HOURSNG OTHERWI S E) DRILLED DEPTH:. . . . . . . .
Time (on the hour) DRILLING ASSEMBLYSil. AT END OF SHITo,FT01 Le,igth PLANT WORKI MECHANICAL FAULTS
D.•Operp,h .1etion Dom hole N. F..1 Ton:hs Drow worki
D,111 plp 042 C 150 pump 1
RetWeigdhtry Daubl,s C 150 p.imp 2
000 D 50..m.
Cir. 1.ling Line• Dri9-l -tiors Gen.•ratingplan'
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: 0
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From
To •John•on/DEVIEAmiTInOon/N Totco
Moxiof*erm.sumfoppoge
•empe•C•ure S Depth Vert. Day. D rection Fig. 12·1: Format of Driller's Log
T·mei used bv M'WD (N.Z.)
CTimCuleofloebser n '%ved.
Dep'h of lo FORMATI ON
Sgrt hM.ord•moot
. 042rrt CORE RECOVERY
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 NEW ZEALAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY LOG OF GEOTHERMAL BORE-HOLE NG»ALLDEPTHS FROM KELLY DRIVE
PROJECT: A/c:AwHA DRILLED FROM /7/8/70 TO 7//,/70 FIELD LOG: DRP•DN85 PETROLOGY: P.KLB FINALLOG: DMBS
S 2548'83·15 N Mr.EDER
GRID REE«%7/396 M.WD.Co-ords: 116195·oE Kelly Drive(RL): /2• 89 Casing Head(R.L.) t,5·99 Bottom CasingR.L.);46·26 Bottom Hole(RL)6/3,6
. L/) (n
GEOLOGICAL LOG da E GEOLOGICAL LOG Od 1 GEOLOGICAL LOG k.:
R » iW GEOLOGICAL LOG
;Sm g: 16
Hydrotherrnal EE F •55 g t:E •c.
Alteration . Identificationof
cores ]nterpretati o r g
' . •
..0
of cuttings <3 & Alteration •i
.: Hydrothermal Identification
cores of Interpretati o n •t• • Hydrothermal
of cuitings e * alteration
Identi f i
cores
c ati o n of Interpretoti
of cutti n gso n o
• w 1-
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Al t erati o n Indenti f
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i o oti o n of Interpl e tati
of cuttings LD *
o n •
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Figure 12.2: Example of part of a drillhole log prepared by Dr D.N.B. Skinner, N.Z. Geological Survey.
 84
GEOLOGY 12

BROWNE
Before drilling rates are used to infer
lithostratigraphic changes, the geologist should
check up whether the same drill bit was used.
Drillers logs are also useful as a final
arbiter of the location depths of cores ( should
there be any ambiguity) and for occasional
potentially helpful comments such as "hard with
soft patches".
From the examination of the cores, cuttings
and driller' s logs the site geologist 'writes a
provisional log of the drillhole, where appropriate,
with some tentative correlations. This log should
be prepared as soon as possible and might, in fact,
consist of progress logs written at intervals
during the drilling of the well.
paleontologist, 'if needed) ; he sends copies of
his progress logs to the Geothermal Engineer and
the petrologist. Typically, the cores are used
to identify the rock types penetrated, and the
cuttings and drillers logs to locate formation
boundaries and .permeable zones.
3. After the well has been completed a final log
is prepared by the project geologist, site
geologist and petrologist; this often takes
the form of a graph although much geological
information is not shown. For example, the
log on the following page is for one of the
Ngawha drillholes (Ng 7 ).

D. After the well has been drilled

When the site geologist gets the specialists'

reports ( e.g. petrologist, micropaleontologist )
a final log of the drillhole should be prepared. Questions
This might require some additional work, such as a
re-examination of some key cuttings, or further 12.1: List all the items of information shown on
petrology. the first log of Ng 7 in the form of
headings, e.g. formation boundaries
Often the final log can be recorded graphically, date of drillhole
with formation boundaries, hydrothermal alteration
and correlations shown. This method of summarising 12.2: What geological ( including petrological)
the geology is useful for comparing this information information is not shown on this final log?
with the measured downhole temperatures, completion
tests, and drilling data. It is also an easy way 12.3: What do the abbreviations Ab and Dt stand
of comparing sequences between wells and helps in for? (Look at the NZ Geological time scale).
determining the originating depths of drillhole
ejecta (see Fig. 12.2 ). 12.4: Study the drill.er' s log and circle those
items you would look at, and note, at least:
Digression on working schedule during drilling
or is well sitting needed?
/ (a) once per shift
This question is hard to answer directly. (b) once during the drilling of the well.
Certainly a well site geologist should be able to
visit the drilling rig at short notice ( say within
a maximum of 8 hours of being requested to do so )
but much time can be wasted if he/she is on
site throughout the entire drilling of the well.
Obviously some compromise arrangement is desirable
and this should be tailored to suit the location,
conditions and progress of the drilling. For
example, when drilling an early well in a remote
area it may 'be essential to have a geologist on
site; when not logging she/he could profitably
spend 'spare'time making a geological map of the
area. On the other hand, when drilling occurs in an
easily accessible area, the geologist could make
regular visits from base to the well sites, and
occasional trips at short notice when the need
arises.

Procedure in New Zealand

1. A geologist 'in the office closest to the

area being drilled prepares a report on
the likely sequence and geological conditions
that will be penetrated'by the drillhole.

2. During drilling he makes regular visits to

the drilling rig, describing and logging the
cores and cuttings and selecting material
which he sends to the petrologist ( and

GEOLOGY 13
13. HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION
Introduction
Fluids and reservoir rocks in geothermal
systems commonly react together,with the result
that the composition of both solid and fluid
phases change; these changes can be viewed, as
straightforward chemical reactions, although in
many cases, intermediate products must form,
at least temporarily. The identity and abundance
of hydrothermal minerals produced during these
fluid/rock interactions depend upon several
factors, particularly temperature, fluid com-
position ( especially pH), availability of fluid
( permeability),and the occurrence of. boiling.
Students taking the geology option of the
86.102 paper will consider these factors in detail
and relate observed alteration mineralogy to past
and present reservoir conditions. However, in this
lecture we will talk about some aspects of altera-
tion processes and describe how reservoir rocks
change some of their chemical and physical
properties; this is intended mainly for those
students taking the geophysics option of the
86.102 paper. ( See also Ellis and Mahon, 1977,
pp 90-116 ).
Intensity and rank of alteration
We distinguish between these two parameters.
The intensity of alteration, Ia, is a measure of
how completely a rock has reacted to produce new
( i.e. hydrothermal ) minerals. For example, a
unit volume of rock which has not been affected
by hydrothermal solutions has zero intensity of
alteration ( Ia = 0.00), whereas one in which all
the primary phases have been replaced has an
alteration intensity of 100% ( i.e. Ia = 1.00).
Intensity of alteration can be estimated by a point-
counting method using a microscope or using an
X-Ray Diffraction technique ( Tatlock, 1966 ).
Note that intensity 'has nothing to do with the
identity of the new minerals formed, but only
describes their abundance.
Alteration rank, on the other hand, depends
upon the nature of the new minerals and is based
upon their significance in terms of subsurface
conditions, i.e. it is an empirical and more
subjective parameter than intensity and derives
from macroscopic and microscopic examination
assisted by X-Ray Diffraction, Differential Thermal
Analysis, or some other instrumental technique.
Adularia, for example, has a high rank when
considering permeability, and epidote a high rank
on any temperature scale . It is possible, therefore,
to get rocks which have a mineralogy symptomatic of
high rank but low intensity ( in hot, impermeable
zones) and others of low rank but high intensity
( generally where cooler, permeable conditions
prevail ).
85
BROWNE
Types of hydrothermal alteration
(a) Direct Deposition
This type of alteration is very common, and
most hydrothermal minerals found in geothermal
fields can deposit directly from solution. To be
able to do so requires, of course, that the
reservoir rocks contain passages along which the
depositing fluids can move. These could include
features such as joints, faults, hydraulic
fractures, unconformities, vugs, pores, fissures,
or any other permeable feature ( see lecture 2 ).
Quartz, calcite and anhydrite are especially
prone to form veins and fill vugs, but chlorite,
illite, adularia, pyrite, pyrrhotite, hematite,
wairakite, fluorite, laumontite, mordenite, prehnite
and epidote have also been observed to occur in
places where they could only have deposited directly
from fluid.
(b) Replacement
Most rocks contain some primary minerals which
are unstable in a geothermal environment, and these
have a tendency to be replaced by new minerals that
are stable, or at least metastable, under the new
conditions. The rate at which this replacement
occurs is highly variable and depends upon permea-
bility; for example, an active volcano in the Bay
of Plenty, White Island, discharged andesite ash
that was completely altered ( Ia = 1.00) within one
year of its deposition on the island through the
action of volcanic gases. By contrast, portions
of an impermeable, welded ignimbrite occurring within,
the Ohaaki Field has been at a temperature of about
250'C for perhaps 300,000 years without being
altered to an intensity of more than 0.1.
Where the alteration replacement is not complete
( intensity is less than 1.00), i.e. fluid/mineral
equilibrium is not achieved, reactions are, in
effect, preserved or frozen in cores and able to be
seen under the microscope. In reservoir rocks which
are volcanic it is usually fairly easy to distinguish
between the primary and secondary (hydrothermal)
minerals but this is more difficult where sediments
or low-grade metamorphic rocks occur ( e.g. The
Geysers, Larderello, Kizildere, Imperial Valley,
Cerro Prieto, Ngawha). The reason for this is that
many of the primary minerals which these rocks
contain ( quartz, feldspar, calcite, prehnite, illite,
epidote, etc.) are also.stable in geothermal environ-
ments where alkali chloride waters occur.
Table 13.1 summarises the relative order of
replacement of primary minerals present in several
systems, and Table 13.2 lists their typical
replacement products.
 86
GEOLOGY 13

BROWNE
TABLE'13.1: USUAL ORDER OF REPLACEMENT OF PRIMARY MINERALSIN SOME SYSTEMS

Primary Mineral N.Z. fields (TVZ) Ngawha Olkaria Philippines & Indonesia

volcanic glass 1 absent 1 1

magnetite )
titanomagnetite ) 2 1 5 2
ilmenite )
pyroxene )
amphibole ) 3 absent 2 3
olivine )
biotite 4-5 2 absent rare?
Ca plagioclase 4-5 albite present 3 4
microcline )
sanidine ) absent 3 4 absent
orthoclase )
quartz not affected not affected not affected absent

TABLE 13. 2: TYP ICAL ALTERATION REPLACEMENT PRODUCTS

Original mineral Replacement products

volcanic glass zeolites ( e. g. mordenite, laumontite), cristobalite,

quartz, calcite, clays ( e.g. montmorillonite )

magnetite/ilmenite/titano- pyrite, leucoxene, sphene, pyrrhotite, hematite

magnetite

pyroxene/amphibole/olivine/ chlorite, illite, quartz, pyrite, calcite, anhydrite

biotite

calcic plagioclase calcite, albite, adularia, wairakite, quartz, anhydrite,

chlorite, illite, kaolin, montmorillonite, epidote

anorthoclase/sanidine/ adularia
orthoclase

(c) Leaching Chemical Changes to Reservoir Rocks involved in

Hydrothermal Alteration
This process takes place at, or indeed
outside, the margins of geothermal ·fields, and for
Replacement, leaching and deposition from
this reason is not generally seen in recovered
solution generally cause chemical changes whose
cores and cuttings. It occurs, for example, where
extent and nature vary greatly but which are
steam condensate, acidified by oxidatior of H S,
obviously a ,function of the mineralogy.
attacks rocks, dissolving primary minerals bu•
without replacing the voids thus produced. This
In some places, hydrothermal alteration can
has apparently occurred at Tatun (Taiwan) where
proceed almost isochemically, at least on a local
an arkosic sandstone has had its porosity increased
scale, but generally constituents really are added
due to the dissolution of plagioclase; some cores
and removed from a reservoir.
recovered from a drillhole on the, south east margin
of the Ohaaki Field (NZ) show the same phenomenon.
Table 13.3 describes the typical behaviour
Other evidence for leaching derives from the study
of the traditionally quoted major constituents
of some hydrothermal ore deposits and the intuitive
during the hydrothermal alteration of volcanic
inference that, since many elements in thermal
reservoir rocks reacting with near-neutral
fluids derive from rocks, there must 'be places
alkali chloride water.
where mineralleaching predominates over mineral
deposition.
 87
GEOLOGY 13
BROWNE
TABLE 13.3: TYPICAL .BEHAVIOUR OF MAJOR ELEMENT OXIDES DURING 'HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION PROCESSES
WITHIN A GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR

Oxide Typical behaviour Hydrothermal minerals containing this oxide or constituent

Sio added quartz, cristobalite, silicates

2
Ti02 unchanged sphene, leucoxene
Al 0 added and removed many silicates
2. 3
Fe 0 added and removed chlorite, pyrite, pyrrhotite
23
FeO 11 siderite, epidote, hematite
MnO unchanged?
MgO removed chlorite, dolomite
CaO added and removed calcite, wairakite, epidote, prehnite, anhydrite,
montmorillonite, sphene, fluorite
Na20 added and removed albite
K20 added adularia, illite
CO added calcite
2
S, S03 added anhydrite, alunite, pyrite , pyrrhotite
HO added all clays, epidote, prehnite, all zeolites
2
•205 unchanged apatite
C1 removed

Physical changes to reservoir rocks involved in (b) Porosity and Permeability

hydrothermal alteration
(a) Density
Deposition of hydrothermal minerals directly
from solution into reservoir rocks increases their
overall density, of course, just as leaching
reduces it. Silicification of a very porous,
near-surface pumice breccia ( 50% porosity), for
example, could increase its density from about,
or even less than, 1.3 up to 2.65 (x 103 kg/m3 ).
Increase in density of reservoir rocks is therefore
greatest in porous rocks and is hardly noticeable
for rocks with an original porosity of, less than
5%. Where hydrothermal alteration is by replacement
of minerals in rocks with low porosity, however,
overall density changes of the reservoir rocks is
more difficult to estimate as the new rock density
will depend upon the relative densitites and
abundances of the replaced and replacing minerals.
For example, .isovolumetric re•lacement of
primary andesine ( 2.65 x 103 kg/m ) by wairakite
( 2.26 x 103 kg/m3 ) causes decrease in density of
0.39 x' 103 kg/m3 , but if' the replacing mineral is
epidote ( 3.40 x 103 kg/m3 ) then there will be a
density increase of 0.753x 103'kg/m: Thus hydro-
thermal alteration processes do not necessarily
increase the density of reservoir' rocks, and this
fact might explain. why gravity methods have not
been very successful in detecting the mass
inhomogeneities which are typical of geothermal
reservoirs.
Except where leaching occurs, the effect of
hydrothermal alteration is to reduce porosity; its
effect on reservoir' permeability is more complicated
( see lecture 2 ) because of small, regular, continuous
and more drastic but episodic changes in the 'plumbing'
of a system. In a static field, of course, permea-
bility would inevitably decline rapidly' due to the
predominance of mineral deposition over leaching. A
continuous decrease .in porosity and increase in
density for increasing alteration rank was found at
Broadlands (Hochstein and Hunt, 1970).
(c) Magnetic Properties
Fresh volcanic rocks usually contain small
amounts of magnetite and/or titanomagnetite which
imparts to them an appreciable magnetization. In
many, but not all, geothermal fields ( Table 111)
both phases readily alter, usually to non-magnetic
minerals such as hematite, pyrite, leucoxene or
sphene; this causes the reservoir rocks to become
"de-magnetised" ( as shown for Broadlands by' Hochstein
and Hunt, 1970) , a result which could lead one to
expect that magnetometer surveys would, be a good
method for locating and defining the boundaries of
a geothermal 'prospect in volcanic rocks. However,
the application of such methods is more complicated
in fields where magnetite is relatively stable ( e.g.
Olkaria ) or where magnetic pyrrhotite forms either
as a replacement 'mineral or directly from solution
( e.g. Ngawha, Broadlands, Wairakei ) . This usually
occurs where permeability and PH2s are low or where
organic matter is present ( i.e. in some sedimentary
rocks ).
 88
GEOLOGY 13
BROWNE
(d) Resistivity 0C
The conductivity of rocks in geothermal t7 ALBITE
reservoirs is greatly affected, not only by the 500 2%'A
electrolytic concentration of the hot water which 470 Na-MICA
they contain, but also by the relative abundance 4
of conductive clay and zeolite minerals in the 400 - S
rock matrix. For this reason it is worth con-
sidering the occurrence and formation of such
minerals (see also 86.102 lectures). The common 3 00 KAOLIN
clay minerals include kaolins (kaolinite, halloysite,
metahalloysite, dickite) Ca-montmorillonite (a Na-mont
smectite), illite (K-mica), chlorite and various 200
interlayered combinations of the last three.
Because clays are hydrated minerals, their
formation is. temperature dependent, and observations
and experiments show that fluid composition, especially acidity
its pH, also has an important control upon their
genesis.
(i) Temperature 0C
In a reservoir in which the circulating fluid 4
is near neutral then the thermal changes in rank 500 -4e2r:1
of the clay mineral type can be summarised as 7,4
follows: 400 54..t ADULARIA
(primary volcanic glass, plagioclase) -St
300 ILLITE roadlands)
Temperature (IC) l 1 Wairakei
Ca-montmorillonite 30 - 140 KAOLIN 1 1karia
Ca-montmorill•nite-illite 140 - 180 200 11 11
it
illite-Ca-mon•morillonite 180 - 220 It
11
ill•te >2200
scidity
The interlayered illite-Ca-montmorillonite Figure 13.1: General form of equilibrium-
clays often show a complete range of variation in
the proportions of their two component parts which relations in the systems Na20-A1203-Si02-
can be related to temperature in a more refined way, H20 and K20-A1203-Si02-H20 in the presence
through X-Ray Diffraction analyses, than indicated
here. Note that chlorite has not been used as a of quartz (see Meyer & Hemley, pp 212-215).
temperature-indicating mineral. The intensity of
alteration will, of course, not be controlled by It can be readily seen that the formation of
temperature but will depend mainly on the local kaolin is favoured either by low temperature or
permeability; stabler phases than glass, such as
plagioclase, will persist longer. high acidity (low pH) and that hydrothermal
feldspars form where fluids are near neutral;
illite occupies an intermediate position in terms
<ii) Fluid composition of temperature and pH. Thus it is possible to
develop a hydrothermal mineral assemblage in
Assuming constant temperature, the formation parts of a reservoir (deep and hot) which does
of kaolin, illite and the feldspars is controlled by not include clays (other than chlorite) if the
the ratios of aK+/aH+ and aNa+/aH+ in the altering water pH is sufficiently alkaline; this is the
fluid; aH+ is, of course, an expression of pH case in parts of Wairakei, Broadlands and Olkaria.
Where cooler conditions prevail, or more acid
(defined as - log a•+)' and both a&+ and a•a+ can fluids occur, perhaps in regions where two fluid
be calculated from the measured concentrations of phases exist, clays will form in an abundance
K and Na in the fluid (see lectures for 86.102). which depends partly on local permeability. Where
For the purpose of this lecture, however, the oxidation of H2S is extensive, such as in zones
figure below (Fig. 13.1) shows, in summary form, occupied by steam condensate, the ensuing acid
the relationship of the clay minerals to one conditions mean that kaolin of one type or another
another, to temperature and to fluid PH ( if aNa• will be among the minerals to form.
and a•• remain constant.
 89
GEOLOGY 13
Zeolites, hydrated aluminosilicates of' the
alkalis and alkaline earths, occur in many active
and fossil geothermal fields and also form a meta-
morphic facies. Their distribution is controlled
by temperature, fluid composition ( especially its
PC02 and, to a lesser extent, the amount of silica
in the host. rock. Very hydrated zeolites (e.g.
chabazite, levyne, gismondine, phillipsite, erionite,
faujasite) are stable at low temperatures (<120')
but less hydrated types ( e.g. laumontite, epistil-
bite, yugawaralite) generally occur up to about
200'; wairakite forms between 230 and 300' if the
amount of dissolved CO2 in the altering fluids is
low.
Zeolites are very common in geothermal fields
composed of basaltic and andesitic rocks such as
those in Iceland, Kamchatka (USSR) and Japan, but
they also occur in rhyolitic fields,such as
Yellowstone, particularly where volcanic glass
provides a suitable. precursor. Generally the
zeolites with low amounts of SiO form in basaltic
environments,and zeolites of 'hig• Si02 contents,
where the host rocks are rhyolitic or sediments
( see 86.102 lecture). Except for wairakite, many
zeolites are difficult to identify using' a petro-
graphic microscope, so the X-Ray Diffraction
analysis method is often needed to do so.
Prehnite, pumpellyite and epidote are also
hydrated calcium silicates related to the zeolite
group; they' typ•cally occur where temperatures
exceed about 220 but are also conductive·
BROWNE
Question 13.1:
List the particle density of the hydrothermal
minerals given in Table 13.2; ( some will have a
range depending upon their composition - see
Deer, Howie & Zussman ).
Question 13.2:
A granite consists of 30% quartz, 30% microcline,
10% albite, 10% biotite, 10% hornblende and ,10%
muscovite. Calculate its particle density,
citing the mineral densities you select.
Question 13.3:
(i)
A basaltic andesite lava consists of 40% andesine
( p =, 2.68 x 103kg/m3 ), 20% augite ( p '= 3.0 x 103
kg/m3 ), 5% olivine ( p = 3.5 x 103kg/m• ), 5% mag-
netite ( p = 5.2 x 103kg/m3 ) and the rest is glass
( p = 2.3 x 103kg/m3 ). Calculate the density of
the rock.
(ii)
This reacts with hydrothermal fluids So that:
(a) all glass alters to quartz.
(b) all andesine is replaced by equal amounts
of calcite and wairakite.
(c) magnetite is entirely replaced by sphene.
(d) anhydrite completely replaces augite.
(e) olivine is completely replaced by fluorite.
Calculate the density change in the rock caused
by this alteration.
Question 13.4:
Under what conditions would pyrophyllite be a
stable phase in geothermal fields?
 90
GEOLOGY - REFS.
REFERENCES
Lecture 2:
G.W. GRINDLEY and P.R.L. BROWNE ( 1976). Structural
and hydrological factors controlling the permea-
bilities of some hot-water geothermal fields. Proc.
2nd UN Symposium on the Development and Use of
Geothermal Resources, San Francisco, pp 377-386.
R.B. KNAPP and D. NORTON ( 1981). Preliminary
Numerical Analysis of processes related to magma
crystallisation and stress evolution in cooling
pluton environments. American Journal of Science,
281, pp 35-68.
W. J. PHILLIPS ( 1972). Hydraulic Fracturing and
Mineralisation. Journal of the Geological Society
of London, 128, p 337.
Lecture 3:
R. COMPTON, ( 1962). Manual of Field Geology,
John Wiley.
L.W. and D.0. LE ROY ( 1977). Subsurface Geology,
4th Edition. Colorado School of Mines.
W. C. KRUMBEIN and L.L. SLOSS ( 1959). Stratigraphy
and Sedimentation. W.H. Freeman & Co.
Lectures 4 and 5:
R.D. RUDD ( 1974). Remote Sensing: A Better View.
Wadsworth.
J.E. ESTES and L.W. SENGER (eds) ( 1973). Remote
Sensing: Techniques for Environmental Analysis.
Wiley. ( See especially Lewis, Chapter 5.)
R.K. HOLZ (ed) ( 1973). The Surveillant Science.
Houghton Mifflin. ( See especially Colwell, Ch. 37.)
G.R..HUNT (1979), Near-infrared ( 1.3-2.4 m) spectra
of alteration minerals - potential for use in remote
sensing. Geophysics, 44, pp 1974-1986.
J. LINTZ and D.S. SIMONETT (eds) ( 1976). Remote
Sensing of Environment. Adison-Wesley. (Ch. 15 )
P.H. SWAIN and S.M. David (eds) (1978) . Remote
Sensing: The Quantitative Approach. McGraw-Hill.
(Journals):
Photogrammetric Engineering (periodical - ten issues
annually). Numerous reports of meetings issued as
Proceedings, etc.
Photogrammetria (periodical).
Remote Sensing of Environment - interdisciplinary
periodical since 1969.
Lecture 6:
R. COMPTON ( 1962). Manual of Field Geology.
John Wiley. ( See Chapter 5, pp 73-87).
J.A.E. ALLUM ( 1966). Photogeology and Regional
Mapping. Pergamon.
Lecture 7:
E.F. LLOYD ( 1959). The hot springs and hydrothermal
eruptions of Waiotapu. N.Z. Journal of Geology and
Geophysics 2 ( 1); pp 141-176.
E.F. LLOYD ( 1972). Geology and hot springs of
Orakei Korako. N.Z. Geological Survey Bulletin
85, Chapter 4, 5 and Appendix 1 and 2.
O.S. ESPANOLA ( 1974). Geology and hot springs of
Tikitere and Taheke Hydrothermal Fields, Rotorua,
New Zealand. N.Z. Geological Survey Report 68.
K. SUMI, K, KEIJI, T. ISAO ( 1980). Catalogue of
Late Pliocene to Holocene Hydrothermal Alteration
Haloes and Hot Spring Deposits in Japan. Geological
Survey of Japan.
KINYARIRO, T. ( 1979). Geothermal Institute Project
Report 79.14.
TESFAGIORGIS, P. ( 1979). Geothermal Institute Project
Report 79.10.
ZHENG, K. ( 1981).. Geothermal Institute Project Report
81.27.
Lectures 8, 9:
I.S.E. CARMICHAEL, F.J. TURNER, J. VERHOOGEN (1974) :
Igneous Petrology. McGraw-Hill.
K.G. COX, J.D. BELL, R.J. PANKHURST ( 1979). The -
interpretation of igneous rocks. George Allen &
Unwin.
F.H. HATCH, A.K. WELLS, M.K. WELLS ( 1961). Petrology
of the Igneous Rocks. Thomas Marby & Co.
H. WILLIAMS, F.J. TURNER, C.M. GILBERT (1954).
Petrography. W.H. Freeman & Co.
Lectures 10, 11:
J. COMBS, Y. ROTSTEIN (19•5). Microearthquake
studies at the Coso Geothermal Area, China Lake,
California. Proc. 2nd UN Symposium on Development
and Use of Geothermal Resources, pp 909-916.
R. 0. FOURNIER, J.M. THOMPSON, C.F. AUSTIN (1980).
Interpretation of chemical analyses of water
collected from two geothermal wells at Coso,
California. Journal of Geophysical Research, 85,
pp 2404-2410.
 91

GEOLOGY REFS.

REFERENCES - continued Lecture 12:

L.W. LE ROY and D.0. LE ROY ( 1977). Well-site

R.B. KNAPP and D. NORTON ( 1981). Preliminary Geologist, in Subsurface Geology, pp 203-211).
numerical analysis of processes related to
magma crystallisation and stress evolution in
cooling pluton environments. American Journal Lecture 13:
of Science, 281, pp 35-68.
A.J. ELLIS and W.A.J. MAHON ( 1977). Chemistry
D. NORTON and J. KNIGHT ( 1977). Transport and Geothermal Systems. Academic Press.
phenomena in hydrothermal systems: Cooling
plutons. American Journal of Science, 277, M.P. HOCHSTEIN and T.M. HUNT ( 1970). Seismic,
pp 937-981. gravity and magnetic studies, Broadlands
Geothermal 'Field, New Zealand. New Zealand
D. NORTON and J. KNIGHT ( 1977). A preliminary Geothermics, Special Issue 2, pp 333-346.
analysis of the Coso geothermal system.
Unpublished report.