International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 79–86

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig

An experimental solar-powered adsorptive

refrigerator tested in Burkina-Faso
F. Buchtera,*, Ph. Dinda, M. Ponsb
a
EIVD, 1 Route de Cheseaux, CH-1400 Yverdon-les-Bains, Switzerland
b
CNRS-LIMSI, BP 133, F-91403 Orsay cedex, France

Received 5 July 2001; received in revised form 5 March 2002; accepted 14 March 2002

Abstract
An adsorptive solar refrigerator was built and tested in May 1999 in Ouagadougou, Burkina-Faso. The adsorption
pair is activated carbon + methanol. The adsorber is also the solar collector (2 m2, single glazed), the condenser is air-
cooled (natural convection) and the evaporator contains 40 l of water that can freeze into ice. This amount of ice acts
as a cold storage for the cold cabinet (available volume of 440 l). Elements such as valves and a graduated bottle are
installed, but only for experimental purposes. Apart from these valves, and also ventilation dampers which are open at
night time and closed at daytime, the machine does not contain any moving parts and does not consume any
mechanical energy. Within the requirement of vacuum technology, the machine is relatively easy to manufacture, so
that construction in Burkina-Faso is feasible. Experimental performance is presented in terms of gross solar COP.
During the test period, irradiance were quite good (between 19 and 25 MJ m
2), but the ambient temperature was
relatively warm (averagely 27.4  C at sunrise and 37.4  C at mid-afternoon). The experimental values of the gross solar
COP lie between 0.09 and 0.13. Despite a warm climate, the performance of the machine compares favourably to
previously published results. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Refrigerating system; Absorption system; Carbon; Methanol; Solar energy; Test; Burkina Faso

Réfrigérateur solaire à adsorption expérimental :

essais au Burkina Faso
Mots cle´s : Système frigorifique ; Système à absorption ; Carbone ; Méthanol ; Énergie solaire ; Essai ; Burkina Faso

1. Introduction powered machines work with either liquid, or solid,

sorption cycles. Solar refrigerators with liquid sorp-
The concept of using solar energy for powering a tion, LiBr + water or water + ammonia, have been
refrigerator arose 40 years ago [1]. Besides conven- studied by many authors [1–3]; see also the review
tional refrigerators powered by photovoltaic cells, heat article [4].

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +41-24-423-23-83; fax: +41-24-450-00-50.

E-mail address: fbuchter@eivd.ch (F. Buchter).

0140-7007/03/$20.00 # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
PII: S0140-7007(02)00018-X
80 F. Buchter et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 79–86
Nomenclature
Cp Specific heat (J kg
1 K
1)
G Solar irradiance (W m
2)
L Evaporation latent heat for methanol
(J kg
1)
m Mass (kg)
P Pressure (Pa)
q Heat quantity per square meter collector
(J m
2)
Q Heat quantity (J)
S Surface of solar collectors (m2)
t Time (s)
However, the use of liquid sorption for solar cooling
induces two features. First, liquid sorption cycles oper-
ate continuously, while solar energy is inherently tran-
sient during the day and vanishes during the night. A
large heat-storage must then be installed between the
solar collectors and the generator. Second, the solution
is most often circulated by a pump working all day long.
This pump consumes electricity that must be supplied
by photovoltaic cells or a reliable electricity network. It
therefore results that hybrid power (solar + fuel) suits
liquid sorption well [5].
Solid sorption works differently. First, the cycles are
by principle transient: heat is accumulated in the sor-
bent resulting in desorption of refrigerant vapour and
only a cold-storage is necessary for providing refrigera-
tion over the 24 h period. Second, the cycle itself works
without any mechanical input or moving parts. In
addition to reliability, full autonomy with solar energy
should be achievable, which is very attractive for instal-
lation in remote areas.
There are two solid sorption systems likely to be
solar-powered: chemical reaction and adsorption. After
pioneering works [6], chemical reaction solar refrig-
erators are evoking new interest thanks to novel com-
posite materials impregnated with chloride salts [7–9].
Solar-powered adsorption systems have been investi-
gated by several groups. In addition to models [10–16],
real machines have been developed [17–30]. Some of
them use sophisticated solar collectors with concentra-
tion [17–19], others use the adsorbent itself, contained
in a transparent tube, as the solar-energy-absorbing
material [18,20], but the most efficient configuration
seems to consist of metallic flat-plate solar collectors,
single- or double-glazed, covered with a selective sur-
face and filled with the adsorbent bed [11,14,21–30]. To
complete this short review about solar refrigeration
with sorption systems, let us also mention Ref. [31] that
compares the three sorption systems: liquid, chemical
and adsorption.
T Temperature (K)
" Adsorbed amount (kg kg
1)
Indexes
c condenser
d diurnal, for the temperature in
mid-afternoon
e evaporator
h heat supply
i initial
L liquid
n nocturnal, for the temperature at sunrise
s saturation
One of our goals is to study and propose a system
which allows a good compromise between the following
constraints: the possibility of construction in developing
countries, high reliability, and good performance.
Simplicity of construction largely depends on the
refrigerant. Systems with ammonia (liquid sorption or
chemical reaction) operate at over-atmospheric pres-
sure. Systems with water or methanol (mainly liquid
sorption or adsorption) operate at under-atmospheric
pressure. In any case, to maintain good performance,
the machine must be made leak proof, with advanced
technology (vacuum or pressure) for welding and
connections.
For the sake of reliability, we preferred solid sorption
because, first the sorbent bed can be implemented in the
solar collector; second, they need no heat storage; third,
they need no circulation pump. Indeed, the later would
require additional energy supply and special main-
tenance. However, we must mention two features of
solid sorption machines. First, during daily operation,
condensation in the evaporator must be prevented. This
can be done by installing between the condenser and the
evaporator a valve that must be operated only twice a
day: closed at sunrise, open at sunset. We have chosen a
manually operated valve, but we have good hopes of
developing a device that would make this manual oper-
ation unnecessary. Second, for good efficiency, the sor-
bent bed must be cooled at night. The efficiency of this
cooling is fairly important for the adsorption pair car-
bon + methanol [23]. For this purpose, ventilation
dampers can be installed on the solar collectors; once
these dampers are open, the cooling of the collectors is
significantly enhanced. Here again, these dampers must
be operated only twice a day: closed at sunrise, open at
mid-afternoon.
Lastly, considering the performance of solid sorption
systems, the largest COP’s (0.10–0.12) were obtained with
the adsorption systems zeolite + water [11] and activated
carbon + methanol [22,23,28]. The latter system offers
 F. Buchter et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 79–86
that additional advantage that methanol can easily eva-
porate at temperatures below 0  C, so that ice can be
produced to act as the above-mentioned cold storage.
From this development, it can be deduced that the
adsorption pair activated carbon + methanol, operated
in a 24 h cycle, with the carbon implemented in flat-
plate, single-glazed solar collectors covered by a selec-
tive surface, can be the basis for efficient solar-powered
refrigerators that would not require much advanced
technology except for weldings and connections, so that
such machines could be manufactured in developing
countries.
As far as self-sufficiency in terms of energy is con-
cerned, we think that the manual valve can be replaced
by an automatic device. The only remaining bottleneck
is the need for ventilation dampers, and this is why we
have focused the present study on this point. An acti-
vated carbon + methanol machine with dampers was
tested in France [28,29] while others without dampers
were tested in Morocco [22,23]. The ambient tempera-
ture is, of course, of high importance for the nocturnal
cooling of the collector.
Our study presents the design of an activated carbon
+ methanol machine for a typical sahelian hot and
dusty climate, together with its test results in Ouaga-
dougou, Burkina-Faso. This machine is equipped with
manually operated dampers. After the presentation of
experimental measurements and performance over a
period of 3 weeks, our analysis focuses on the effect of
the ventilation dampers, especially by comparison with
Refs. [22,23].
2. Principle of the adsorption cooling cycle
The basis of the adsorption cooling cycle is an alter-
nation of heating and cooling periods, where the adsor-
bent pumps the vapour in and out like a thermally-
driven piston. All the tests reported in the references [6–
30] fit this alternative cycle (also called intermittent) to
the alternation day/night as we did. An ideal cycle is
presented in the Clausius–Clapeyron diagram (lnP vs.

1/T) (Fig. 1). This figure and Table 1 summarize the
main phases of the process. A complete description of
the adsorption cooling cycle is available in other pub-
lications [28,29]
3. Description of the machine tested in Ouagadougou
The main components of an adsorptive cooling
machine are the adsorber (in the present case, the solar
collector itself), the condenser, the evaporator and a
throttling valve between the last two (see Fig. 2). The
machine was installed and tested on a building of the
Centre Ecologique Albert Schweitzer in Ouagadougou,
81
Burkina-Faso, latitude 12.292 N. As mentioned in the
introduction, the adsorption pair is activated carbon
plus methanol.
We selected the technique of single-glazed flat-plate
selective solar collector, which is a good compromise
between simplicity and efficiency at temperatures around
100  C. Fig. 3 presents a schema and Table 2 summarizes
the main characteristics of the collector-adsorber. The
ventilation dampers mentioned in the previous sections
consist of a mechanism that opens the thermal insulation
on the rear side of the collector, as shown in Fig. 3
Parallel finned tubes make a condenser cooled by nat-
ural convection, which should guarantee a temperature
difference with the ambient temperature lower than 10 K.
The evaporator consists of parallel tubes welded at
each end to a manifold. The evaporator is submerged in
water. During the evaporation of methanol, part of this
water turns into ice, which acts as a cold storage, keep-
ing the cold chamber below 5  C during the next day,
and also for a theoretical period of three days with low
irradiance. The cold cabinet is of the chest-type, and is
well insulated.
The only valve necessary is located between the grad-
uated bottle and the evaporator, see (4) in Fig. 4. Other
valves have been implemented for experimental pur-
poses.
Fig. 4 shows the general arrangement of the machine:
the collector is placed on the roof of the building, while
all the other components are located under the roof in
order to protect them from the sun.
The temperature is measured (Pt100 probes and ther-
mocouples type K) on the collector-adsorber (see G in
Fig. 3), on the condenser, and on the evaporator; and
the ambient air temperature is also measured. The
vapour pressure is measured (piezogauge 0–1 bar)
between the condenser and graduated bottle. The global
solar irradiance is recorded by a pyranometer (Kipp
Zonen) parallel to the collector. A graduated bottle (12 l)
collects the liquefied methanol, see Figs. 1 and 4. The
level of liquid methanol is read from time to time during
desorption, more closely when desorption approaches
Fig. 1. Experimental (solid lines) and theoretical cycle (dashed
lines) in the Clausius–Clapeyron cycle (lnP vs.
1/T).
82 F. Buchter et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 79–86

Table 1
Main steps in the adsorption refrigerating cycle, especially when solar-powered

Point shown Time in the day T P Operation on the Developing process

in Fig. 2 (approx.) machine

A Sunrise Ti Pe=Ps(Te) Check valve closed End of adsorption

Dampers closed (if any)
A–B Isosteric heating of the adsorbent
Pressurisation of the system
B 9–11 a.m. Pc=Ps(Tc) Onset of desorption
B–D Heating of the adsorbent
Desorption and condensation of the refrigerant
D 3–5 p.m. Th Pc=Ps(Tc) Dampers open (if any) End of desorption
D–F Isosteric cooling of the adsorbent
Depressurisation of the system
F Pe=Ps(Te) Check valve open Onset of adsorption
F–A Cooling of the adsorbent
Evaporation and adsorption of the refrigerant

completion until the valve is open. Apart from the level

of liquid methanol, all the measurements are recorded
every 10 s. Moreover, each day the moments when the
ventilation dampers and the valve are open or closed are
recorded.

4. Performance of the tested unit

Fig. 5 shows typical measurements obtained on a

Fig. 2. Schematic of an adsorptive solar refrigerator: solar
collector-adsorber (1), ventilation dampers in closed position
(2.1), ventilation dampers in open position (2.2), condenser (3),
graduated bottle (4), check valve (5), evaporator (6), cold cabi-
net (7), ice storage (8).
fairly sunny day. The four steps of the cycle as well as
the points A, B, D, and F mentioned in Fig. 1, can be
recognized. This figure can be commented on as follows.
Because of changes in the ambient temperature, and
in the condensed flow-rate (and therefore in the heat
rate released by the condenser), desorption does not
perform at constant pressure as in the ideal cycle of
Fig. 1. Moreover, although the heat input is lower than
the heat losses in the collector (the temperature of col-
lector is already decreasing) the decrease of pressure
between 3 and 4 p.m. induces desorption, as shown by
the curve ‘VI’.
The effect of a cloud (between 11 a.m. and noon) can
readily be seen on the collector temperature (curve ‘II’)
and on the vapour pressure (curve ‘VII’), but hardly at
all on the amount of condensed methanol (curve ‘VI’).
This is due to the cumulative principle of this machine,
as opposed to continuously operating cycles. The later
curve (VI) displays a decrease after the end of deso-
rption (point D). This must be related to the non-isos-
 F. Buchter et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 79–86
Fig. 3. Schematic of the solar collector-adsorber: glass cover
(A), tube covered with selective surface (B), active carbon (C),
central tube for vapour transport (D), thermal insulation
around the collector (E); insulating dampers are also shown in
open position for ventilation (F).
teric path DF in Fig. 1. Indeed, the condensed refriger-
ant must be somehow cooled down to the evaporator
temperature. This can be done either by transferring the
liquid methanol directly into the evaporator, or by first
starting adsorption on liquid methanol, where evapora-
tion lowers its temperature before the transfer. Fig. 5
shows the effect of the latter procedure. Simple enthalpy
balance show that this has no significant effect on per-
formance.
The temperature difference between condenser and
ambient air is always less than 5 K. The evaporator
remains at 0  C, or below, all the day long.
Now, the analysis will focus on data wich was inte-
grated over each day. First, the gross solar COP, COPs,
represents the efficiency of the cooling system, solar
collector plus adsorption cycle. This COP is defined as
the ratio of the total heat extracted by evaporation of
methanol to the incident global irradiance. The first one,
Qe, is the enthalpy difference between the saturated
Table 2
Main characteristics of the machine
Collector-adsorber Condenser
(total area 2 m2; tilt angle 14.2 ) (total fin area 6 m2)
Constitutive parts
12 Tubes, external diameter 70 mm, 7 Tubes, 2 m length
thickness 1 mm
40 kg Acticarbone AC40, CECA Pitch between fins of 12 mm
Selective layer (1Maxorb)
Absorptance 0.9
Emissivity 0.10–0.15
Central tube (metal grid)
Diameter 10 mm
Insulation: 30 mm glass-wool
83
vapour at Te and the saturated liquid at Tc for the whole
condensed methanol at the end of adsorption (point D
in Fig. 5), mL. The second one, Qh, is obtained by inte-
grating from sunrise to sunset the irradiance measured
on the collector (of area S m2). Thus one has:


Qe mL : L
CpL :ðTc
Te Þ
COPs ¼ ¼ Ð sunset ð1Þ
Qh S: sunrise GðtÞ:dt
Table 3 presents the most important measured data
and also the performance of the machine over three
weeks. Some data is missing because of failures in the
acquisition process. The values of COPs obtained,
between 0.08 and 0.13, are similar to the ones obtained
with other adsorption machines tested in comparable
climates [21,22,27]. To qualitatively extend the perfor-
mance measured in May over the whole year, it must be
mentioned that May usually is a sunny and warm
month in Ouagadougou, when during about half of the
year, from June to February, the ambient temperature
usually is significantly lower than in May. A low ambi-
ent temperature reduces the heat transfer from ambient
to the cold cabinet and increases the efficiency of the
adsorption cycle. Both effects enhance the cooling
capacity of the machine. Lastly, it can be said that the
machine has worked and produced cold for more than
one year, without any intervention or special main-
tenance. At the moment, the machine with a new smal-
ler cabinet works and produces cold, but unfortunately,
the experimental campaign has been stopped and no
quantitative data is available.
5. Comparison with an industrial ice-maker
In the eighties, a French company, Brissoneau et
Lotz-Marine (BLM), developed a solar-powered ice-
maker using the adsorption pair active carbon +
methanol. Three of those solar ice-makers were tested
Evaporator Cold cabinet
(heat exchange area 1.7 m2) (available volume 440 litres)
8 Tubes, external Water tank of 40 l
diameter 50 mm
Insulation: 150 mm of
expanded polystyrene
84 F. Buchter et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 79–86

by Boubakri et al. in Agadir, Morocco, one of them

containing the same activated carbon as the one used in
the unit in Ouagadougou [22,23]. Boubakri et al. ana-
lysed the performance data of the BLM machine and
they were able to deduce a simple formula yielding its
daily net cold production as a function of global irra-
diance (qh), ambient air temperature at sunrise (Tn), and
that in mid-afternoon (Td), see Eq. (2) here.

qeðnetÞ ¼ 1000 þ 0:095  qh
18  Td
53  Tn ð2Þ

where the heat quantities q are in kJ m
2 and the tem-

peratures, Td and Tn, in Celsius.
The net cold production of an ice-maker corresponds
to the latent heat for freezing the water plus the sensible
heat from ambient temperature down to zero Celsius.
The cold production reported below for the machine
tested in Ouagadougou corresponds to the enthalpy
change of methanol between condenser and evaporator,
Fig. 4. Schematic of the prototype tested in Ouagadougou:
see Eq. (1); this is the gross production. Comparison of
collector-adsorber (1), condenser (2), graduated bottle (3),
performance must be performed on a same basis, which

Table 3
Meteorological data and experimental performance measured over 3 weeks. The last column contains the gross solar COP evaluated
for the BLM unit according to Eq. (3)

Global irradiation Ambient air temperature Experimental gross Evaluated gross solar
(MJ/ m2) solar COPs (–) COP (BLM) (–)
Day At 6.30 a.m. At 4.00 p.m.
( C) ( C)

01.05.99 24.57 28.2 41.1 0.097 0.075

02.05.99 22.07 29.2 39.9 0.087 0.070
03.05.99 23.04 28.6 38.6 0.100 0.073
04.05.99 19.91 28.6 32.6 0.099 0.071
05.05.99 23.30 25.7 35.4 0.115 0.080
06.05.99 24.83 28.7 38.1 0.099 0.074
07.05.99 9.23 29.1 34.5 – 0.040
08.05.99 20.14 28.0 34.3 0.097 0.072
09.05.99 20.68 26.3 37.9 0.088 0.076
10.05.99 24.92 26.8 37.4 0.101 0.078
11.05.99 23.01 28.4 41.4 0.092 0.073
12.05.99 22.75 28.3 39.7 0.091 0.073
13.05.99 24.23 28.2 39.2 0.096 0.075
14.05.99 – – – – –
15.05.99 23.29 29.5 38.1 0.090 0.071
16.05.99 18.98 22.7 34.9 0.111 0.083
17.05.99 24.65 26.8 36.4 0.131 0.078
18.05.99 21.21 24.3 35.8 0.109 0.081
19.05.99 24.55 28.3 38.8 0.105 0.075
20.05.99 22.49 27.2 37.3 0.117 0.076
21.05.99 25.00 25.2 36.2 0.125 0.081
22.05.99 24.51 27.5 37.8 0.107 0.076
 F. Buchter et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 79–86
in the present case can only be the gross cold produc-
tion. Although this data is not available in the articles of
Boubakri et al. [22,23], thanks to a recent article of this
author (Boubakri et al. [32]) the heat losses and the heat
capacity of the evaporator plus cold chamber can be
reasonably evaluated, leading to the following expres-
sion for the gross cold production of the BLM ice-
maker with AC40, see Eq. (3) here:
qeðgrossÞ ¼ 1000 þ 0:095  qh
5  Td
46  Tn ð3Þ
where the heat quantities q are in kJ m
2 and the tem-
peratures T in Celsius.
Fig. 5. Typical measurements over a 24 h period: global irra-
diance (I), temperature of collector-adsorber (II), condenser
temperature (III ‘*’), ambient air temperature (IV ‘*’), eva-
porator temperature (V ‘&’), volume of condensed methanol
(VI ‘’), vapour pressure (VII ‘+’). Peculiar points of Fig. 1
are displayed: A (6.23 a.m.), B (9.40 a.m.), D (4.04 p.m.), and F
(6.48 p.m.).
Fig. 6. Comparison of the values of gross cold production
evaluated with Eq. (2) (net cold production ‘+’) and 3 (gross
cold production ‘^’) for the BLM ice-maker to the experi-
mental values for the present machine in Ouagadougou.
85
Eq. (3) and the meteorological data reported in
Table 3 permit an evaluation of the probable gross cold
production of a BLM ice-maker if it had been operated
in Ouagadougou during the same test period. Fig. 6
shows the comparison of this evaluated gross cold pro-
duction to that actually recorded in Ouagadougou; also
the values of the net cold production calculated with
Eq. (2) are reported. It appears that, on average, the
gross cold production of the BLM ice-maker would
have been lower than that recorded in Ouagadougou by
26%. The net cold production would have been lower
by 55%. These two ratios are shown by dashed lines (see
Fig. 6).
At first sight, it could be deduced that the machine in
Ouagadougou is 35% more efficient than the BLM
machine tested in Agadir (1/0.74=1.35). However, our
analysis is different because the two machines differ on
an important point: the BLM machines were not equip-
ped with ventilation dampers opened at night. As a
result, the nocturnal cooling of the adsorber was much
less efficient than for the present machine. Indeed, Bou-
bakri et al. [32] recently mentioned that with efficient
nocturnal cooling of the collector,the performance of
the BLM machine would be increased by one third
(from 6 to 8 kg of ice per square meter collector), prac-
tically the same proportion as the +35% mentioned
above. In other words, it can be said that the machine in
Ouagadougou is roughly as efficient as the BLM
machine, except that the opening of ventilation dampers
during the night improves the performance by one third.
This proportion is quite significant and efforts should
probably be made to develop systems that would auto-
matically open the dampers in late afternoon and close
them in the morning, e.g. with photovoltaic cells and a
small motor.
6. Conclusion
The adsorption pair active carbon + methanol offers
attractive possibilities for autonomous solar-powered
cooling machines in sahelian climates. With a consistent
design of the different components, a technique as sim-
ple as single-glazed solar collector-adsorber covered
with selective surface yields good performance, i.e. gross
solar COPs around 0.12. For these reasons, this
machine seems to be appropriate to be transferred to
developing countries, despite the requirement of
vacuum technology. The present experiment confirms
results published in previous articles, especially the fact
that the use of ventilation dampers increases the per-
formance of the machine by roughly one third. It might,
therefore, be worth developing some automatic system
for operating the dampers. Such a machine would then
be fully autonomous, which is very attractive for solar
refrigeration in remote areas.
86 F. Buchter et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 26 (2003) 79–86
Acknowledgements
The authors specially thank the Direction du Dével-
oppement et de la Coopération in Bern, Switzerland,
and also in Ouagadougou, Burkina-Faso, for financial
support. They also gratefully thank the Swiss and Bur-
kinabe branches of Centre Ecologique Albert Schweit-
zer (CEAS) for financial and very human help.
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