Chapter 11

SUPERCHARGING

11-1. General

owing to the increase of the carrying capacity and speed of modern motor vehicles, more power is
required for propulsion without essentially increasing the size and weight of the engines. Also, engines
to be used in mountainous conditions should be so designed that their power does not drop with the
altitude as the atmospheric pressure becomes smaller. The specialized equipment and measuring
instruments used in modern batch production dictate the need for the manufacture of engines with
various rated power on the basis of a unified series in which the dimensions of the cylinders and the
piston stroke are the same in all the modifications. The solution lies in finding methods that can be used
to appreciably increase the power-per-litre of an engine.

The brake power of an engine is determined by equation (8-34). With the given working volume
of an engine the power can be increased by raising the speed n or the brake mean effective pressure pb.
The use of the first method is restricted by the maximum mean velocity of the piston (limited by the
necessity of designing engines with a high service life) Let us consider how the brake mean effective
pressure lequation (8-33) can increased

The ratio is determined by the indicated process that occurs in a cylinder. With the present
effectiveness of the process this value can be further improved only by several per cent and cannot have
a noticeable influence on pu. The value of is also sufficiently high Work is underway to reduce
mechanical losses, but this will not give a sharp increase in pb. The density of the charge pcom can be
appreciably increased by raising the pressure of the air or mixture admitted into the cylinder The value
of pu, and the power per litre of the engine grow in proportion to p This method is known as
supercharging. The friction losses in a supercharged engine are greater, but because of the rise in the
effective power the mechanical efficiency rises with the use of supercharging The pressure of the air is
increased in a compressor which can be actuated by the engine. Despite this, supercharging
considerably raises

the effective power of the engine. The work spent on compression o obtained during expansion of a gas
is proportional to its initial temperature. In a compressor the air is compressed at a relatively low
temperature and expands in the engine cylinder at a high temperature, thus performing more work than
that spent on compression The increase in engine power is appraised by the degree of supercharging
where pb., is the brake mean effective pressure attained in the super charged engine Supercharging
increases the pressure and temperature of the air at the end of compression. This limits the degree of
supercharging in carburettor engines owing to the appearance of knocking Supercharging can be used in
motor vehicle spark-ignition engines to preserve their rated power in mountainous conditions The rated
power of spark-ignition engines can also be increased with such a combination of the engine
compression ratio, supercharge pressure and excess air coefficient when the achievement of a high
power does not cause detonation in combustion. Especially beneficial is the use of supercharging in
diesel engines in which the quantity pcom is not limited by detonation. This makes possible a large
increase in the power-per-litre of the diesel engines To guarantee reliability and to keep thermal
stresses within permissible limits, the practice is to limit the maximum cycle pressure p. in supercharged
diesel engines and to increase a when operating in nominal conditions. The latter measure reduces the
amount of toxic components and soot in the exhaust gases. Such positive factors open up prospects for
supercharged automotive diesel engines which are becoming ever more popular In diesel engines
supercharging brings about an in crease in p b of up to 30 per cent (low supercharging). Examples of
more highly superchargerd (up to 40-50 %) engines of this class are also known

11-2 Super charging system

Three systems ol Supercharging are distinguished With an engine-driven compressor, a

turbocompressor and a combination system. In the first system, driven compressor (Fig, 11-1a) is
connected to crankshaft 3 through step up gear 2, A turbocompressor (fig, 11-1b) is driven by the energy
of the exhaust gases admitted into gas turbine 4. The latter drives compressor mounted of a common
shaft with it. In a combination system (Fig, 11-1c), the first stage is an engine-driven compressor and the
second a turbocompressor.

owing to compression, the air temperature after the compressor increases [see equation (4-14)). some
engines are designed with a cooler between the intake system and the compressor to reduce the
temperature of the charge when e com = pcom/po>2. In this case the temperature of the charge at the
intake is determined by equation (4-15)

gambar 11-1

Intermediate cooling considerably reduces the heat stresses of critical parts of the engine at the given
level of boosting. In supercharged carburettor engines, the compressor maybe talled before or after the
carburettor. In the former case special attention should be given to sealing of the float chamber. In the
latter case measures must be taken to prevent injection of the gases into the compressor should
backfiring occur in the intake system. For this purpose safety valves are arranged in the line after the
compressor. Rotary displacement and centrifugal vane compressors are the ones used most frequently.
The principal parameters characterizing a compressor are the compression ratio (RUMUS) the output,
equal to the rate of flow of the supplied air per second G, and the adiabatic efficiency nad. The work
spent for compressing one kilogram of air in a compressor from pe to p com, assuming that compression
occurs adiabatically, is (k-1)/R ce To (e com ad In actual conditions the process of compression is always
attended by heat exchange and internal losses, which increase the work done, accounted for by the
adiabatic efficiency of the compressor, i.e., the

ratio of the work in adiabatic compression to the actual work done

The work actually spent on compression and for forcing one kilo gram of air through a compressor

(11-1)
The power used to drive a compressor

(11-2)

Upon inserting expression (11-1) into formula (11-2), we obtain

(11-3)

Where Ncom = total efficiency of the compressor: ncom nad nmech. The power of a compressor can be
also expressed as

RT G, (E (11-4) com 11com

Without an air cooler, the temperature of the air after the compressor For a low compression ratio the
Roots blower is used, whose adiabatic efficiency at low values of Ecom is rather high (at Ecom 1.3 we
have nade 0.65). A rise in the compression ratio sharply reduces the adiabatic efficiency nad, which
equals 0.5 when Ecom 2. For high values of Ecom, rotary propeller compressors with a higher efficiency
are employed. As it moves along the rotor axis up to the exhaust port, the air is compressed by the
propeller vanes. High-speed engines often employ centrifugal or axial-flow compressors with a high
adiabatic efficiency (nad 0.7-0.8) A drop in the efficiency with a rise in E considerably increases the
amount of work spent to compress the air in the compressor and increases This reduces the
effectiveness of supercharging. The brake power of an engine supercharged by means of an engine-
driven compressor is com COM i. s When the degree of supercharging rises above a definite value, the
brake power no longer grows owing to the drop in the mechanical

efficiency of the engine caused by the growth of the power spent to drive the compressor The greater
efficiencies of a centrifugal compressor cause the brake power of an engine to grow to higher values of
ecom

11-3. Turbocharging

In this kind of supercharging some of the energy produced by the exhaust gases is used. This makes it
possible to partially utilize the in the cylinder and the atmospheric pressure, which is typical of a cycle h
prolonged expansion (see Figs. 1-13, 1-14)

The elements of a turbocharging system are simple in design The total mass of those elements is, as a
rule, lower than 8 per cent of the diesel engine mass

With turbocharging the engine power may be raised by 50 per cent and more. The toxicity of the
exhaust gases is reduced because in a supercharged diesel engine the combustion process takes place at
greater values of a. With an appropriate design and technology in volving the use of special alloys, the
service life of supercharged diesel engines may be as long as that of unsupercharged engines. The cost
of the supercharged engine per unit of power will be less. These factors make turbocharging a very
promising method for automotive industry At the same time, despite great advantages of turbocharging
substan tial difficulties are to be overcome before its use for automotive engi nes becomes practical
 As the speed of a composite engine made up of a piston and a blade machines is reduced, the
amount of exhaust gases delivered to the gas turbine during cycle remains practically constant, but their
tempe ture drops. This results in a decrease of the turbine's power and accordingly, the work spent on
air compression in the compressor ith the resultant drop in the pressure of supercharging peom. Such a
dependence of pcom on the rpm does not provide for the necessary torque reserve and consequently
the engine's accelaration is inade- guate. To obtain the required speed characteristic, the parameters of
the gas turbine and the characteristics of the fuel-feeding equipment should be chosen appropriately
and the mixture formation process should be designed for optimum engine parameters in operating
conditions. Next, it is very important to guarantee optimum engine per formance in the most probable
operating conditions and this, too equires appropriate matching of the engine and the turbine processes

Because of higher thermal and mechanical stresses in supercharged engines, the demands on
the quality of materials used in their fabri cation are more exacting.

owing to energy losses typical of turbocharging, the efficiency of he supercharged engine cycle
corresponding to a continuous charge expansion from the pressure p to the atmospheric pressure pa
(see Fig. 1-13) is relatively low (under 7 per cent). It is the lower, the hig her the compression ratio e in
the compressor. Research work is underway to increase the cycle efficiency of the supercharger and to
cut dynamical losses in the outlet and inlet systems of diesel en gines.

As supercharging is increased, the rational design of parts of the outlet system, for instance the
time-cross section parameter for outlet walves, becomes of greater importance. For medium and highly
supercharged engines Ecom 2.0), cylinder heads with two exhaust (and two inlet) valves per cylinder
should be used To meet mechanical strength and thermal stress requirements, the value of ecam in
automotive diesel en gines is usually not above 1.6-1.8. In some models it reaches 2.0-2.2. For such
Ecom intermediate cooling of air is often used Compact turbochargers with radial centripetal (axi al flow)
turbines and cent- rifugal compressors are used for automobile and tractor engines. The diagrams of the
compressor and the tur- Fig. 11-2. hematic diagrams of a compressor bine are shown in Fig. 11-2 and a
turbine Figure 11.2a shows the diagram of a centrifugal compressor. The compressor wheel 2 mounted
on shaft 3 together with guiding device 7 rotate in casing 1. The guiding device reduces by building up a
laminar flow along the leading edges of the blades As air enters the rotating turbine wheel through it
potential and kinetic energy. The velocity of air in the wheel reaches 300-350 m/s. From the turbine the
air flows into diffuser 4. Here the transformation of energy takes place it is transformed into the energy
of pressure. From the diffuser the air at the pressure p flows into air collector 5 and after the inlet valve
com is opened, into the engine The diagram of a radial centripetal turbine is shown in Fig. 11-2b

The exhaust gases from the exhaust pipe enter inlet duct 8 of the tur then flow at the velocity vt, pt and
temperature Tr into the nozzle box 9 with narrowing channels. The velocity being passing through the
nozzle box increases the exit velocity values The pressure and temperature here fall to the respective pi
and T. The gas the interblad of turbine wheel at the velocity where it flows around the blades changing
the di ection of its flow. The tangential component of the force resulting from the gas flow around the
blades and from the changes in the d rection of creates the torque that rotates the turbine wheel the
practice to install a rotary outlet straightening dev on the gas exit out of the turbine wheel. The outlet
velocity of the gas t, and the respective pressure and temperature fall to p es T,. the velocity triangle
built entry to the tur bine wheel, one may, knowing the rotor rotation velocity the magnitude and the
direction of the vector of velocity v of gas flow relative to the leading edges of the turbine wheel blades.
The velocity va of the gas leaving the turbine is obtained from an appropriate ve ocity triangle built on
the axis of the straightening device 10 Figure 11.3 shows the general view of the radial centripetal
turbine TKP.11H installed on the tractor diesel engine The gas the centripetal turbine blades flows from
the circumference to the centre. The design of the centripetal turbine facilitates the use of ro tating
blades in the turbine's nozzle box because of better conditions for butt-end sealing. The use of a turbine
with rotating nozzle box blades enables a more efficient use of turbocharging in va riable operating
conditions characteristic of automotive engine ser Vice The wheels of turbine 11 and of compressor 2
work in casings 12 and 1, respectively. They are mounted on turbocompressor shaft 3 which rotates in a
sliding bearing mounted in housing 13. The turbo compressors of this type have a small mass and good
acceleration properties, their overall efficiency is quite high (over 0.5). The life of the turbocompressors
is close to that of the other units of the diesel The peripheral speed of the turbocompressor wheels
depends on the head created by the compressor. The peripheral speed of turbocom ressors for
automobile and tractor diesels 250-380 m/s. The choice of the materials for the turbine wheel is
dictated by the peripheral speed and the temperature of the exhaust gases. For the average te above
the turbine wheels are made of nickel perature of For a better acceleration of the turbocompressor,
turbine wheels of minimum outside and consequently with the mini mum moment of inertia should be
used The principal parameters and testing methods the turbocom pressors are standardized The
standards enable a choice to be made

of the type and the dimensions of a turboddllplttu and u from the peripheral velocity u The rotor
rotation speed is calculated speed of the and the diameter of the wheels. The rpm with rotors has been
increased in recent years to 50,000-80,000 the engine operating in nominal duty

Fig. 11.3., The type TKP-11H-1 radial centripetal turbocompressor of the CMIL-60 engine. Rel. Nos 1-8
same as in Fig. 11-2

Working processes in the turbocharging system involve cyclic va riations of the gas flow parameters.
The transient nature of gas dyna- mic processes is most pronounced in the outlet duct which connects
the cylinders with the gas turbine. This is due to greater perturbations of the gas flow in the gas pipe in
the process of free exhaust, homogeneities in the working fluid temperatures and to their varia tion
with time, to higher local stream velocities, etc. The outlet ducts of each cylinder group are combined to
form an exhaust manifold which feeds a section oi the turbine's inlet In the cycle being discussed
exhaust gases from one of the cylinders

are discharged into the manifold full of gases discharged from another cylinder during the previous cycle.
Fig. 11-4 shows, by way of an example, the manifold pressure variations in the process of impulse
supercharging. Here the indicator diagram is obtained experimentally in the exhaust pipeline of a six-
cylinder diesel engine. As the cross section of the outlet valves increases in the process of exhaust out of
the given cylinder, an intense rise in the instantaneous consumption of gas and in the flow velocity vt in
the outlet duct of the given cy inder takes place. This duct is illed with gas having the tem perature Td
close to the tempera- ture Tb. At the end of the process the consumption of gas from the cylinder drops
to zero with the result that the pressure pt, the emperature T, and the gas velo- y in the manifold drop
to the minimum 120 150 240 Joo TDC The maximum pressure in the manifold pmat Fig. 11-4. Gas
pressure in exhaust pipe the same time, the average pres of an engine using impulse super char sure in
it in cycle pa is not gre ging ater than 0.2 pb. the minimum cylinders. the lirst respectively, are open and
second value being 0.12 pb The ratio of the cyclic pressure variation to the average pressure in impulse
supercharging systems employed on high pat engines is about 0.4-0.8 falling substantially as the
crankshaft speed increases. The quantity A also diminishes as the number of cylinders supplying each
collector is increased turbocharging manifold cross-section Q s of the same order as that of each of the
exhaust valve ducts, the ratio being QIA 1-1.25 The increase in the 2 decreases the effect of the pulsed
flow of gases supplied to the turbine wheel. This results in a decrease of losses in the turbine with actual
losses approaching the design va ues. The decrease in the impulse decreases to some extent losses in
the early stage of the gas exhaust out of the cylinder into the exhaust system. At the same time, the
energy spent on pushing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder, as the piston moves towards TDC, is
greater and cylinder scavenging at the end of the exhaust becomes worse In high-power diesel engines
which may be installed on heavy trucks destined for terrain operations, in addition to impulse super
charging systems, systems are used in which the gas is supplied to

the turbine at a constant pressure. The quantity A in such systems less, due to an increase in the cross-
section and a corresponding increase in the volume of the exhaust manifolds Among the advantages of
the constant pressure systems apart from a decrease in the level of gas-dynamic and correspon in the
turbine efficiency, the decrease in gas-dynamic losses in the pipelines may be cited. The disadvantages,
besides the deteri oration of conditions for cylinder cleaning, specifically for cylinder scavenging, are the
decrease in the acceleration and an increase in the mass of the supercharging system With
supercharging E 2.0. A 2.5, the use of a constant pres sure system enables a greater turbocompressor
efficiency to be obtained as compared with an impulse system Fig. 11.5. Connection of exhaust pipes
The conditions for the working a V-eight diesel engine HM3-238 process in an impulse turbochar I-
cylinders 2- exhaust manifold: 3-gas ging system for a four-stroke di utbine: compressor. 5-intake pipe
esel engine are best, as may be en from Fig. 11-4, in sections with the number of cylinders being a
multiple of three, because in that case there is no overlapping of the exhaust phases In motor vehicles
wide use is made of the V-type eight-cylinder diesel with the cylinder blocks inclined at 90. the angle
between the adjacent cranks of the crankshaft being For engines of such a type, the turbocharging
systems with a separate gas manifold for each cylinder row (Fig. 11-5) in use. The condi tions for the gas
flow through the gas turbine depend in such a system from one row of cylinders starts when the
difference in phases of In this case the a 900 next in the order during exhaust of gases from the cylinder
900 takes place the time the crankshaft rotates through simultaneously with the exhaust from the
previous cylinder. As a result, the pressure as in the process of supercharging these two cy systems
exhaust from great in the impulse The exhaust from the cylinder in the same row next in the firing order
takes place after the crankshaft has turned through cause of that there is a substantial change in the gas
pressure in the manifold during the first phase of the exhaust from that of impulse The exhaust of from
the cylinder next in the firing order takes place after the crankshaft through 180 and then the process is
repeated
The analysis of this method of the gas supply to the turbine with succession of firings shows that for one
group oi ders the pressure at the inlet of the turbine behaves as in an impulse supercharging system,
while for another group of cylinders it behaves as in a constant pressure system. to obtain the
turbocompressor parameters. The power required designed com determined with the aid of (11-3) and
work performed in a gas turbine during the adiabatic expansion of of gas is: Where Et pt/po; R. is the gas
constant of the combustion products; T and p are the temperature and the pressure at turbine inlet,
respec tively: po is the pressure of the gases behind the turbine: ki is the adiabatic index of the
combustion products. The efficiency of the turbine is madt mech where nad, is a factor which accounts
for mechanical losses in the gas duct of the turbine: nmech is a factor which accounts for mechanical
losses The effective work of a turbine The power developed by a gas turbine wadGga ant The rate of
flow of the exhaust gases through a turbine where Gai, and Gi are the quantities of air and fuel used in
the engine, kg/s. the modern gas turbines employed for supercharging 0.65.0.7 The power balance to
determine the pressure pt necessary to ensure the required compression ratio geom Gai, com neom
Whence

where nfTheom mincom nt.com 0.4-0.6 is the total turbocompressor efficiency Approximate
calculations of the turbocompressor parameters for impulse supercharging involve the use of the
average gas at the inlet of the impulse as well as experimental correction which account for the rise in
the power of the impulse turbine the decrease in its efficiency as compared with a turbine for which
Exact calculations of an impulse turbine ar p is constant. the subject of special literature

11-4. Characteristics of Supercharged Engines

It was stated above (see p. 229) that for the engine to have adequate acceleration with the lower rpm
range, it is necessary that the torque to a certain value n To obtain the shape of the M b (n) dependence
required for ope. rational conditions in case supercharging is used, choose the turbocompressor
parameters so that the calculated characteristics of the compressor and the turbine would guarantee
the supply of the maximum amount of air at speeds when the torque should be at its ma ximum. Other
factors of importance are an appropriate choice of the fuel-feed system parameters and of the injection
characteristic. As the amount of fuel supplied per cycle is increased at such speeds the air excess
coefficient is reduced to the value just above that at which smoke appears in the exhaust gases Systems
of turbocharging control have been recently devised in order to obtain a higher torque reserve factor K
or to make engine possible at high a. One of such systems uses a operation at nM b. max special device
to rotate the blades of the turbine nozzle device so that their passage cross-sections are reduced when
rpm is decreased. With the same load, this increases the gas pressure at the turbine inlet with the
consequent rise in the turbocompressor speed and a corresponding rise in the air pressure p at the
engine inlet Figure 11-6a, shows the external speed characteristics of the super charged and
unsupercharged M3-238 engine. In supercharging under nominal conditions the pressure at the turbine
inlet corresponds to 1.76 and after the air is compressed in the compressor its pressure corresponds to
com 1.79. The corresponding rise in the engine pow s 26.5 per cent compared with that of the
unsupercharged engine The coefficient of admission rises and this makes possible adjustment of the
compressor so that a -1.44-1.55 in the range of rpm correspon ding to M6 0.1nax
gambar 11-6

The specific fuel consumption is practically the same for the su rcharged and unsupercharged engine.
The turbocompressor shaft speed in the nominal conditions is nic 45,000 rpm shows the load
characteristics for the supercharged and unsupercharged MM3-238 engine increased, the gas pressure
at the turbine inlet and the supercharging pressure described by the parameters ef and E r together with
the turbocompressor speed n rise being the grea higher the engine speed 27 150 210 25 215 A, Mpa 600
270 260 20 60 60 120 20 60 100 120 Fig. 11-7. Dependence of working cycle parameters of a
supercharged engine on t (na 1,800 rpm; pinir 19%; Qeyt 155 mma) a-pr const, a vari b-a const p var. At
n 2.100 rpm the supercharging pressure rises (E 1.95) and this causes a rise in pb up to 30 per cent for
1.8. The specific fuel consumption at n 2,100 rpm and at loads up to pb 0.55 MPa less than for an
unsupercharged engine The use of supercharging with the engine n-l,000 rpm does not lead to higher
fuel consumption because of a drop in the exhaust los ses (Et 1.05) The external speed characteristic for
a supercharged engine shown in Fig. 11-6a was obtained without intermediate cooling of air, its

temperature being in the nominal conditions t 110°C. For the purpose com of the cycle of comparison
Fig. 11-7 shows the dependence parameters on the air temperature t for variable a and constant (Fig.
11-7a) and for constant a Com m 11-7b). The fuel supply per cycle was approximately the same in both
cases. The experiments were carried out with a single ylinder diesel engine (D 130 mm, s l40 mm
constant pcom increase (Fig. 11-7a), t is decreased and p b increased, results in lower fuel consumption.
When oth p and t com are decreased with an insignificant decrease of a Fig. 11-7b) the fuel consumption
remains practically constant. The graphs (see Fig. 11-7) also depict dependences that characterize the
ombustion process in a supercharged engine I-5. Dynamic Supercharging The oscillatory motion of gases
in the pipes of high-speed engines luring intake and exhaust produces a pressure wave which can be sed
to increase the mass of the harge admitted into the cylinder. f, for example, the exhaust system 60 5 so
adjusted that a rarefaction is uilt up near the exhaust valve to ards the end of exhaust when the alves
overlap, more spent gases 52 vill flow out of the cylinder. As a esult of better scavenging of the linder a
greater amount of fresh harge will be admitted. A similar ffect is possible if the pressure near he inlet
valve is above atmosphe- J6 ic pressure towards the end of ad ion, (when supercharging has tarted). The
higher the pressure, Te better will the cylinder be fil d with a fresh charge Figure 11.8 shows the external
20 haracteristics of a four-cylinder J000 arburettor GAZ engine using a Fig. 11-8. External speed
characteri andard exhaust gas inlet system stics of engines with exhaust systems urves 2) and a
dynamically tu twin: 2-standard ed twin exhaust system (curves 1) ach exhaust pipe is joined to the
outlet ducts of two cylinders nex l the working order. The tuning done by choosing an appropriate ngth
for each of the two branches of the twin exhaust pipe (l 1,120 nd 1,160 mm) makes it possible to
increase the coefficient of admission in the entire speed range. With a almost the same, as in the case of
a standard pipe, there is an increase in power and torque. Similar results were obtained with the AZLK-
412 engine provided with a twin exhaust system and a silencer. The use of this system enabled a 6 per
cent power increase to be obtained, as was the case with the GAZ engine. The method of turning twin
exhaust system by selecting the lengths of both branches of the pipeline gives a reduced pressure at the
exhaust valve of the cylinder next in the working order, when the travels along the pipe, this provides
better scavenging of the cylinder.