ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes
TRIBACO
Electronics
– the branch of physics and
technology concerned with the
behavior and movement of
electrons, especially in
semiconductors and gases.
Classifications of Materials
1. Conductor – a substance, body or material
- which has more electrons that are free to
move (free electrons)
- which supports charge carriers flow
- which is good conductor of electricity
- which supports the flow of electricity
- which allows current to flow with ease
- which has a very low electrical resistance
- which has only one valence electron
exs. Metals (such as silver, copper, gold,
etc.)
Electrolytes and ionized gases
2. Insulator
– a substance, body or material which
has a characteristics that is
extremely opposite to that of a
conductor.
– with more than four valence
electrons but Ideally, it has eight
valence electrons.
exs. Glass, Mica, hard rubber, etc.
3. Semiconductor – a substance or body
whose conductivity is between that of
an insulator and a conductor with
four valence electrons.
exs. a. Elementary semiconductors(IVA)
1. Silicon (Si)
2. Germanium (Ge)
b. Compound semiconductors(IIIA-VA)
1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
2. Aluminum Arsenide (AlAs)
3. Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1. Bohr’s Model
F=KQ1Q2
r2
2. Composition/Elementary Particles
by: ENGR. MELVIN B.
“Mass of proton or neutron is 1,836 times that
of electron”
Ne=2n2
Where: Ne=no. of electrons in each shell
N=shell no. or position
TERMS:
1. Atomic mass or weight (A)
– approximately the sum of the no.
of protons & electrons of an atom.
2. Atomic number (z)
– the no. of protons in the nucleus
or the no. of electrons in an atom.
3. Valence shell – the outermost shell.
4. Valence electrons
– electrons at the valence shell.
5. Valence band
– the highest energy band of an
atom w/c can be filled with
electrons.
6. Conduction band
– energy band in w/c electrons can
move freely.
7. Forbidden band – no electrons.
Energy gap
– the energy difference between the
conduction band & valence band. It
is the energy required to move or
transfer a valence electron at the
valence band to the conduction
band.
Net Charge
– whenever a neutral atom losses
one or more of its electron(s), it
becomes a positively charge atom
& is referred to as a positive ion.
– if a neutral atom gains electron(s), it
becomes negatively charge and is
called a negative ion.
 Net charge =+4 if it losses all 4 valence
electrons.
=+1 if losses one valence
electron.
At any instant, the following is taking place
inside a silicon crystal.
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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes
1. Some free electrons and holes are
being created by thermal energy.
2. Other free electrons and holes are
recombining.
3. Some free electrons and holes exist in
an in-between state; they were
previously created and have not yet
recombined.
BONDING OF ATOMS
Ionic bonds or Electrovalent bonds or
Electrostatic bonds – results from attractive
forces between positive and negative ions or
between pairs of oppositely charges ions.
Metallic bonds – attractive forces results from a
group of positive ions and electrons w/c are
free to move about among its ions.
Covalent – occurs when atoms shares two or
more electrons; i.e. shared electrons are
attracted simultaneously to two atoms and the
resulting energy stability produces the bond.
Covalent bonding of semiconductors
– At 0˚K or absolute zero (-273.15˚C)
there are no free electrons in a semiconductor
because they are locked at the valence bond,
however at room temperature (300˚K, 25˚C)
valence electrons can acquire sufficient energy
and become free as they move to the
conduction bond.
Intrinsic carrier – free electrons in a material
due only to natural causes; i.e. due to increase
in temperature. At room temperature there are
approximately 1.5x1010 of free electrons in a
cubic centimeter for intrinsic silicon and
2.5x1023 for germanium materials.
Silicon crystal – an arrangement of silicon
atoms combine to form a solid such that there
are now 8 electrons in the valence shell.
Bound electrons – the term for 8 valence
electrons because they are tightly held by the
atoms. When an atom has bound electrons, it
is described as filled or saturated since
valence orbit can hold not more than 8
electrons.
Ambient Temperature – is the temperature of
the surrounding air usually (25˚C or 293˚K).
Free Electrons – the released electrons
dislodged from its original shell due to increase
in temperature w/c joins into a larger orbit.
Hole – the term used to refer to the vacancy
left by free electrons when it departs from its
original shell and usually behaves like a
by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO
positive charge since it can attract and capture
electron in the immediate vicinity.
Recombination – the merging of a free electron
and a hole inside the silicon crystal.
Lifetime – the amount of time between the
creation and disappearance of a free electron.
It is usually varies from a few nanoseconds to
several microseconds, depending on how
perfect the crystal is and other factors.
DOPING
Doping process – adding pentavalent or
trivalent impurities to an intrinsic material.
2 Types of impurities
1. Pentavalent impurities – with 5 valence
electrons (donor atom) such as antimony (Sb),
arsenic (As) and phosphorus (P).
2. Trivalent impurities – with 3 valence
electrons (acceptor atom) such as boron (B),
gallium (Ga) and indium (In).
2 Types of semiconductor
1. Intrinsic semiconductor
– it is a pure semiconductor.
– every atom in the crystal is a silicon
atom.
– At room temperature, a silicon
crystal acts approximately as an
insulator because it has only a few
electrons and holes produce by
thermal energy.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor
– a doped semiconductor.
– result of adding an impurity atom to
an intrinsic crystal to alter/increase
its electrical conductivity.
a. N-type – Produced when a
pentavalent atoms are added to
a molten silicon, producing an
excess of electrons.
– (- →majority carriers)
b. P-type – produced when a
trivalent atoms are added to the
molten silicon, producing an
excess of holes.
– (+ →majority carriers)
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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

Ex. How much is the resistance for a slab of

germanium 0.3cm long w/ a cross-sectional
area of 1cm2?
R= L
A
R=50Ω∙cm (0.3cm/1cm2)
R=15Ω

DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS
(Extrinsic materials)
Si-Antimony
 Excess of electrons
 Majority carrier is electron
 Resulting material is N-type
 Minority carrier is hole
Si-Boron
 Excess of holes
 Majority carrier is hole
 Resulting is P-type
 Minority carrier is electron
● The conductivity of a semiconductor material
can be controlled by the amount of impurity
added; that is
a. Lightly doped semiconductor has a high
resistance.
b. Heavily doped semiconductor has a low
resistance.
● Silicon/Germanium semiconductor
a. Can be manufactured to a very high
impurity level.
b. Has the ability to change electrical
characteristics (conductivity) from poor
conductor to a good conductor.
● Silicon vs. Germanium
a. Si diodes have higher PIV and current
rating, and wider temperature range
than Ge diodes.
b. Si has higher forward –bias voltage
require to reach conduction.
Conductance
– the property or ability of a material
to support charge flow
(electric current).
– The reciprocal of resistance and
has a unit of mho or siemens.
Conductivity
– Specific conductance per unit
length.
– The reciprocal of resistivity.
– (Siemens per meter or mho per
meter).
Resistance
– The property of material to oppose
or resist current flow.
Resistivity
– Specific resistance or resistance
times the cross-sectional area of
current flow & per unit length of
current path.
DIODE
– Two terminal device that has anode
and cathode and ha a characteristic
that converts Ac to DC called
RECTIFIER.
– Device that allows the flow of
current in only one direction.
● The junction diode is formed when an N-type
and a P-type materials are brought together.

MATERIAL RESISTANCE & CONDUCTIVITY

● Construction and symbol

R= L
A
Where: R= resistance in Ω
= resistivity in Ω∙cm OPERATIONS
L = length in cm 1. No bias – no applied voltage.
A = area in cm2
Typical resistivity values: in Ω∙cm

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

Copper=105 Ge:50 Mica:1012
Si:50,000

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

a. Depletion region – the region of K = 11600/n; for low levels of diode

uncovered positive and negative ions.
b. In the absence of an applied bias
voltage, the net flow of charge in any
direction for a semiconductor diode is
zero.
2. Reverse bias
– Only minority carriers (reverse
saturation current) can flow.
– Cathode (K) is more positive than
anode (A).
– Diode is off (open Circuit).
current.
n = 1 for Ge & 2 for Si for higher levels
of diode current.
n = 1 for both Si & Ge
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON Is:
IST1 = ISTo eK(T1-To)
Where: IST1 = saturation current at temp. (t1).
ISTo = saturation current at room temp.
K = 0.07/˚C
T1 = new temperature
To = room temperature (25˚C)

TEMPERATURE ON VTH:

VTHt1 = VTHto + K (T1 – To)

Applied Voltage < VD (threshold voltage)
Where: V THt1 = threshold voltage at new temp.
IS (reverse Saturation current)
– The current that exist under reverse VTHto = threshold voltage at room temp.
= 0.3 for Si and 0.7 for Ge
condition.
K = -25mV/˚C (Ge)
Applied Voltage > VD (threshold voltage) = -2.0Mv/˚C (Si)
3. Forward Bias
– Allows majority carrier (forward Example:
current) to flow.
1. Determine the diode current at 20˚C for a
– Anode (A) must be positive w/
respect to cathode (K). silicon diode w/ IS = 50nA and an applied
voltage of 0.6V.
Given:
TK = 20˚C + 273˚K = 293˚K
n=2
IS = 50nA
VD = 0.6V
Req’d:
ID =?

Solution:

ID  IS e KVDTK  1
Considering voltage drop:
ID = 50x10-9 (e [(11600/2)(0.6)]/293˚K – 1)
VD > Vth
Where: VD = diode applied voltage ID = 7.2mA
Vth = diode Threshold voltage
= 0.7v for Silicon 2. Determine the diode current at 20˚C for a
= 0.3v for Germanium silicon diode w/ IS = 0.1μA at a reverse-bias
potential of -10V.
Given:
TK = 20˚C + 273˚K = 293˚K
DIODE CURRENT EQUATION (ID) n=2
IS = 0.1μA
ID=IS (eKVD/TK – 1) VD = -10V
K=11600/n Req’d:
ID =?
Where: ID = diode current Solution:
IS = reverse saturation current or
leakage current. ID  IS e KVDTK 1
VD = forward voltage across the diode.
TK = room temperature in ˚K. ID = 0.1mA (e [(11600/2)(-10)]/293˚K – 1)
= T + 273˚C
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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

ID = -1μA 20v  20ID   0.7v  0

20v  0.7v
3. A pn junction has a saturated current equal ID 
20
to 1nA at a temperature of 25˚C. The silicon
diode is forward w/ a constant source of 1mA;
determine the applied voltage of the diode. ID = 0.965A
Given:
IS = 1μA c.
TK = 25˚C + 273˚K = 298˚K
n=2
ID = 1mA
Req’d:
VD = ?

Solution:

ID  IS e KVDTK 1 10v  10ID   0

10v
KVD  ID  ID 
 ln    1 10
TK  IS 
ID = 1A
TK   ID  
VD  ln  IS   1
K     2. Determine VO & ID.
a.
298 K   1mA  
VD  ln    1
11600 2   1A  

VD = 0.7V

DIODE APPLICATION

1. Determine ID.
a.
Solution:

KVL @ A

 5v  0.7v  2.2kID   0
5v  0.7v
ID 
2.2k

ID = 1.95mA
b.
KVL @ B

 VO  2.2k( ID )  0
VO  2.2k1.95mA 

VO = -4.29v

b.

KVL @ A

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

Solution: KVL @ A

KVL @ A 10v  12 kI   0.7v  4.7 kI   2v  0

10v  0.7v  2v
8v  1.2kID   4.7 kID   0.7v  0 I
1.2k  4.7 k
8v  0.7v
ID 
1.2k  4.7k I = 1.92mA

ID =1.2mA KVL @ B

KVL @ B  Vo  2v  4.7kI   0
Vo  2v  4.7k1.92mA 
 VO  0.7v  4.7kID   0
VO  0.7v  4.7k1.2mA  Vo = 7.024v

VO = 6.34v

4. Determine VO & ID.

3. Determine the level of VO. a.
a.

Solution: Solution:

KVL @ A KCL @ x

20v  0.7v  0.3v  2kI   2kI   0 I  ID  I 1

20v  0.7v  0.3v I 1  ID  10 mA 
1
I
2k  2k
KVL @ A
I = 4.75mA
I 12.2k   0.7v  I 22.2k   0
KVL @ B

 VO  2kI   0
since ID=I2
2.2kI 1  2.2kID   0.7v 
 2
VO  2k4.75mA
substitute 1 in terms ID:
VO = 9.5v
ID  10mA  I 1   3
b.
substitute 3 in 2:
2.2kI 1  2.2k10 ma  I 1  0.7v
22v  0.7v
I1 
2.2k  2.2k

I1= 5.16mA

substitute I1 in 3:
ID  10 mA  5.16 mA

Solution: ID = 4.84ma

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

KVL @ B SINUSOIDAL INPUTS

 Vo  2.2kID   0 Rectification - process of converting AC to DC.
Vo  2.2k4.84mA
Rectifier – a device that converts AC to DC.
Vo = 10.65v
Half-wave rectification – rectification in which
current flows only during half cycle.
b. Half-wave rectifier – a rectifier that provides a
half-wave rectification.

Full-wave rectification - rectification in which

Solution: current flows only during full cycle.

KVL @ B Full-wave rectifier – a rectifier that provides a

full-wave rectified voltage.
 5v  0.7v  Vo  0 TYPES:
1. Bridge
Vo = -4.3v

KVL @ A

20v  6.8kID   0.7v  5v  0

0.7v  5v  20v
ID 
 6.8k
2. Center- tapped
ID = 3.57mA

c. Determine Ix, Iy, & Iz (Ideal diodes)

Iz = 0v; V= VIx = VIy

V 20v
Ix    20mA
R 1k

V 20v
Iy    10mA
R 2k

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

1 Vi  V P
T
f Vi  110Vrms  2
VP  VP P  VP  1 Vi  155 .56v
V P  P  2V P
VP P @ +VI “off”
VP  @ -VI “on”
2
Vrms  VP  VP P KVL @ A
V P  Vrms  2  155 .56  0.7v  VO  0
VP P  2V  2 
rms
VO  154 .86v

HALF WAVE
1. Determine VO, VDC & sketch the VO.

2.

@ +VI “on”
@ +Vi
KVL @ A
 V P  0.7v  VO  0 12v  0.7v  VO  0
VO  V P  0.7v VO  11.3v

@ -VI “off”
VO = 0

TRANSFORMER

2. Determine VO & VDC, sketch VO.

N2
VS VP 
N1
Where: Vp = voltage primary
Vs = voltage secondary
N1 & N2 = turns ratio

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

CENTER-TAPPED TRANSFORMER Vs
 V D1  VO  0
2
Vs
VO 
2
Vs
@  ; D2  on
2
KVL @ B
Vs
  VD 2  VO  0
2
N  Vs
VS   2 VP  2 VO 
 N1  2

3. Determine the VDC & sketch VO. (ideal diode)

FULL-WAVE
Example:
1. Determine VO, VDC & sketch VO.

Vrms  Vp; Vp  Vrms 2  

Note: all diodes are ideal 1  N 
@ + VI; D3 & D2 “on” Vs  Vp   2  Vs  Vp  2 
5  N1 
KVL @ 1 
Vs  120   2
 Vmax  VD3  VO  VD 2  0 5
Vmax  VO Vs  33.94v
@ - VI; D1 & D4“on”
KVL @ B @ +Vs
 Vmax  V D1  VO  V D 4  0
Vmax  VO

Vs  V D1  V XY  0
V XY  33.94v

 1.8k 
2. Determine VO, VDC, & sketch VO. Vo  V XY  
1.8k  2k 
Vo  16.08v

@ -Vs

Vs
@ ; D1  on
2
KVL @ A
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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

Vs  VD 2  VYZ  0
VYZ  33.94v

 1.8k 
Vo  VYZ  
1.8k  2k 
Vo  16.08v
@ -VI “on”

 20v  0  Vo  0
Vo  20v

@ +VI “off”

VO=0
CLIPPERS – a variety of diode network that @ -VI
has the ability to clip-off the portion of input
signal without disturbing the remaining part of VI = VO
the alternating network. Example: (Parallel)
TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES
1. Series Configuration – the diode in series
with the load.

KVL @ A

@ +VI “on”
2. Parallel Configuration – the diode is in the
branch with the load.  Vi  0.7  4v  0
Vi  4.7v

@ +VI “off”

Vo =-10v (parallel)

Vi  4.7v  "on"
Vi  4.7v  ”off”
PROCEDURE/STEPS IN ANALYZING:
KVL @ B
1. Make a mental sketch of the network based
on the direction of the diode & the applied @ +VI
voltage levels.
2. Determine the supplied voltage transition  Vo  4v  0.7  0
that will cause a change in state for the diode. Vo  4.7v
3. Be continually aware of the defined
terminals & polarity of the voltage output (Vo).
4. It can be helpful to sketch the input signal
above the output & determine the output at
instantaneous value of the input.

Example: (Series)
Determine VO & sketch the output waveform.

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

Example:

@ -Vi KVL @ A

 VO  4v  0.7v  0
VO  3.3v
CLAMPER (DC Restorer)
- Clamp a signal to a different dc KVL @ B
level.
- Must have a capacitor, a diode  20v  VIC  0.7v  4v  0
& a resistive element.
VIC  23.3v
- Can employ independent dc
supply to introduce an additional
shift. @ +Vi KVL @ C

20v  23.3v  VO  0
VO  43.3v

CLAMPER’S NETWORK Design a clamper network

@ +Vi “on”
Vo = 2.7v; “on”

@ -Vi
@ +Vi KVL @ A Vo = -17.3v; “off”

Vo= 0

@ +Vi KVL @ B

 Vmax  VIC  VD  0
VIC  Vmax

@ -Vi “off”
@ +Vi KVL @ A
 Vmax  VIC  VO  0
2.7v  VB  0.7v  0
VO  2Vmax
 VB  2v

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

KVL @ B VI RL
VZ  VL 
RL  RI
10v  V IC  0.7v  2v  0
VZ RL  VZ RI  V I RL
V IC  7.3v
VZ RI
R L min  1
check: @ -Vi KVL @ C VI  VZ
PZ max  VZ I Z
 10v  Vic  VO  0
Vic  10v  (17.3v)
Vic  7.3v Fixed RL and variable VI

if Vb = -2; VI RL
VZ  VL 
RL  RI
10v  0.7  2v  7.3v
V Z R L  R I 
7.3v  7.3v VIm in  1
RL
if Vb = 2; VIm ax  V Ri max  V Z  2
V Ri max  I Ri max R I  3
10v  0.7  2v  7.3v I Ri max  I Z max  I L  4
11.3v  7.3v

ZENER DIODE
– a diode designed for limiting the
voltage across its terminals in
reverse bias. Exercises:
– Usually constructed of silicon, in 1. Design a network below to maintain VL at 12v or
which reverse voltage breakdown is a load variation (IL) from 0mA to 200mA.
based on the zener effect. Determine RS & VZ.

Zener effect
- The effect that is responsible for
zener breakdown in a
semiconductor.

Symbol:
Solution:

V Z  V L  12v
VI RL
VZ 
RS  RL
16vRL
“On” Vz < V “off” Vz > V > 0v 12v 
RS  R L
Fixed RL and VI 12v( R S )  12v( R L )  16v( R L )
12v( R S )  16v( R L )  12v( R L )
VI RL
VL  RS 
4( R L )
RL  RI 12
I Ri  I Z  I L RL
RS 
3
@ “on” 60
 RS   20
3
VZ  V L
V
R L min  Z
I L max
Fixed VI and variable RL
12v
P R L min   60
I Z max  Z max  2 200 mA
VZ
I Ri  I Z  I L 12
I L  I Ri  I Z max
I L min  I Ri  I Z max  3
VZ
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

2. Determine the range of VI that will maintain – Is the reduction in the power rating
VL at 8v & not exceed the maximum power of a device as a result of an
rating of the zener diode. increase in temperature.

2. Varactor or Varicap Diodes ( )

– Variable capacitance diodes.
– Commonly used in electronic tuning
circuits
– Operates in reverse bias
– Depletion region widened by the
reverse bias produces the
capacitance.
Solution:
3. Light-Emitting Diode (LED) ( )
V L  8v  V Z – Emits light when forward biased.
8v91  0.22 k  – Incoherent light
VIm in   11.31v – (Wide band of wavelength).
0.22 k
400 mW – Red is the most common.
I Zmaz   50 mA Electroluminescence
8v – Process of releasing light energy by
8v the recombination of electrons in a
IL   36.36 mA
0.22 k semiconductor.
I R max  50 mA  36.36 mA  86.36 mA
VIm ax  91k(86.36 mA)  8v  15.853v
Semi conductive materials:
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
– Emits infrared (IR) radiation.
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP)
– Produces red or yellow visible light.
Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
TYPES OF DIODES – Emits red or green visible light.
Forward voltage – 1.2v & 3.2v
1. Zener Diode ( ) Reverse voltage – 3v to 10v
– Silicon pn junction device. Wavelength
– Designed for operation in the – Determines whether light is visible
reverse breakdown region. or infrared.
– Used as a voltage regulators &
limiters.
– Voltage ratings ranging from 1.8v to 4. Photodiode ( )
200v. – Operates in reverse bias.
– Maintains a nearly constant voltage – Exhibits an increase in reverse
across its terminals over a specified current with light intensity.
range of zener currents. Dark current – reverse photodiode current
– Very thin depletion region in zener when there is no light.
breakdown.
5. Current Regulator diode ( )
Two breakdown mechanism: – Constant current diode.
1. Avalanche breakdown – Operates in forward bias.
2. Zener breakdown – Forward voltages from about 1.5v to
6v.
Zener impedance (Zz) – Keeps its forward current at a
– Internal zener resistance. constant specified value.
Zener regulation
– The ability to keep the reverse Regulator current – constant forward current.
voltage across its terminals
essentially constant is the key 6. Schottky Diode ( )
feature of the zener diode. – Used primarily in high frequency
Test current and fast switching applications.
– Value of reverse current where the – Has a metal to semiconductor
zener voltage is normally specified. junction usually n-type.
Power derating – Forward voltage drop of 0.3v
– Also known as hot-carrier diode.

13
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

– Operates only with majority carriers. 1. NPN

7. PIN Diode ( )
– Consist of heavily doped p & n
regions separated by an intrinsic
region.
– Displays a variable resistance
characteristic when forward biased.
– Constant capacitance in reverse
biased. 2. PNP
– Used as a dc-controlled microwave
chip.

8. Step-Recovery Diode
– Employs graded doping where the
doping level of the semi conductive
materials is reduced as the pn
junction is approached.
– Used in very high frequency (VHF)
& fast-switching application.
9. Tunnel Diode ( ) – Moderately doped (collector carrier)
- Exhibits a special characteristic
known as (Negative Resistance)
– Used in oscillator circuits.
– Constructed with germanium or
gallium arsenide.
– Heavy doping results in a very
narrow depletion region.
– Forward biased.
10. Laser Diode ( ) - Second largest.
– Light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation.
– Monochromatic light.
– Also called coherent light, a single
wavelength.
– Operates in forward-biased
Incoherent light
– Consist of a wide band
wavelength.
Parts of Proper Biased:
1. Collector
– The doping is between that of the
emitter & the base.
– Largest of the three regions.
2. Base
– Lightly doped (control)
– Controls the flow of carriers from
emitter & collector
– Smallest regions.
3. Emitter
- Heavily doped (emits carrier)
PROPER BIASED OF TRANSISTOR
For proper operation of the circuit:
1. Emitter – base junction should be
forward bias.
2. Collector – base junction should be
reverse bias.
of
TRANSISTOR OPERATION

Operating Emitter-base Collector-base

mode junction junction
TRANSISTOR Active Forward Reverse
– A semiconductor device used for Cut-off Reverse Reverse
amplification and switching Saturation Forward Forward
applications. Reverse active Reverse Forward
– William Shockley, John Bardeen & Saturated = VCE = 0 = minimum
Walter Brattain were the co- Cut-off = VCE = VCC = maximum
inventors of transistor at Bell
Laboratories in 1947. DC Transistor parameters:
1. Alpha (α)
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) – Common base, short circuit
amplification factor.
Bipolar - means two type of charges (electrons – Ratio of change in collector current
& holes) involved in the flow of electricity. to change in emitter current with
Junction – means there are two pn junctions. VCB constant.
– Mathematically defined as:
Two Configurations for BJT:

14
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

  IC  – The emitter is common to both input

   VCB  constant & output side of the circuit.
  IE 
I
 C
IE
2. Beta (β)
– Common emitter forward current
amplification factor.
– The ratio of change in collector
current to change in base current
with VCE constant.
– Mathematically defined as:
–
 
   IC VCE  constant
  IB  Basic features of Common Emitter amplifiers:
IC  The input signal is introduced into the
 base & the output is taken from the
IB collector junction.
 The input circuit is low impedance;
typically, the input impedance is in the
Relation of α & β range of 25Ω to 5kΩ.
 The output circuit is medium to high
 impedance. About 50Ω to 50kΩ.

1   Current gain is always greater than 1.
 There is 180˚ phase reversal between

 the input & output signals.
1

3. Common Collector Configuration (CC)

– The collector is common to both
input & output side of the circuit.
Transistor Common configurations:
1. Common Base Configuration (CB)
– The base is common to both input &
output side of the circuit.

Basic features of Common Collector amplifiers:

Basic features of Common Base amplifiers:
 The input signal is introduced into the
emitter & the output is taken from the
collector junction.
 The input circuit is very low impedance,
usually between 1Ω & 50Ω.
 The output circuit is high impedance.
About 1kΩ to 1MΩ.
 Current gain is always lesser than 1.
 There is no phase reversal between the
input & output signals.
2. Common Emitter Configuration (CE)
 The input signal is introduced into the
base & the output is taken from the
collector junction.
 The input circuit can have a very high
impedance;
 The output impedance is relatively low.
 The circuit provides voltage gain less
than 1.
 There is no phase reversal between the
input & output signals.
TYPES OF BIASING:
1. Fixed biased circuit
– DC bias currents & voltages remain
closer to where they were set by the
circuit even when outside condition.

15
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

VCE  Vc  V E KVL @ A
VCB  Vc  V B VCC  I B RB  VBE  I E RE  0
KVL @ A since:
VCC  I B R B  V BE  0 I E    1R E
VCC  V BE VCC  V BE
IB  IB 
RB R B    1R E
since: I C  I B
I KVL @ B
  C ; I C  I B
IB  VCC  VC  I C RC  0
KVL @ B VC  VCC  I C RC
 VCC  VCE  I C RC  0 KVL @ C
VCE  VCC  I C RC  VCC  I E R E  VCE  I C RC  0

LOADLINE:
since:
I E  IC
VCE  VCC  I C ( R E  RC )
KVL @ D
 VE  I E RE  0
VE  I E RE
@ IC = saturation (maximum); VCE = 0

VCE = VCC – ICRC 3. Beta (β)

– Voltage divider.
VCC – Provide a DC bias circuit that is
I CSAT  independent of the transistor beta.
RC

@ IC = cut-off; IC=0

VCE = VCC – ICRC

VCE = VCC

2. Emitter stabilized
– Contains a resistor to provide better
biased stability than the fixed bias
circuit.
condition:

16
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

R E  10 R2 I C  I C ' ; I B  I C
satisfy : I E  IC
V R I C  I B
V BB  CC 2
R1  R2 Vcc  V BE
IB 
KVL @ A R B   ( Rc  R E )
V BB  V BE  I E R E  0 KVL @ B
V BB  V BE Vc  Vcc  IcRc
IE 
RE KVL @ C
I E  IC VCE  Vcc  I C ( RC  R E )
if not satisfy; redraw: KVL @ D
VE  I E RE
R BB  R1 // R2

UNIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Field Effect Transistors (FET’s)

– Voltage controlled device.
– Non-linear relationship between
input & output quantities.
– Operates with pn reverse-biased.
KVL @ A – Unipolar device.
V BB  I B R BB  V BE  (   1) I B R E  0 – Three terminal device containing.
V BB  V BE
IB  The FET’s terminals are:
R BB  (   1) R E
I C  I B 1. Gate = Base of the transistor.
2. Drain = Collector of the transistor.
3. Source = Emitter of the transistor.

Two types of FET’s

4. DC bias with voltage feedback
– Also provide improved DC bias 1. JFET – junction FET.
stability. 2. MOSFET
– Metal oxide semiconductor FET.
– a.k.a. IGFET (Insulated gate FET)
– Depletion MOSFET
– Enhancement MOSFET

General Comparison between FET & BJT:

 FET has extremely high input

resistance about 100Mohms typical,
(BJT input resistance typically is 2kΩ)
 FET are good current amplifier.
KVL @ A  BJT has low impedance, high output.
 FET has no offset value when used as
VCC  I C RC  I B RB  VBE  I E RE  0 a switch.
since:  FET is relatively immune to radiation,
but the BJT is very sensitive.
 FET is less noisy than BJT.
 FET can be operated to provide greater
thermal stability than BJT.
 FET is smaller then BJT.
 FET has smaller gain-bandwidth than
BJT.

17
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

 FET has greater susceptibility to  V 

damage in handling the FET. Damage I D  I DSS 1  GS 
by static electricity.  VP 
I DSS  saturation

TYPES:
JFET Transfer Characteristic
1. JFET – Plot of drain current is a function of
a. N-channel gate to source voltage.
– Defined by the Shockley’s equation.

2
 V 
I D  I DSS 1  GS 
 VP 
Where: ID – drain current
b. P-channel IDSS – Saturation current
VGS – voltage gate to source
VP – voltage peak

N-channel

2. MOSFET
a. DMOSFET

note: ID @ max is an IDSS

N-channel: VP = (-)

b. P-channel
P-channel

note: P-channel: VP = (+)

3. EMOSFET
a. N-channel

@ ID = IDSS; @ max
VGS = 0
1
@ ID = IDSS
2
b. P-channel VGS = 0.3VP
1
@ VGS = VP
2
ID = 0.25 IDSS
@ VGS = VP
ID = 0

18
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

FIXED-BIAS  VGS  I S R S  0
since: I S  I D
VGS   I D R S  1
 VGS
ID 
RS

GRAPHICAL:

KVL @ A

 VGG  VGS  0
VGS  VGG
1
@ ID = IDSS
2
VGS = ?
MATHEMATICAL: Substitute in 1:
Substitute VGS in Shockley’s eq.  I DSS RS
VGS 
2
2
 V 
I D  I DSS 1  GS  @ ID = 0
 VP  VGS = ?
Substitute in 1
VGS = 0
GRAPHICAL:
MATHEMATICALY:
Substitute in Shockley’s equation:
2
 VGS 
ID  I DSS 
1  V 

 P 
 KI D  K  0
2
ID
I D1 
I D2 

KVL @ B

V D  V DD  I D R D

SELF-BIAS VOLTAGE DIVIDER

KVL @ A

19
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

I D  K VGS  VGS (TH )

V DD ( R2 ) 2
VGG 
R1  R2
KVL @ A
VGG  VGS  I S R S  0
VGG  VGS
ID  1
RS
VGS  VGG  I D R S  2

MATHEMATICAL
2
 V 
I D  I DSS 1  GS 
 VP 

●if substitute in 1
VGS 2
 KVGS  K  0
●if substitute in 2
I D2  KI D  K  0

GRAPHICAL:

@ ID = 0
VGS  ?
VGS  VGG  I D RS
VGS  VGG

@VGS = 0
ID  ?
VGG  VGS
ID 
RS
VGG
ID 
RS

DMOSFET (similar to JFET)

EMOSFET
20