(2005),"Loyalty programs and a sense of community", Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 19 Iss 4 pp. 222-233 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/08876040510605253
(2008),"Understanding and profitably managing customer loyalty", Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 26 Iss 4 pp.
359-374 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02634500810879278
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1. Introduction
New generation of CRM The past decade has seen many firms (re)adopt a customer focus ± often through
tactics created a formal program of customer relationship management (CRM) (e.g. Brown,
2000; Kalakota and Robinson, 1999; Peppers and Rogers, 1997). Recent
advances in information technology have provided the tools for marketing
managers to create a new generation of CRM tactics. One such tactic that
thousands of firms have considered, and which many have adopted, is to
establish a customer loyalty program. Examples of these schemes can be found
in Japanese retailing, US airlines and hotels, French banks, UK grocery stores,
German car companies, Australian telecommunications, Italian fashion stores,
US universities, and many other areas. Typically these programs offer financial
and relationship rewards to customers, and in some instances benefits also
accrue to third-parties such as charities[1].
Two aims of customer loyalty programs stand out. One is to increase sales
revenues by raising purchase/usage levels, and/or increasing the range of
products bought from the supplier. A second aim is more defensive ± by
building a closer bond between the brand and current customers it is hoped to
The authors would like to thank Jack Cadeaux, Robert East, Jennifer Harris,
Byron Sharp and Chris Styles for their constructive suggestions. Also, all those who
commented on earlier drafts of this paper at workshops organized by the Marketing
Science Institute, University of New South Wales and University of Melbourne. The
assistance of an Australian Research Council (Small Grant) is acknowledged.
294 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING, VOL. 20 NO. 4 2003, pp. 294-316, # MCB UP LIMITED, 0736-3761, DOI 10.1108/07363760310483676
maintain the current customer base. The popularity of these programs is based
on the argument that profits can be increased significantly by achieving either of
these aims[2]. While loyalty programs can have many other peripheral goals ±
such as furthering cross-selling, creating databases, aiding trade relations,
assisting brand PR, establishing alliances, etc. ± we do not assess these goals in
this paper.
But, how effective are these programs in enhancing the number, the loyalty,
and/or the sales from customers? Are they likely to be profitable when fully
costed? To answer these questions we first discuss what is meant by the term
``customer loyalty''. A review of the literature reveals that this task is not
straightforward ± generally people have in mind one of three different
models (section 2). We consider whether these models are based on
competing or complementary theories (section 3). This provides a platform
for thinking about a loyalty continuum (section 4). We show that it is crucial
to define and understand customer loyalty if the demand-side benefits of
loyalty programs are to be properly evaluated. Next, drawing on these
conceptualizations, we review the goals, successes and failings of loyalty
programs (section 5). We show that, at one extreme are programs for niche
products that presume customers are committed to ``a favorite brand''. At the
other extreme there are promotional programs that cater to the divided
loyalty of their customers. In between, and widely represented across many
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different products and services, are loyalty programs that are best described
as ``for the brands people already buy''. Future prospects are discussed
briefly (section 6).
Direct competition The focus of this paper is on established repeat-purchase markets where there
between branded products is direct competition between branded products and services. These markets
and services include most packaged goods, personal services such as banking and travel
agents, food and beverages, hotels, transport, retail, OTC pharmaceuticals,
basic cosmetics, and media. They are hugely important in terms of the share
of disposable consumer income for which they account, and they have been
the focus of much research.
2. Customer loyalty
At a very general level, loyalty is something that consumers may exhibit to
brands, services, stores, product categories (e.g. cigarettes), and activities
(e.g. swimming). Here, we use the term customer loyalty as opposed to brand
loyalty; this is to emphasize that loyalty is a feature of people, rather than
something inherent in brands.
Popular conceptualizations Unfortunately, there is no universally agreed definition (Jacoby and
Chestnut, 1978; Dick and Basu, 1994; Oliver, 1999). Instead, there are three
popular conceptualizations:
(1) loyalty as primarily an attitude that sometimes leads to a relationship
with the brand (Model 1);
(2) loyalty mainly expressed in terms of revealed behavior (i.e. the pattern of
past purchases) (Model 2); and
(3) buying moderated by the individual's characteristics, circumstances,
and/or the purchase situation (Model 3) (see Figure 1).
Jacoby and Chestnut, 1978; Foxall and Goldsmith, 1994; Mellens et al.,
1996; Reichheld, 1996). This is seen as taking the form of a consistently
favorable set of stated beliefs towards the brand purchased. These attitudes
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may be measured by asking how much people say they like the brand, feel
committed to it, will recommend it to others, and have positive beliefs and
feelings about it ± relative to competing brands (Dick and Basu, 1994). The
strength of these attitudes is the key predictor of a brand's purchase and
repeat patronage. This is what Oliver (1997, p. 392) has in mind when he
defines customer loyalty as:
A deeply held commitment to rebuy or repatronize a preferred product/service
consistently in the future, thereby causing repetitive same-brand or same brand-set
purchasing despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the
potential to cause switching behavior.
Where brand loyalty In the fields of advertising and brand equity research this model receives
increases revenue streams much conceptual support (e.g. Aaker, 1996; De Chernatony and McDonald,
become more predictable 1998; Keller, 1998). The approach also appeals to many practitioners in
advertising and brand management because it is empathetic with the search
for strategies to enhance the strength of consumers' attitudes towards a
brand. Moreover, there is some evidence to suggest it is a profitable strategy.
Ahluwalia et al. (1999) have shown that attitudinally-loyal customers are
much less susceptible to negative information about the brand than non-loyal
customers. Also, where loyalty to a brand is increased, the revenue-stream
from loyal customers becomes more predictable and can become
considerable over time ± as analyses of cases such as Federal Express,
Pizza Hut franchises, and Cadillac dealerships have shown (Gremler and
Brown, 1999).
An extension of the ``attitudes define loyalty'' perspective is to suggest that
consumers form relationships with some of their brands. A good example of
this perspective is provided by Fournier (1998), who sees loyalty as a
committed and affect-laden partnership between consumers and brands. It is
a partnership that will be even stronger when supported by other members of
a household or buying group, and where consumption is associated with
community membership or identity. Examples in support of this argument
include Skoal smokeless tobacco among some North American cowboys,
to the brand (Ehrenberg, 1988; Fader and Hardie, 1996; Kahn et al., 1988;
Massy et al., 1970). Researchers have gathered impressive amounts of data
about these purchase patterns over many years ± across dozens of product
categories and for many diverse countries (Uncles et al., 1994). They have
found that few consumers are ``monogamous'' (100 percent loyal) or
``promiscuous'' (no loyalty to any brand). Rather, most people are
``polygamous'' (i.e. loyal to a portfolio of brands in a product category).
From this perspective, loyalty is defined as ``an ongoing propensity to buy
the brand, usually as one of several'' (Ehrenberg and Scriven, 1999).
Researchers tend to adopt a These researchers tend to adopt a market focus as opposed to an individual
market focus focus (e.g. key performance measures are brand shares, penetration, average
purchase frequencies, repeat-buying ± for a defined period). Stochastic
modeling techniques describe the observed patterns of customer buying.
Given these descriptions, loyalty is inferred to operate in the following
manner. Through trial and error, a brand that provides a satisfactory
experience is chosen. Loyalty to the brand (measured by repeat purchase) is
the result of repeated satisfaction that in turn leads to weak commitment. The
consumer buys the same brand again, not because of any strongly-held prior
attitude or deeply-held commitment, but because it is not worth the time and
trouble to search for an alternative. If the usual brand is out of stock or
unavailable for some reason, then another functionally similar (or
substitutable) brand (from the portfolio) will be purchased (e.g. East, 1997;
Ehrenberg et al., 1997; Ehrenberg et al., 2003). There is little reason to spend
much effort weighing up the alternatives when all are likely to be
satisfactory. However, over repeated purchases a weak commitment to the
(limited) number of brands bought in a product category can form.
Uncertainty about true All these studies are grounded in considerable amounts of market research
loyalty data and analysis. But, despite the weight of empirical evidence, controversy
persists. Those who subscribe to the ``attitudes drive behavior'' and
``relationship'' approaches expressly rule-out revealed behavior as a
dominant measure of loyalty. That, they argue, may merely reflect
happenstance. Even combined measures of revealed behavior and
Nevertheless, the nature of the market in which customers buy and brands
compete will govern what is normally observed ± thus, in highly competitive
repeat-purchase markets acceptance is to be expected more often than the
other models. We elaborate below.
Brand distinctiveness The concept of CBA is the base case of customer loyalty in competitive
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marginal.
Similar attitudes reported This is not to suggest that attitudes will not form towards these brands over
for descriptive attribute time (Model 1), but they will be of secondary importance to the functional
beliefs adequacy of the brand. Indeed, for the markets which are the focus here,
research shows that these beliefs may simply be a playback of the message
content of the brand's advertising or publicity ± that is, simple learning
(Barwise and Ehrenberg, 1985; Castleberry et al., 1994). This can be seen in
the very similar attitudes reported for descriptive attribute beliefs (e.g.
``Volvos are safe'', ``United Airlines is friendly'', ``Woolworths offers fresh
food'') by both brand users and non-users (Dall'Olmo Riley et al., 1997;
Hoek et al., 2000).
Furthermore, the discussion of CBA suggests that having a favorable set of
beliefs about one brand does not preclude having an equally favorable set of
beliefs about other functionally similar brands in the category ± and their
almost identical loyalty programs (as is the case with many airline and
retailer programs). For customers who are buying on a routine and mundane
basis, it is not necessarily important to have a set of strong value-laden
beliefs towards the brands that are purchased, as long as these brands are
believed to ``do the job''. Research suggests that to the extent that a customer
does express a consistently favorable attitude about a brand, it is more likely
to be based on frequent satisfied use than on value-laden beliefs (Dall'Olmo
Riley et al., 1997).
CBC
Brand component that The first exception to CBA concerns those consumers who value
drives choice and psychological and social value more than function. This is easiest to see
commitment when these consumers are buying high-identity products (luxury goods,
expensive cosmetics, etc.) and thinking of life-choices (education, sporting
allegiances, etc.). Here there may be a brand component that drives choice
and commitment for a significant number of customers, especially the initial
adoption of some distinctive brands such as the Apple Macintosh, the Sony
Walkman and Harley-Davidson motorbikes. We label this CBC. In this
does not mean customers will recognize and value this. Likewise, a manager
may want to create a meaningful relationship between the brand and the
customer, but customers do not necessarily desire this or reciprocate
(Fournier et al., 1998; Hart et al., 1999; Horne and Worthington, 1999).
When the type of loyalty is defined by the customer, it means that the same
brand may be the object of commitment for one person but merely
acceptable to another.
Harley-Davidson was Third, even where a relationship develops, it may not be the only one in a
forced to instigate a quality particular product category. For example, Fournier and Yao (1997) quote
improvement program instances of customers having ``compartmentalized friendships'' with
different brands of coffee ± perhaps Starbucks in the morning and Folgers in
the afternoon. Moreover, with CBC, while the non-functional sources of
value may be strong, they will not eliminate the need for the brand to ``do the
job''. Harley-Davidson, one of the strongest personality-relationship brands,
was forced to instigate a quality improvement program to save the brand
from Japanese competition.
CBB
The second exception to CBA concerns those consumers who exhibit very
low levels of loyalty. Their choices are shaped by considerations of
immediate availability, price, promotions, etc., and ± at most ± weak
attitudes (e.g. users of an online travel agency may express liking for it
because it obtains for them best price airfares). The concept of CBB is
closely allied to Model 3, where contingencies are the co-determinants of
choice, and not simply nuisance factors.
In summary, our contention is that CBC and CBB are the exceptions rather
than the rule in most repeat-purchase markets. One way to see this is as a
sampling problem (Figure 2). Consider the example of car rental: if we were
to draw from a large sample of the population, most customers of Avis or
Hertz would be characterized by CBA, and only a few by CBC (committed
to my Hertz) or CBB (renting from literally any car hire firm that happened
to be discounted at the time of purchase). Some researchers however have
behavior justify the expenditure (Dowling and Uncles, 1997). These are
strong claims and counter-claims, and to a large extent they rest on the
different models of customer loyalty we have outlined above.
Supporters of loyalty programs have in mind Model 1, where the program is
seen to reinforce CBC-type outcomes. Or they envisage a combination of
Models 3 and 1, where consumers with no loyalty (CBB-types) are converted
into single-brand loyal CBC-types because of the customer benefits of the
program. Critics favor the multi-brand divided-loyalty model (Model 2), and
assume most customers are CBA-types who are not strongly swayed by the
program. In evaluating the aims and demand-side success of loyalty
programs, we take account of these somewhat contradictory positions. We
examine the issues from the perspective of individual customers, markets,
and touch on the contribution to profits of such schemes[5].
small brands have fewer buyers who buy them less often than big brands
(Ehrenberg et al., 1990). Whatever their market shares, it is to be expected
that, for all brands, there will be some CBB and CBC buyers, and a majority
of CBA buyers. This market structure gives rise to three strategies for
enhancing the observed level of repeat-purchase or loyalty of a brand. A
possible fourth strategy is considered too.
The first strategy is to try to grow the size of the brand. This can be achieved
by making the brand acceptable to a larger number of potential customers ±
in keeping with Figure 3 and the focus on CBA. Tactically, this means
exposure at the point of purchase, offering greater perceived value, gaining
wider distribution, suggesting more usage occasions, etc.
Niche brands The second strategy is to create a niche brand by aiming to keep the numbers
of buyers relatively low but at the same time increasing the average amount
bought by these buyers. This could be achieved by reducing the distribution
coverage of the brand and using the money saved to better support/promote
the brand to current customers. This strategy implies a higher proportion of
behaviorally-loyal and committed buyers (CBCs) for the level of market
share than predicted by the DJ effect. In its early years, the Body Shop was a
successful niche brand.
The third strategy is for a big brand to become a ``super-loyalty brand''.
These are brands that exhibit signs of strong commitment and that have
higher than expected (using the DJ model) repeat-purchase (Fader and
Schmittlein, 1993) (i.e. an above-average number of CBCs at a high level of
market share). During the early 1990s, icon-status Nike appeared to be such
a super loyalty brand.
Desire for change-of-pace A fourth strategy implied by the DJ effect is to exploit the desire of
customers for change-of-pace. Here the penetration is higher and the repeat-
purchase rate lower, than predicted by the DJ effect (Kahn et al., 1988).
Some imported and premium beer brands fall into this category, though the
typical beer brand of this type is simply small. This is primarily a penetration
effect and cannot be seen as loyalty building unless an organization offers a
Problems collecting right Second, few of these programs collect data about the complete customer
kind of data experience or the portfolio of brands bought (i.e. little information on either
decision-making or total category expenditure). Nor do they have much to
say about the total market and competitor marketing activity (e.g. non-
customers are ignored). Yet, our discussion in the first part of the paper
shows that this information is essential for anything other than a superficial
and possibly inaccurate understanding of customer loyalty. Specifically, a
thorough and accurate understanding of Models 2 and 3 requires data that are
rarely available from loyalty-program databases. Here, the problem is that
too little of the right kind of data are collected.
Successful schemes quickly A third area of concern is that data come from two sources ± these often
copied by competitors provide contradictory evidence. One source is the companies that have
introduced these schemes. Not surprisingly, many suggest that their schemes
are successful (publicly at least). The effects are reported as one or more of
the following: increased sales of the target brand, higher levels of cross-
selling, fewer customer defections, and more satisfied customers (e.g.
Rayner (1998) reports on a number of UK schemes). However, researchers
are beginning to question the accuracy of these effects (e.g. Reinartz and
Kumar 2000, 2002). Notwithstanding the various initiatives that have been
tried over the years, the empirical regularities of purchase incidence noted
earlier (namely, DJ effects) have been robust to attempts by loyalty schemes
to change them. One reason for this is that if a scheme looks as though it
might be successful in increasing levels of accessibility, availability and
conspicuousness, or in adding to the perceived value of the brand, it is
quickly copied by competitors. The classic example of such imitation is the
airline frequent-flier programs ± there are now no major airlines without
such a scheme. When widespread copying happens, any benefit gained is
likely to be ephemeral.
A fourth area of concern is that evaluations on the sales effectiveness of
loyalty programs are often based on a poor quasi-experimental design. When
quantitative measures of effectiveness are developed they typically compare
post-program levels of sales, customer retention, customer satisfaction, etc.
Notes
1. Loyalty programs are schemes offering delayed, accumulating economic benefits to
consumers who buy the brand. Usually this takes the form of points that can be exchanged
for gifts, free products, or aspirational rewards such as air miles. Airline frequent-flier
programs have been a prototype for many of the schemes. Affinity programs are a
specific type of loyalty program. They are designed to enhance the emotional bond
between customer and brand. Mechanisms are set up to enhance two-way communication
in order for the customer to get to know the brand (or company that stands behind it)
better, and for the company to learn more about the customer. No direct economic benefit
is offered to the customer. Examples include telephone help lines, club memberships,
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alumni associations, newsletters, Web site ``chat'' groups, etc. Hybrids also exist. For
instance, where the focus is on enhancing the emotional bond between customer and
brand, and a third-party (e.g. a charity) receives a financial benefit. Or the establishment
of a club where consumers pay for membership, in return for access to special events and
offers. This latter format is prevalent in countries like Germany where privacy and trading
laws prohibit incentive-based schemes, e.g. Volkswagen Club, Swatch the Club,
Mercedes Mastercard (Butscher, 2002).
2. See, for example, Reichheld (1996). While this generalization is often made by
consultants, it takes no account of the company's specific circumstances, particularly its
target market, marketing strategy and cost structures (Niraj et al., 2001; Shaw, 1998).
Indeed, there is some evidence to suggest declining profitability from long-term
customers in the context of catalogue buying in the US (Reinartz and Kumar, 2000,
2002).
3. In this context, use of the word ``loyalty'' is debatable. Some prefer to use the term
``spurious loyalty'', in that any pattern of buying here is likely to result from the
recurrence of contingent factors (e.g. Mellens et al., 1996). It is pointed out that if the
contingent factors are removed, buying may change. Nevertheless, we argue that Model 3
is the basis of brand acceptance and weak loyalty, neither of which should be regarded as
spurious.
4. The main exception ± where exclusive buying is observed ± is among consumers who are
light buyers of the product category and therefore of any brand in the category. Among
these buyers, monogamous ``loyalty'' may merely reflect a very limited number of
purchase occasions (e.g. the infrequent holiday traveler versus the international business
executive). Exclusive loyalty is also a function of the length of the observation period ± in
a short period most people will appear to be exclusively loyal because they have had so
few opportunities to buy.
5. The bias is towards a consideration of customer issues, reflecting the customer-focus
logic of marketing. Therefore, our comments about the contribution of loyalty schemes to
profits focus largely on consumer-related demand-side issues. It would be useful for
others to consider other perspectives. For example, some of these programs could be
viewed as a form of indirect price cut that is desired by one segment of customers but is
ultimately paid for by all customers. Programs that offer air miles as their reward could be
viewed as the outcome of airlines wanting to sell excess capacity at a price greater than
marginal cost. There are also broader issues of business policy and marketing strategy
that need to be addressed. For instance, from the perspective of one business partner in a
loyalty program, the success of the endeavor may depend on an ability to negotiate a
particularly attractive deal with the other business partners ± irrespective of whether the
program has much impact on customer loyalty. We regard this as a very important, but
separate, issue.
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&
seemingly the most important thing in the fan's life. I think it is safe to say
that, outside the area of mental illness, such dedication is unlikely to be
directed towards a chocolate bar or department store.
The question for marketers is whether some of the characteristics we see in
this super-loyalty might be applied to these more prosaic brands or whether
loyalty as an idea detracts from the primary function of brand marketing.
Certainly, Uncles et al. seem to question the effectiveness that many of the
loyalty marketing schemes run by businesses such as airlines and
supermarkets. Indeed the authors suggest that some airlines would like to
drop frequent flyer promotions and that the jury remains out on the success
or otherwise of loyalty schemes such as the Tesco Clubcard (we should note
that the company still insists this is a success and as the UK's most
successful supermarket in recent years it is difficult to argue with their
strategy). As the authors succinctly put it; ``loyalty is a function of people
rather than something inherent in brands''.
These divided loyalties make it more difficult for marketers to take actions
aimed a promoting loyalty. It would seem the case that the focus on loyalty to
the exclusion of other elements in consumer behaviour could result in
misplaced marketing strategies. Moreover the loyalty strategies employed by
different brands are very similar. I suspect that many consumers do not
distinguish between loyalty campaigns and other forms of sales promotions.
We know that the point of frequent flyer programmes, for example, is to
market. Chocolate bars differ from supermarkets which, in turn, differ from
hotel chains or holiday destinations. A loyalty strategy for a brand that has
genuinely loyal customers will be very different from a strategy aimed at
getting our product greater attention from actual and potential buyers (i.e.
those who have our brand in their portfolio of possible brands to purchase).
For some investing time and money in securing a ``closer bond'' with
customers makes sense whereas for other's the focus should be on the
aggregate effect of our promotions ± ``loyalty'' is a lovely idea but in many
cases it can result in the wrong promotional strategy.
Uncles et al. provide marketers with food for thought about loyalty and raise
questions and doubts about the use of loyalty programmes in a range of
settings. Indeed the authors' conclusion that the demand side success of
many loyalty programmes ``. . . has been overclaimed'' is a clear indication
that marketing must move on to a more informed approach to repeat
purchase promotions and loyalty programmes.
1. Jonas Colliander Stockholm School of Economics Stockholm United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Magnus
Söderlund Stockholm School of Economics Stockholm Sweden Stefan Szugalski Stockholm School of Economics Stockholm
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, India Kumar Sree Department of Marketing,
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