Communication systems
Rahul ,ECE/06/142
Shri Balwant Institute of Technology
Sonipat Haryana
ece06142.sbit@gmail.com
INTRODUTION
Communication is a process of transferring
information from one entity to
another.Communication is commonly defined as
"the imparting or interchange of thoughts,
opinions, or information by speech, writing, or
signs". Although there is such a thing as one-way
communication, communication can be
perceived better as a two-way process in which
there is an exchange and progression of thoughts,
feelings or ideas (energy) towards a mutually
accepted goal or direction (information).
Communication is a process whereby
information is enclosed in a package and is
channeled and imparted by a sender to a receiver
via some medium. The receiver then decodes the
message and gives the sender a feedback. All
forms of communication require a sender, a
message, and a receiver.
In modern times, telecommunication typically
involves the use of electronic devices such as
telephones, television, radio or computers
COMPUTER NETWORKS AND THE
INTERNET
ARPANET's development centred around the
Request for Comment process and on 7 April
1969, RFC 1 was published. This process is
important because ARPANET would eventually
merge with other networks to form the Internet
and many of the protocols the Internet relies
upon today were specified through the Request
for Comment process. In September 1981, RFC
791 introduced the Internet Protocol v4 (IPv4)
and RFC 793 introduced the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) — thus creating the
TCP/IP protocol that much of the Internet relies
upon today
A basic communication system consists of three
elements:
• a transmitter that takes information and
converts it to a signal;
• a transmission medium that carries the
signal; and,
• a receiver that receives the signal and
converts it back into usable information.
For example, in a radio broadcast the broadcast
tower is the transmitter, free space is the
transmission medium and the radio is the
receiver.
Communication over a telephone line is called
point-to-point communication because it is
between one transmitter and one receiver.
Communication through radio broadcasts is
called broadcast communication because it is
between one powerful transmitter and numerous
receivers.
ANALOGUE OR DIGITAL
Signals can be either analogue or digital. In an
analogue signal, the signal is varied continuously
with respect to the information. In a digital
signal, the information is encoded as a set of
discrete values (for example ones and zeros).
During transmission the information contained in
analogue signals will be degraded by noise.
Conversely, unless the noise exceeds a certain
threshold, the information contained in digital
signals will remain intact. Noise resistance
represents a key advantage of digital signals over
analogue signals.
NETWORKS
A network is a collection of transmitters,
receivers and transceivers that communicate with
each other. Digital networks consist of one or
more routers that work together to transmit
information to the correct user. An analogue
network consists of one or more switches that
establish a connection between two or more
users. For both types of network, repeaters may
be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal
when it is being transmitted over long distances.
This is to combat attenuation that can render the
signal indistinguishable from noise.[23]
CHANNELS
A channel is a division in a transmission medium
so that it can be used to send multiple streams of
information. For example, a radio station may
broadcast at 96.1 MHz while another radio
station may broadcast at 94.5 MHz. In this case,
the medium has been divided by frequency and
each channel has received a separate frequency
to broadcast on. Alternatively, one could allocate
each channel a recurring segment of time over
which to broadcast—this is known as time-
division multiplexing and is used in optic fibre
communication.
MODULATION
The shaping of a signal to convey information is
known as modulation. Modulation can be used to
represent a digital message as an analogue
waveform. This is known as keying and several
keying techniques exist (these include phase-
shift keying, frequency-shift keying and
amplitude-shift keying). Bluetooth, for example,
uses phase-shift keying to exchange information
between devices.
Modulation can also be used to transmit the
information of analogue signals at higher
frequencies. This is helpful because low-
frequency analogue signals cannot be effectively
transmitted over free space. Hence the
information from a low-frequency analogue
signal must be superimposed on a higher-
frequency signal (known as the carrier wave)
before transmission. There are several different
modulation schemes available to achieve this
(two of the most basic being amplitude
modulation and frequency modulation). An
example of this process is a DJ's voice being
superimposed on a 96 MHz carrier wave using
frequency modulation (the voice would then be
received on a radio as the channel "96 FM").
TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a type of
digital or (rarely) analog multiplexing in which
two or more signals or bit streams are transferred
apparently simultaneously as sub-channels in
one communication channel, but are physically
taking turns on the channel. The time domain is
divided into several recurrent timeslots of fixed
length, one for each sub-channel. A sample byte
or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted
during timeslot 1, sub-channel 2 during timeslot
2, etc.
One TDM frame consists of one timeslot per
sub-channel. After the last sub-channel the cycle
starts all over again with a new frame, starting
with the second sample, byte or data block from
sub-channel 1, etc.
In circuit switched networks such as the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) there
exists the need to transmit multiple subscribers’
calls along the same transmission medium. To
accomplish this, network designers make use of
TDM. TDM allows switches to create channels,
also known as tributaries, within a transmission
stream. A standard DS0 voice signal has a data
bit rate of 64 kbit/s, determined using Nyquist’s
sampling criterion. TDM takes frames of the
voice signals and multiplexes them into a TDM
frame which runs at a higher bandwidth. So if
the TDM frame consists of n voice frames, the
bandwidth will be n*64 kbit/s.
Each voice sample timeslot in the TDM frame is
called a channel .[2] In European systems, TDM
frames contain 30 digital voice channels, and in
American systems, they contain 24 channels.
Both standards also contain extra bits (or bit
timeslots) for signalling (see Signaling System 7)
and synchronisation bits.
Multiplexing more than 24 or 30 digital voice
channels is called higher order multiplexing.
Higher order multiplexing is accomplished by
multiplexing the standard TDM frames. For
example, a European 120 channel TDM frame is
formed by multiplexing four standard 30 channel
TDM frames
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
(FDM)
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a
form of signal multiplexing which involves
assigning non-overlapping frequency ranges to
different signals or to each "user" of a medium.
The two types of FDM can be classified as
i)Non Telephone
ii)Telephone
NON TELEPHONE
FDM can also be used to combine multiple
signals before final modulation onto a carrier
wave. In this case the carrier signals are referred
to as subcarriers: an example is stereo FM
transmission, where a 38 kHz subcarrier is used
to separate the left-right difference signal from
the central left-right sum channel, prior to the
frequency modulation of the composite signal. A
television channel is divided into subcarrier
frequencies for video, color, and audio. DSL
uses different frequencies for voice and for
upstream and downstream data transmission on
the same conductors, which is also an example
of frequency duplex.
Where frequency-division multiplexing is used
as to allow multiple users to share a physical
communications channel, it is called frequency-
division multiple access (FDMA).FDMA is the
traditional way of separating radio signals from
different transmitters.
TELEPHONE
For long distance telephone connections, 20th
century telephone companies used L-carrier and
similar co-axial cable systems carrying
thousands of voice circuits multiplexed in
multiple stages by channel banks.
For shorter distances,cheaper balanced pair
cables were used for various systems including
Bell System K- and N-Carrier. Those cables
didn't allow such large bandwidths, so only 12
voice channels (Double Sideband) and later 24
(Single Sideband) were multiplexed into four
wires, one pair for each direction with repeaters
every several miles, approximately 10 km. See
12-channel carrier system. By the end of the 20th
Century, FDM voice circuits had become rare.
Modern telephone systems employ digital
transmission, in which time-division
multiplexing (TDM) is used instead of FDM.
The concept corresponding to frequency-division
multiplexing in the optical domain is known as
wavelength division multiplexing.
PHASE-SHIFT KEYING (PSK)
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital
modulation scheme that conveys data by
changing, or modulating, the phase of a
reference signal (the carrier wave).
Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite
number of distinct signals to represent digital
data. PSK uses a finite number of phases, each
assigned a unique pattern of binary digits.
Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of
bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is
represented by the particular phase. The
demodulator, which is designed specifically for
the symbol-set used by the modulator,
determines the phase of the received signal and
maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus
recovering the original data. This requires the
receiver to be able to compare the phase of the
received signal to a reference signal — such a
system is termed coherent (and referred to as
CPSK).
Alternatively, instead of using the bit patterns to
set the phase of the wave, it can instead be used
to change it by a specified amount.
AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING (ASK)
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of
modulation that represents digital data as
variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave.
The amplitude of an analog carrier signal varies
in accordance with the bit stream (modulating
signal), keeping frequency and phase constant.
The level of amplitude can be used to represent
binary logic 0s and 1s. We can think of a carrier
signal as an ON or OFF switch. In the modulated
signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a
carrier, thus giving OFF/ON keying operation
and hence the name given.
Like AM, ASK is also linear and sensitive to
atmospheric noise, distortions, propagation
conditions on different routes in PSTN, etc. Both
ASK modulation and demodulation processes
are relatively inexpensive. The ASK technique is
also commonly used to transmit digital data over
optical fiber. For LED transmitters, binary 1 is
represented by a short pulse of light and binary 0
by the absence of light. Laser transmitters
normally have a fixed "bias" current that causes
the device to emit a low light level. This low
level represents binary 0, while a higher-
amplitude light wave represents binary 1.
Here is a diagram showing the ideal model for a
transmission system using an ASK modulation:
can be divided into three blocks. The first one
represents the transmitter, the second one is a
linear model of the effects of the channel, the
third one shows the structure of the receiver. The
following notation is used:
• ht(t) is the carrier signal for the
transmission
• hc(t) is the impulse response of the
channel
• n(t) is the noise introduced by the
channel
• hr(t) is the filter at the receiver
• L is the number of levels that are used
for transmission
• Ts is the time between the generation of
two symbols
FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING (FSK )
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency
modulation scheme in which digital information
is transmitted through discrete frequency
changes of a carrier wave. The simplest FSK is
binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK literally implies
using a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit
binary (0s and 1s) information. With this
scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and
the "0" is called the space frequency