Unit 5 PDF

UNIT V FIRE SAFETY, FIRE DETECTION AND FIGHTING
INSTALLATIONS
Causes of fire in buildings
Before going to the syllabus – An intro
The Great Fire of London:
-Happened in September 1666
-Death toll - six people, yet a great many others died through
indirect causes.
London in 1666
-Buildings made of timber and tightly packed together.
-The upper floors often projected out above the lower floors.
-Many warehouses which mainly stored combustible goods, as oil.
-Before – had a long, dry summer.
How did the Great Fire start?
- Started in the baker, Thomas Faynor’s shop.
BUILDING SERVICES III

What happened in the Great Fire?
-there was no organized fire brigade
-They used leather buckets, axes and water squirts which had
little effect on the fire.
-Samuel Pepys was - Clerk to the Royal Navy.
- he recommended to the King - to pull down the buildings.
- The Mayor was ordered to pull down the houses using fire
hooks but the fire continued to spread.
How did they put out the Great Fire?
-Navy was called.
- Using gunpowder – blowen up the house on the path of fire.
- By the next morning, this had successfully stopped the fire.
Result:
-Temporary buildings - ill equipped and disease easily spread.

-Many people died from the harsh winter that followed.
- London – Totally reconstructed using stones.

Causes of fire in buildings:
The following are the chief causes of fire in the buildings,
Smoking,
Electrical wiring,
Heating and Cooking Equipment,
Children Playing with Matches,
Open Flames and Sparks,
Flammable Liquids,
Suspected Arson
It can be defined as the act of intentionally burning property in order to
cause destruction or harm. The burning or exploding of commercial and
public buildings such as restaurants ,schools, structures,and bridges
constitutes arson if it is done with an intent .
Chimneys,
Lighting,
Spontaneous Combustion,
Spontaneous human combustion (SHC) may result in simple burns and
blisters to the skin, smoking. Smoking is the form most often recognized
as SHC.

There are different types of fire in houses or commercial buildings such as:
1. Electrical fires.
2. Gas fires.
3. Liquid fires:
4. Organic fires.
Electrical fires:
In the cases of electrical fire in residential houses the following steps are to be
taken in initial stage:
1. Switch off main power by turning off the main switch in the house – we can
isolate the short circuit
2. Using a portable multipurpose home fire extinguisher is the best and safest
way to extinguish electrical short circuit fire confined in small area in the house.
Gas fires:
Cooking gas cylinders - more dangerous source of fire hazards which require
immediate call to the fire brigade for fire fighting and extinguishing fire
caused by oil and gases.

Liquid fires:
Liquid like gasoline, petrol or spirit may cause fire breaks out in houses and
multiplexes.
Dos:
1. Using safety blanket to cover the liquid fire confined in a small area is one of
the best way to extinguish liquid fires in initial stage.
2. Multipurpose home fire extinguisher may be used to extinguish liquid fire at
initial stage only.
3. In case uncontrolled and extensive liquid fires fire brigade must be called
immediately for such liquid fire fighting.
Don'ts:
Never throw water over the liquid fire as the liquid fire will get more oxygen from
sprinkle water causing more flare up of liquid fires.

Organic fires:
Organic fires like wood, papers and other waste materials are the most common
sources of home fires. Organic fires should be extinguished immediately to avoid
further spread in the houses or buildings.
Step 1. The best and effective use of bulk quantity of water at a time to extinguish
organic fires.
Step 2. Thick safety blanket can also be effectively uses to completely cover the
small confined organic fires area . This process will block outside oxygen contact
with the fire and resist organic fires to flare up.
Step 3. Using multipurpose home fire extinguisher can be the equipment to fight
immediately with fires from organic substances.

Fires in residential house:
Kitchen fires
kitchen appliances - left unattended
Home heating appliances:

Home appliances - electric room heaters and ironing equipment
Candle fires:
Unattended lighted
Careless smoking habits:

Smoking cigarette sitting on home articles like sofa or bed
Old, damaged and sub-standard electrical House wiring and accessories:

All such electrical accessories should be checked by authorized
electrician at regular intervals at least once in 3 years for proper insulations as
per standard electricity rules.

Fires in residential house:
Source: Tropical fire research series

Fires in residential apartment and commercial buildings
• Emergency evacuation plans: emergency exits in the building is top most

important.
• Mock drills at regular intervals
• Keep Oxygen cylinders and Masks in safe and visible place: Kept on the top
floor as an emergency requirement for any person having respiratory problem
• Medical first aid kits: On every floor - a well equipped medical kit
• Emergency light: All the floors including stairs - should be provided with
emergency battery operated lights for the facility of emergency escape.
• Updating fire fighting equipments kept in each floor of the building: Checking of
all fire fighting equipments at regular interval

OFFICES: Smoking:
Historically, many fires occurred in government buildings due to the
careless disposal of smoking material into wastepaper baskets.
As a result of the no-smoking ban inside government buildings, such fires
have become very uncommon.
Electronic office equipment

we are seeing an increase in fire incidents due to faulty electrical
equipment and power distribution systems.
Examples of such unsafe conditions are as follows:
damaged electrical conductors, plug wires or extension cords;
use of faulty, modified or unapproved electrical equipment;
insufficient space or clearance between electrical heating equipment and
combustibles;
short or overloaded circuits;
loose electrical connections; and lighting.

Fire and smoke spread in buildings:
When fire is confined inside buildings,
the fire behaves differently.
The smoke rising from the fire gets trapped
inside the space by the immediate ceiling, then
spreads horizontally across the space
deepening all the time until the entire space is
filled.
The smoke will also pass through any holes or

gaps in the walls, ceiling or floor and get into
other parts of the building.
It moves rapidly up staircases or lift wells and

into any areas that are left open, or rooms
which have open doors connecting to the
staircase corridors.

The heat from the building gets
trapped inside, raising the
temperature very rapidly.
The toxic smoke and gases are an

added danger to people inside the
building, who must be able to escape
quickly to a safe location.
Common causes of fire and

consequences:
(Based on a study in UK)

Sources of accidental fires:
(Based on a study in UK)

Consequences of fire are:
• Death – although this is a very real risk, relatively few people die in building fires
The main causes of all deaths were,

1.overcome of gas or smoke – 46 %
2.burns – 27 %
3.burns and overcome by gas or smoke – 20 %
4.other – 7%
Clearly gas and smoke are the main risks.
Building damage – can be very significant, particularly if the building materials

have poor resistance to fire and there is little or no built-in-fire protection.
Flora and fauna damage – can be significant, particularly in a hot draught or

forest fire.

Loss of business and jobs – it is estimated that about 40 % of business do not
start up again after a significant fire. Many are under- or not insured and small
companies often cannot afford the time and expense of setting up again when they
probably still have old debts to service.
Transport disruption – rail routes, roads and even airports are sometimes closed
because of a serious fire. The worst case was of course 11 september 2001 in the
USA when airports around the world were disrupted.
Environmental damage from the fire and/or fighting the fire – firefighting water,
the products of combustion and exploding building materials, such as asbestos
cement roofs, can contaminate significant areas around the fire site.

LIFE SAFETY:
General Exit Requirements:
• Exit – doorways, corridor,
-Passageway(s) to an internal staircase, or external staircase, or to a
VERANDAH or terrace(s), which have access to the street, or to the roof of a
building or a refuge area.
- horizontal exit leading to an adjoining building at the same level.
• Lifts and escalators shall not be considered as exits.
• Exit, exit access or exit discharge - continuously maintained free of all

obstructions
• Exits – in sufficient numbers  as per DCR.
• Alteration to the size or the number of exits – not permitted.
• Exits – Clearly visible and

•route – clearly marked and signs posted.
•Signs – should be illuminated and wired by independent electrical circuit.
•Colour of exist sign – green

• Fire Doors – to have 2hour fire resistance
Particularly at the entrance to lift lobby and stair
Reason – to avoid the funnel or flue effect  upward spread of fire.
• Exits – shall provide continuous means of egress (Way out).
• Exits – should be reached without passing through another occupied unit.
Occupant Load:
• For determining the exist required – number of persons within any floor or the
occupant load is the base.

Group of Occupancy Occupant Load, Floor
Area in m2/Person
Residential(A) 12.5
Educational(B) 4
Institutional(C) 15
Assembly(D)
•With fixed or Ioose seats And dance floors 0.6
•Without seating facilities including dining rooms 1.5
Mercantile(F)
• Street floor and sales basement 3
•Upper sale floors 6
Business and industrial(E&G) 10
Storage(H) 30
Hazardous(J) 10
Mezzanine floor – occupant load  taken by the floor below.

Capacities of Exits:
• Exit width – 500 mm
- clear width of additional 250mm  taken as additional half unit.
- clear width less than 250mm  not counted.
Note: Total occupants from a particular floor –

should evacuate – within 2½ minutes  for Type I construction.
- within 1½ minutes  for Type II construction.
- within 1 minutes  for Type III construction.
Size of the exit door - calculated according to the travel distance.

Occupants per unit exit width:
Group of occupancy Number of occupants Number of Number of

(Stairway) occupants occupants
(Ramps) (Doors)
Residential(A) 25 50 75
Educational(B) 25 50 75
Institutional(C) 25 50 75
Assembly(D) 40 50 60
Business(E) 50 60 75
Mercantile(F) 50 60 76
industrial(G) 50 60 75
Storage(H) 50 60 75
Hazardous(J) 25 30 40

Travel distance for occupancy and type of construction:
Group of occupancy Maximum travel distance Maximum travel distance

(Type 1 & 2) (Type 3 & 4)
Meters meters
Residential(A) 30 22.5
Educational(B) 30 22.5
Institutional(C) 30 22.5
Assembly(D) 30 30
Business(E) 30 30
Mercantile(F) 30 30
industrial(G) 45 0
Storage(H) 30 0
Hazardous(J) 22.5 0

•For buildings 15 m in height or above non-combustible materials should be used
for construction and the internal walls of staircase enclosures should be of brick
work or reinforced concrete or any other material of construction with minimum of
2 h rating.
•The walls for the chimney shall be of Type 1 and Type 2 Construction depending
on whether the gas temperature is above 200”C or less.

Arrangement of exits:
Travel distance – from the dead end of a corridor, shall not exceed half the
distance specified.
- In assembly and institutional  it shall not exceed 6 m.
• More than one exit required  then it should be placed as remote as possible.
Number of exits:
• Height – if more than 15m and used as educational, assembly, institutional,
industrial, storage, and hazardous occupancies and mixed occupancies
•Floor area – more than 500 sq meters
Minimum of two staircases
 And atleast one staircase – shall be on external wall and shall
open directly to the exterior, interior open space or to an open place
of safety.

Doorways:
•Every exit doorway shall open into an enclosed stairway or a horizontal exit of a
corridor or passageway providing continuous and protected means of egress.
• Min 1000 mm is width except assembly buildings – 2000 mm

• height – min 2000 mm.
• should open outward and should not obstruct the travel along the exit.
• Width of stairway or landing – not less than 900 mm
• No overhead or sliding doors.
In Central corridor – the doors of rooms shall open inward.
• Exit doorway – not open immediately upon a flight of stairs,

• landing equal to at least the width of the door – needed.
• level of landing – same as that of the floor
• Should be openable without the key, from the sideway.
•Mirrors shall not be placed – to avoid confusion.

Corridors and passageways:
• Where Staircase discharge though a corridor and passageway, the height of
corridors and passageways shall be not less than 2.4 m
• Lift lobbies and corridors shall be adequately ventilated.
Internal Staircases:
• constructed of noncombustible materials throughout.
• constructed as a self contained unit with an external wall of the building

constituting at least one of its sides and shall be completely enclosed.
• A staircase shall not be arranged round a lift shaft.
• Hollow combustible construction shall not be permitted.
• No gas piping or electrical panels shall be allowed.
• Ducting in stairway may be permitted if it is of 1 h fire resistance rating.

Residential building 1.0 m
(Dwellings)
Residential hotel buildings 1.5 m
Assembly buildings like 2.0 m
auditorium, theatres and
cinemas
Educational buildings up to 30 1.5 m
m in height
Institutional buildings like 2.0 m
hospitals
All other buildings 1.5 m
• Minimum width of tread - 250mm without nosing for residential buildings.

- 300 mm for other buildings.
• Height of riser – 190 mm for residential buildings
-150 mm for other buildings.
Max no of risers – 15 per flight.
• Handrail – for 1000 mm

Design of Staircase:
•Minimum headroom in a passage under the landing of a staircase and under the
staircase shall be 2.2 m.
• For building 15 m in height or more, access to main staircase shall be through

afire/smoke check door of a minimum 2 h fire resistance rating. Fire resistance
rating may be reduced to 1 h for residential buildings (except hotels and starred
hotels).
• No living space, store or other fire risk shall open directly into the staircase or
staircases.
• External exit door of staircase enclosure at ground level shall open directly to
the open spaces or through a large lobby, if necessary.
• The main and external staircases shall be continuous from ground floor to the
terrace level.
• No electrical shafts/AC ducts or gas pipes, etc, shall pass through or open in
the staircases. Lifts shall not open in staircase.

• No combustible material shall be used for decoration/wall paneling in the
staircase.
• Beams/columns and other building features shall not reduce the head
room/width of the staircase.
•The exit sign with arrow indicating the way to the escape route shall be
provided at a suitable height from the floor level on the wall and shall be
illuminated by electric light connected to corridor circuits. All exit way marking
signs should be flush with the wall and so designed that no mechanical damage
shall occur to them due to moving of furniture or other heavy equipments.
Further, all landings of floor shall have floor indicating boards prominently
indicating the number of floor as per bye-laws.
The floor indication board shall be placed on the wall immediately facing the
flight of stairs and nearest to the landing. It shall be of size not less than 0.5 m x
0.5 m.
• Individual floors shall be prominently indicated on the wall facing the

staircases.

• In case of single staircase it shall terminate at the ground floor level and the
access to the basement shall be by a separate staircase. The second staircase
may lead to basement levels provided the same is separate at ground level by
ventilated lobby with discharge points to two different ends through enclosures.

Pressurization of Staircase:
• Compartmentation – vital part in limiting the spread of fire.
Since – smoke spread through leakage openings.
• Pressurization – method adopted for protected escape routes.
•Pressurization and normal staircase – together in a same building should be

avoided.
If at all needed – it should be segregated.
• In pressurization, air is injected into the staircases, lobbies or corridors, to raise

their pressure slightly above the pressure in adjacent parts of the building.
• As a result, ingress of smoke or toxic gases into the escape routes will be
prevented.
•The pressurization of staircases shall be adopted for high rise buildings and
building having mixed occupancy/ multiplexes having covered area more than
500 m2.

Pressurization difference as under
- shall not be greater than 5 pa.
Pressurization system – two types

1. Single stage – operated during emergency.
2. Two-stage
- normally a level of pressurization is maintained in protected escape
routes.
- increased level is brought into operation in an emergency.
Effects on AC – due to pressurization in emergency:

• Re-circulation of air – shall be stopped.
- all exhaust air vented to atmosphere.
• Air supply to the spaces, other than escape routes shall be stopped.
• Exhaust system – general air flow away from the protected escape route
entry.
- will not be rendered inoperable by hot gases and smoke.
- no danger of spread of smoke to other floors – by keeping the
extraction fans running.
Pressurization system - interconnected with fire alarm system.

External Stairs
•External stairs shall always be kept in sound operable conditions.
•All external stairs shall be directly connected to the ground.
•Entrance to the external stairs shall be separate and remote from the internal
staircase.
•Care shall be taken to ensure that no wall opening or window opens onto or
close to an external stairs.
•The route to the external stairs shall be free of obstructions at all times.
•The external stairs shall be constructed of noncombustible materials, and any

doorway leading to it shall have the required fire resistance.
•No external staircase, used as a fire escape, shall be inclined at an angle greater
than 45° from the horizontal.

•External stairs shall have straight flight not less than 1250 mm wide with 250 mm
treads and risers not more than 190 mm. The number of risers shall be
limited to 15 per flight.
•Handrails shall be of a height not less than 1000 mm and not exceding 1200
mm. There shall be provisions of balusters with maximum gap of 150 mm.
•The use of spiral staircase shall be limited to low occupant load and to a building
not exceeding 9 m in height.
•A spiral stair case shall be not less than 1500 mm in diameter and shall be
designed to give adequate headroom.
•Unprotected steel frame staircase will not be accepted as means of escape.

However, steel staircase in an enclosed fire rated compartment of 2 h will be
accepted as means of escape.

Horizontal Exits:
•The width of horizontal exit shall be same as for the exit doorways.
•A horizontal exit shall be equipped with at least one fire/smoke door of minimum
1 h fire resistance, of self-closing type. Further, it is required to have direct
connectivity to the fire escape staircase for evacuation.
•For buildings more than 24 m in height, refuge area of 15 m2 or an area

equivalent to 0.3 m2 per person to accommodate the occupants of two
consecutive floors, whichever is higher, shall be provided as under:
The refuge area shall be provided on the periphery of the floor or preferably on a
cantilever projection and open to air at least on one side protected with suitable
railings.
a) For floors above 24 m and Up to 39 m — One refuge area on the floor
immediately above 24 m.
b) For floors above 39 m — One refuge area on the floor immediately above 39 m
and so on after every 15 m. Refuge area provided in excess of the requirements
shall be counted towards FAR.

NOTE—Residential flats in multi-storied building with balcony, need not be
provided with refuge area, however flats without balcony shall provide refuge area
as given above.
•Where there is a difference in level between connected areas for horizontal exits,
ramps, not more than 1 in 10 m slope shall be provided; steps shall not be used.
•Doors in horizontal exits shall be openable at all times from both sides.

Fire tower:
An enclosed staircase which can only be approached from the various floors
through landings or lobbies separated from both the floor areas and the staircase
by fire-resisting doors, and open to the outer air.
• Preferred type of escape route.

• Number, location and size – depends on the building.
• High rise building – over 8 storeys or 24 m
- atleast one means of egress  shall preferably be a fire tower.
• Constructed on walls – with 2h fire resistance.
Ramps:
• requirements – same as staircase.
• slope – shall not exceed 1 in 10.
- in certain cases  steeper slope but not greater than 1 in 8.
- slopes exceeding 1 in 10  should be surfaced with approved non-
slipping material.

Fire Lifts
•Where applicable, fire lifts shall be provided with a minimum capacity for 8
passengers and fully automated with emergency switch on ground level. In
general, buildings 15 m in height or above shall be provided with fire lifts.
•In case of fire, only fireman shall operate the fire lift. In normal course, it may be
used by other persons.
•Each fire lift shall be equipped with suitable inter-communication equipment for
communicating with the control room on the ground floor of the building.
•The number and location of fire lifts in a building shall be decided after taking into
consideration various factors like building population, floor area,
compartmentalization, etc.

Emergency and escape lighting:
•It should be capable of
- indicating clearly and unambiguously the escape routes.
- providing adequate illumination  safe movement of persons.
- fire alarm call points and fire-fighting equipments  provided along the
escape routes can be readily located.
• horizontal luminance at floor level – in escape route along the centerline = 10 lux.
• emergency lighting – should be put on within 1 second.
• location – near each intersection of corridors.

- at each exit door,
- near change of direction
- near each staircase
- near any other change of floor level,
- outside each final exit and close to it,
- near each fire alarm call point,
- near fire fighting equipments,
- near exit and safety signs.
Near means = within 2 m measured horizontally.

Emergency and escape lighting:
• shall be mounted as low as possible – but alteast 2m above the floor level.
• light fittings – shall be of non-flammable type.
• emergency lighting – continuous operation for a min of 1h and 30 minutes 
even in smallest premises.

Fire protection requirements – High rise building.
High rise  15m in height or above.
As per CMDA – It is called as multistoried building (MSB)
- 15m in height and above
- G+3 or Stilts + 4.
Additional Provisions:
• Width of the main street – Not < 12m
one end of the street – shall join another street of not < 12 m
• Road shall not terminate in a dead end.
Exception – residential building upto 30 m in height.
• Compulsory open spaces – around the building  shall not be used for parking.
• Adequate passageway and clearances – for fire fighting vehicles to enter the
premises.
width of such entrance – not < 4.5 m
arch or covered gate – clear head room  not < 5 m

In Construction:
• Load bearing elements, stairways and corridors – only non-combustible materials.
• Interior finish materials – shall not have a flame spread ability.
In Staircase:
• Internal wall – shall be of brick or reinforced concrete  2h fire rating.
• shall be vented to the atmosphere at each landing and at the top.
-Vent opening  min 0.5 sq m .
-If cannot be ventilated  a positive pressure of 50 pa shall be maintained
inside.
 roof of the shaft – shall be 1m above the surrounding roof.
• If glazing or glass brick – it shall have min 2h fire resistance rating.

In lifts:
• lift wall – 2h fire rating.
• Lift shaft – vent at the top of area not less than 0.2 sq m.
• Lift motor room – preferably on the top of the shaft, and separated from the shaft
by the floor of the room.
• Landing doors – not less than 1 h fire resistance.
• Lift bank – no of lifts in one row  shall not exceed 4
- total number of lifts  in two rows – shall not exceed 8.
• Lift car door – half an hour fire resistance rating.
• Collapsible gates – not permitted, only solid doors are permitted.
• If lift shaft and lobby is in the core  25 – 30 pa positive pressure in lobby
50 pa in the lift shaft.
• Exit from lift lobby – in the core  through a self closing smoke stop door of half
an hour fire resistance.
• Lifts – shall not communicate with the basement.
 if so, than pressurization should be maintained as above.
• Grounding switches – provided in all the lifts  enable the fire service personnel
to ground the lifts.
• Telephone (Communication facilities) – provided for 30 m in height and above
lifts.
- Should be connected to fire control room for the building.

• Slope – in the floor of lift lobby  prevent water used during fire fighting, at any
landing from entering the lift shafts.
• Sing posted on every floor or near the lift  that in case of fire, occupants shall
use the stairs unless instructed otherwise.
- it should also contain the plan for each floor – showing the locations of
the stairways.
Fire lifts:
• 1 fire lift per 1200 sq m of floor area – shall be provided.
• Lift – floor area  not less than 1.4 sq m.
- loading capacity – 545 Kg (8 persons) with automatic closing door of
min 0.8 m width.
• Should be provided with ceiling hatch – it shall be openable when car gets
stuck up.
• During power failure – it should trip over to alternate supply.
In Apartments – changeover can be done manually.
lift shaft – it should come down at the ground level and comes to stand-
still with door open.
• This lift – can be used by occupants in normal times.
• Fire lift – shall be displayed in all floors.
• Speed – should reach from the top floor to ground floor within 1 minute.

Basements:
• Each basement – separately ventilated.
vent – cross section area (aggregate) not < 2.5 % of the floor area.
– spread all around the perimeter of the basement
– in the form of grill, shaft, etc.
• Alternatively – air inlet level  floor level
Smoke outlet – ceiling level
These ducts – terminated at ground level.
• Staircase – situated at the periphery of the building.
- to be entered at the ground level
• intake ducts – shall serve all the basement (Floors)
But – outlet ducts – separate for all floors.
• Use of basement – for kitchens (Gas cylinder)  not permitted unless air-
conditioned.
• In long buildings – fire separation walls  shall not exceed 40 m
Lighting:
• Staircase and corridor – connected to alternative supply
- Should be operated from ground floor  for fire fighting men to
control.
• Stand-by electric generator  shall be installed.
Air – conditioning:
• duct – substantial gauge metal.
• AHU – shall be separate for each floors.
air ducts – no way interconnected with the ducting of other floor.

Fire protection:
Under ground – fire fighting water tank

Fire fighting water tank

Special features required for physically handicapped and elderly in building types:
Physically challenged (Disabled or Handicapped):
• Disability (or lack of a given ability, as the "dis" qualifier denotes) in

humans may be physical, cognitive/mental, sensory, emotional,
developmental or some combination of these.
• Problem in body function or structure;

• An activity limitation
• Participation restriction (Sports)
Thus disability is a complex phenomenon, reflecting an interaction

between features of a person’s body and features of the society in
which he or she lives."
An individual may also qualify as disabled if he/she has had an impairment

in the past or is seen as disabled based on a personal or group standard or
norm.
Such impairments may include physical, sensory, and cognitive or

developmental disabilities.
Mental disorders and various types of chronic disease (long lasting illness)
may also qualify as disabilities.
Some advocates object to describing certain conditions (notably deafness )

as "disabilities“.
The goal of barrier free design is to provide

•An environment that supports the independent functioning of individuals
so that they can get to, and participate without assistance, in everyday
activities such as procurement of goods and services, community living,
employment, and leisure.
Although the recommendations are concerned exclusively with the

requirements of disabled people but the facilities will invariable make
buildings more convenient for elderly persons and persons suffering from
any kind of physical ailments.
A safer, easier environment for the physically disabled benefits everyone.
Presumption – all elderly are handicapped

•It must be clearly understood that barrier-free goes far beyond just a ramp
and has many other necessary aspects.
•These range from door and passage widths to flooring surface, from
counter heights to door handles and railings, from signage and auditory
signal to tactile guides.
Guiding principle: trip chain – to determine barrier

free
Eg) home to a working – Journey
- to go from home to sidewalk or pathway
- to enter in a vehicle
- to go out of the vehicle to sidewalks or pathways near the working
place
- to reach the entrance of the building
- to enter the building
- to move around in the building
- to enter the office or other kind of place for work
- to reach the working station
Each part could be divided in more details.
If only one link is not accessible, then the journey becomes
impossible.
With respect to buildings:

Access to building in its four main components:
- to reach: ramps
- to enter: entrances
- to move around: corridors, elevators, stairs and signage
- to use: doors, toilets, operating mechanisms and fixed
features
Anthropometrics and dimension:
Dimension and size of a wheel chair

Min width – 900 mm  after the clearance space

Forward reach
Side reach
Space allowance for a wheelchair user:

(Corridor)
Minimum
diameter –
1500mm
Preferable –
1700mm
Min width – 900 mm

If continuous corridor:
maneuvering of wheelchair users through lateral
doors, a continuous width of 120 cm –
recommended.
The minimum unobstructed width of a public corridor is 150 cm

and the recommended width is 180 cm.
For 90° turn, a width of 90 cm is sufficient if the minimum length of

corridor available after the corner and any maneuver is at least
120 cm.
For 180° turn, the

minimum width is 110
cm but 120 cm is highly
recommended to allow
the comfortable
maneuver.
The minimum depth of

the area for turn is 125
cm and preferably 140
cm.
Dimensions for walking aids users:
•Ground and floor surfaces should be even and slip resistant.

•Resting places should be provided along travel routes.
Dimensions for blind persons:

• Use of contrasted colors
and changes in texture of
the floor material.
• To minimize the risk of

hazards, obstacles,
protruding elements and
low overhanging signs
have to be avoided in the
pathway.
• Braille and visual

information should be
doubled with audible
information
Obstructions:
• If at all needed, can be placed along a

continuous line.
•Exceptionally, a width of 80 cm could
be allowed on a length of 60 cm
maximum
Space below stairs should be blocked out completely by protective rails

or marked with tactile surface
Overhanging signs should be

mounted at least at 2 m from the
floor level
In long corridor, to allow a

complete turn for wheelchair users,
a minimum width of 150 cm is
recommended for the corridor.
Signage:
• Aims to minimize anxiety and confusion
• Color of signs should be contrasted – clearly distinguishable
• Increased use of pictures – for people with learning disabilities.
• Standards: rectangular information signboards, triangular
warning signboards, and circular interdictory signboards.
• Signs should not be placed behind glass – it will confuse.
• The smallest letter should not be less than 15 mm.
There are four main functional typologies

- Information signs: maps, explanation for use of different
equipments, …
- Directional signs: direct the user to a destination with arrow marks
aiding text,
- Identification (or Location) signs: installed at specific individual
destinations, indicate the location of a room, service, desk, …
- Warning signs: installed for the safety of users (either warning or
prohibitory signs), for example, fire exit signs.
Signage:
•It should not obstruct any movement path and, if suspended, should
have minimum clear headroom of 2 m from the finished floor.
•If the signage is floor-based and freestanding, then there should be a
detectable barrier at the floor level for the white cane users (Walking
stick).
Parking:
Accessible parking spaces should be located not more than 50 m
from accessible building entrances
Parking:
•A textured surface at
least 60 cm wide is
needed to separate the
pathway from the
vehicular area to avoid
hazards for people with
vision impairments.
•Another solution could

be the use of bollards
Ramps:
• Ramp should be
adjacent to the stairs.
• Recommended slope
of ramps is 5 %.
Landing areas:
• Landings should be provided every 10 m,
at every change of direction and
at the top and the bottom of the ramp.
The minimum length of the landing area is 1.40 m and the min.
width has to be equal to the width of the ramp.
Width:
• Min 90 cm and preferably 120 cm
• overcrowded place, a width of 160 cm at least
• A border to drive out the wheel is recommended
Handrails:
• On both side of the ramps are
always recommended
• Double handrails at different

height are recommended
one at a height of 70 cm
from the ground level for the use of
the children and wheelchair users,
one at a height of 90 cm for the
use of other users.
•The handrails should be extended

at the top and at the bottom of the
ramp on a distance of at least 30
cm
•The handrails color should be

contrasted.
A tactile marking with contrasted colors should be placed at the top and
the bottom of the ramp to alert people with vision impairments. The width
of the marking has to be at least 60 cm.
Entrances:
•In order to allow the maneuver of the door, sufficient space should be
provided on both sides of the door.
•The area of maneuver should be flat and firm.
the approach : frontal or lateral
- the push or pull side of the door
landing area (out of

clearances of doors) of
1.40 x 1.40 m in front of
the entrance to allow
operating doors.
Frontal
900 mm min – single

leaf door
800 mm min for double

leaf door - clear
A maximum change in level of 2 Cm is permissible if clearly visible and

beveled with a slope lesser than 1:3 or with chamfer.
Door handle:
Two-way swing doors must be equipped with glazing in order to

have a clear vision panel between 80 and 150 cm from the floor
level.
Elevators and platform lifts:
Highly recommended – for

Hospitals.
Access to elevator:
The call button will be located at a maximum

height of 130 cm from the floor level and a
minimum distance of 40 cm from the adjacent
wall if the elevator is situated near a corner.
The automatic door-reopening device is activated if an object passes

through an horizontal line situated at 12.5cm and an horizontal line
situated at 75cm from the floor level
Doors of the elevator
Min door opening – 800mm
preferably – 900 mm
•The maximum tolerance
admitted for stop precision is 2
cm. (Floor level)
Internal dimensions:
•Min - 1.1 x 1.3 m
• A wheelchair user is not able
to maneuver in the car and
often he has to go backwards
in order to quit the car. In this
purpose, it is recommended to
put a mirror in the elevator car.
•high-frequented buildings, the

minimum internal dimensions
recommended are 1.3 x 2 m
Control panel:
•located at a height between
90 cm and 135 cm
•Numbers are embossed to

be identifiable by touch and
with contrasted colors.
•All control buttons shall be

also in Braille.
•Audiovisual signals – recommended.
The inside of the elevator car should have handrails on three side
mounted 80 to 85 cm from the floor.
Platform lifts:
•A vertical movement platform lift may be installed adjacent to the

stairs for maximum 2.5 m level changes
•The minimum width of the lift is 90 cm and the minimum length is 120
cm.
Stairs:
Width
•The minimum width of stairs is 90 cm for one -way traffic.
•For high-frequented buildings, the minimum width is 140 cm.
Landing areas
•Intermediate flat landing areas
should be provided when the
difference in level is more than 2.5 m
•On any flight of stairs, all steps

shall have uniform riser heights
and uniform tread widths.
•Open risers and projecting

nosing should be avoided to
minimize the risk of stumbling
•The maximum riser dimension is 18 cm

and the minimum tread dimension is 28
cm
•Nosing and tactile marking (Only in

unavoidable cases)
Textural marking strip

should be provided at
the top and bottom of
stairs and at
intermediate landings
•For people with sight impairment,

the nose of steps should be with
contrasted colors and preferably
different textures
Configuration
Handrails
• Installed on both sides of the stairs and should be extended at least

30 cm before the first step and beyond the last step of the stairs
• Installed at an approximate height of 90 cm and could be doubled

by a second handrail at an approximate height of 70 cm for children
and small size users
•Handrails should be provided with rounded form for better grip

with a cross section around 4cm diameter
Internal doors:
Min width – 800 mm accepted.
900 mm – only for main door
•Doors could be provided with a 30
cm high kick plate at the lower part
to protect the door from wheelchair
footrests.
•For spring mounted doors, an extra

pull handle of 30 cm length could be
provided at a distance between 20
and 30 cm from the hinge side and
at a height of around 100 cm from
the floor level to facilitate closing.
•All operational devices must have contrasted colors with their

surroundings and the doors should be color contrasted with the wall.
Toilets:
The ease of transferring from a wheelchair to a toilet seat depends on the

approach.
There are four different approaches:

- the parallel or axial approach, which is the easiest,
- the diagonal approach, which is difficult,
- the perpendicular approach, which is also difficult,
- the frontal approach, which is the most difficult.
Dimensions:
A toilet cubicle designed for

wheelchair user should be of internal
dimensions not less than
1.50 x 1.50 m with a clear space not
less than 80 cm wide and 130 cm
length next to the water
closet
Door has to open outwards unless

sufficient space is provided within the
toilet
cubicle of 1.5 x 1.5 m - min
•A space of maneuver has to be

provided outside of the toilet
adjacent to the door to allow the
wheelchair user to maneuver in
order to enter backward in the
toilet after the opening of the
door.
•The distance between the toilet axe and the

adjacent wall has to be between 45 and 50
cm
•To facilitate the transfer, the height of the seat has to
be as more as possible equal to the height of the
wheelchair seat, between 45 and 50 cm
•The distance of the tap/toilet roll-dispenser from the

front edge of the seat has to be less than 30cm. The
height of it from the top edge of the seat has to be
between 25 and 50 cm.
Washbasin:
For wheelchair users:
•The top edge of the washbasin must be between 80 and 85 cm
from the finished floor level
•The washbasin should be mounted such that the distance between
the centerline of the fixture and the adjacent wall is at least 45 cm
•There should be a minimum

free knee space of 75 cm
width, 20 cm depth and 75 cm
height with an additional toe
space of at least 75 cm width,
23 cm depth and 23 cm
height from the finished floor
as shown in the following
picture
For walking aids users or standing person with reduced

mobility:
•The top edge of the washbasin is
around 95 cm from the finished floor
level.
•A grab bar adjacent at a height of 95 cm
is highly recommended
Urinals:
•They should be of the wall hung type

with the rim not more than 43 cm from
the floor and a clear floor space of 75
cm width x 120 cm depth without steps
in front of it.
•They should be grab-bars on either

side extending from 90 cm to 150 cm
above the finished floor level and with a
minimum distance of 12 cm between
the bar and the wall.
•The flush, if manually operated, should

be located between 90 cm and 130 cm
from the finished floor level.
Operating mechanisms and fixed features:

Horizontal reach: the minimum distance between the

operating mechanism and the adjacent wall is 40 cm
The forward reach over an obstruction is limited to 50 cm for a

wheelchair user
INSTRUCTIONS TO AIDE PERSONS REQUIRING ASSISTANCE TO

EVACUATE
Individuals who require assistance:
• Those who are blind, have impaired vision, are deaf or have hearing
impairments
• Woman who are pregnant
• Persons with temporary conditions such as a broken leg or sprained
ankle
• Individuals with arthritis
• Persons with hidden disabilities, such as heart problems
• Individuals who have breathing difficulties such as asthma
It is important that these people are recognized in order to ensure they are
able to exit the building in a safe and timely manner.
Only persons professionally and regularly trained in these

lifting techniques should attempt to evacuate persons
requiring assistance.
THE BACK LIFT
The rescuer will kneel in front of the person and place the
person’s arm up and over the rescuer’s shoulder and across
his/her chest. The rescuer will then lean forward, before rising
slowly to a full standing position.
TWO RESCUER SEAT CARRY:
TWO RESCUER SEAT CARRY:
TWO RESCUER EXTREMITIES CARRY:

CRADLE TECHNIQUE:
CHAIR CARRY TECHNIQUE:

Evac Chair:
General guidelines:
•Physically handicapped occupants should be moved down the

fire stairwell to the uppermost floor served by an uninvolved
elevator bank, and then be moved by elevator under the
direction of fire officials.
•Seriously handicapped persons should be assisted by

assigned floor evacuation team members.
•Locating the desks of handicapped persons in a work area

near an exit will make their evacuation easier.
Fire Protection:
•Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of fires
• It involves the study of the
behaviour,
compartmentalisation,
suppression and
investigation of fire and
its related emergencies, as well as the research and development, production,
testing and application of mitigating systems.
Fire protection has three major goals:

Continuity of operations - on a public scale, this is intended to prevent the
interruption of critical services necessary for the public welfare
Property protection - on a public scale, this is intended to prevent area wide

conflagrations. (Great and Destructive fire) At an individual building level, this
is typically an insurance consideration (e.g., a requirement for financing), or a
regulatory requirement.
Life safety - the minimum standard used in fire and building codes
Structural fire protection (in land-based buildings, offshore construction
or onboard ships) is typically achieved via three means:
•Passive fire protection -- use of integral, fire-resistance rated wall and

floor assemblies that are used to form fire compartments intended to limit
the spread of fire, or occupancy separations, or firewalls, to keep fires, high
temperatures and flue gases within the fire compartment of origin, thus
enabling firefighting and evacuation
•Active fire protection -- manual and automatic detection and suppression

of fires, as in using and installing a Fire Sprinkler system or finding the fire
(Fire alarm) and/or extinguishing it
•Education -- ensuring that building owners and operators have copies and
a working understanding of the applicable building and fire codes, having a
purpose-designed fire safety plan and ensuring that building occupants,
operators and emergency personnel know the building, its means of Active
fire protection and Passive fire protection, its weak spots and strengths to
ensure the highest possible level of safety.
Balanced Approach
•Passive fire protection (PFP) in the form of compartmentalisation was
developed prior to the invention of or widespread use of active fire protection
(AFP), mainly in the form of automatic fire sprinkler systems.
•During this time, PFP was the dominant mode of protection provided in facility
designs.
•With the widespread installation of fire sprinklers in the past 50 years, the
reliance on PFP as the only approach was reduced.
•Lobby groups are typically divided into two camps favouring active or passive
fire protection.
•Each camp tries to garner more business for itself through its influence in
establishing or changing local and national building and fire codes.
•At present, the camp favouring AFP appears to be leading, because of the
factors mentioned above.
Reasons:
•The relatively recent inclusion of performance based or objective based
codes, which have a greater emphasis on life safety than property protection,
tend to support AFP initiatives, and can lead to the justification for a lesser
degree of fire resistant rated construction.
•At times it works the other way around, as firewalls that protrude through the
roof structure are used to "sub-divide" buildings such that the separated parts
are of smaller area and contain smaller fire hazards, and do not necessarily
require sprinklers.
•The decision to favour AFP versus PFP in the design of a new building may
be affected by the lifecycle costs. Lifecycle costs can be shifted from capital to
operational budgets and vice versa.
Building Operation in conformance with Design
Deviations from that original plan should be made known to the Authorities.
The sprinkler system or fire alarm system is inoperable for lack of

knowledgeable maintenance, or if the building occupants open a fire door
and then run a carpet through, the likelihood of damage and casualties is
increased. It is vital for everyone to realise that fire protection within a
structure is a system that relies on all of its components.
Fire detectors:
Detect – Discover or perceive (Dictionary Meaning)

Fire detector –
• Finding increasing use for the protection of human life and of
valuables.
• Their main function is to quickly identify a developing fire and alert
building occupants and emergency response personnel before
extensive damage occurs.
A fire detector comprises a body - which are received fire detecting

means to detect the appearance of a fire and electrical circuits to
convert the output of the fire detecting means into electrical signals,
and control and indicating equipment connected to the detectors via
communication means.
Fire detection  electrical circuit  communication
Convert to Electrical Indicating equipments

signals
Fire detectors:
General guidelines for placing fire detectors:

• At least one detector in each room, storage area, and hallway.
• You may need more than one detector per room for those that
exceed the manufacturer's spacing requirements. For example, if
your detector is rated for 30 feet, install detectors so they are evenly
spaced with no more then 30 feet between detectors.
• Place the detector as close to the center of the ceiling as possible
when only one detector is required in a room or space.
• Put at least one detector in each closet, elevator , stairwell, and
other enclosed spaces.
•Place a detector at the top of each flight of stairs.
•Place all smoke detectors at least three feet from ceiling fans.
Fire detectors:
General guidelines for placing fire

detectors in houses:
• Definitely have one in your
bedroom, as most fires in the United
States take place during sleeping
hours, when no one is awake to
monitor the home.
•Another thing to remember is to have
a smoke detector in the kitchen, but
be sure to keep it away from the oven,
as smoke often emanates from that
spot, and can cause false alarms.
Fire detectors:
Types of fire detectors:

Several types involving a considerable number of different detection
techniques are available.
Common types are,

• Flame (ultra-violet , or infra-red sensing) ,
• Heat (fixed temperature, rate-of -rise, ultra-sonic wave. pattern) ,
• Smoke (photo-electric, ionization chamber, condensation nuclei).
For practical purposes,

However, only heat detectors (fixed temperature, rate-of-rise, and rate
compensated) and smoke detectors (photo-electric and ionization)
need to be considered.
Fire detectors:
Heat detectors:
A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the
converted thermal energy of a fire increases the temperature of a heat
sensitive element. The thermal mass and conductivity of the element
regulate the rate flow of heat into the element. All heat detectors have this
thermal lag.
Fire detectors:
Heat detector – how it works:

•Heat detectors use a set of temperature-sensitive resistors called thermistors
that decrease in resistance as the temperature rises.
•One thermistor is sealed and protected from the surrounding temperature while
the other is exposed.
•A sharp increase in temperature reduces the resistance in the exposed
thermistor, which allows a large current to activate the detector's alarm.
Fire detectors:
Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation,

• "rate-of-rise" and
• "fixed temperature."
Fixed temperature heat detectors
•This is the most common type of heat detector.
•Fixed temperature detectors operate when the heat sensitive element
reaches a set operating temperature.
•Thermal lag delays the accumulation of heat at the sensitive element so
that a fixed-temperature device will reach its operating temperature
sometime after the surrounding air temperature exceeds that
temperature.
•The most common fixed temperature point for electrically connected
heat detectors is 136.4°F (58°C).
•Technological developments have enabled the perfection of detectors
that activate at a temperature of 117°F (47°C), increasing the available
reaction time and margin of safety.
Fire detectors:
Rate-of-rise heat detectors

•Rate-of-Rise (ROR) heat detectors operate on a rapid rise in element
temperature of 12° to 15°F (6.7° to 8.3°C) increase per minute,
irrespective of the starting temperature.
•This type of heat detector can operate at a lower temperature fire
condition than would be possible if the threshold were fixed.
•Rate of rise detectors may not respond to low energy release rates of
slowly developing fires.
•To detect slowly developing fires combination detectors add a fixed
temperature element that will ultimately respond when the fixed
temperature element reaches the design threshold.
Fire detectors:
Heat detector selection

•A heat detector will nonetheless notify of a fire in a kitchen or utility area (i.e.,
laundry room, garage, or attic), where smoke detectors should not be installed.
This will allow extra time to evacuate the building or to put out the fire if possible.
•Mechanical heat detectors are independent fire warning stations that - unlike
smoke detectors - can be installed in any area of a home.
•Portability, ease of installation, and excellent performance and reliability make this
a good choice for residential fire protection when combined with the required
smoke detectors.
•Because the detectors are not interconnected, heat activation identifies the
location of the fire, facilitating evacuation from the home.
Each type of heat detector has its advantages, and it cannot be said that one type
of heat detector should always be used instead of another.
• If you were to place a rate-of-rise heat detector above a large, closed oven,
then every time the door is opened a nuisance alarm could be generated due
to the sudden heat transient. In this circumstance the fixed threshold detector
would probably be best.
•If a room filled with highly combustible materials is protected with a fixed
heat detector then a fast-flaming fire could exceed the alarm threshold due to
thermal lag. In that case the rate-of-rise heat detector may be preferred.
Fire detectors:
Heat detector – where to use?

Heat detectors are ideal for areas where flammable gasses and liquids are
handled or any area where a fire will quickly cause a large change in the
surrounding temperature.
Heat detectors are also suitable for:

•Dirty, dusty or smoky environments.
•Indoor areas without winds or drafts that can prevent smoke from
reaching the detector.
•Manufacturing areas where large quantities of vapors, gases, or fumes
may be present.
•Areas where particles of combustion are normally present, such as in
kitchens, furnace rooms, utility rooms, and garages or where ovens,
burners or vehicle exhaust gases are present.
Fire detectors:
Safety Light Detector:

This is an excellent basic type of fire detector for business places, larger
homes, or for homes with children.
•When this basic type of fire detector detects a fire, a path to an exit of
the house is illuminated.
•This basic type of fire detector, a great feature if having people not
familiar in the home or business there often, and takes that extra step to
save lives.
Basic Type of Fire Detectors - Lithium Battery
This basic type of fire detector is powered by, quite obviously, a lithium
battery. The life of the average lithium battery, when no used excessively
is 10 years. You likely won't even have to touch this basic type of fire
detector, but once every 10 years if you invest in this basic type of fire
detector.
If normal battery – then you have replace often, which you will forget to
maintain.
Fire detectors:
Smoke detector:
"Smoke detection has proven to be very effective in protecting lives. The
largest failure in the application of smoke detection is the failure to have
any at all!" (Allen Hess, Smoke Alarms: The Quest for Perfect Detection)
"Where there is smoke there is fire." (popular wisdom)

Fire detectors:
Smoke detectors:
A smoke detector is a device that detects smoke, typically as an indicator of fire.
Commercial, industrial, and mass residential devices issue a signal to a fire alarm
system, while household detectors, known as smoke alarms, generally issue a
local audible and/or visual alarm from the detector itself.
•Smoke detectors are typically housed in a disk-shaped
plastic enclosure about 150 millimetres (6 in) in diameter
and 25 millimetres (1 in) thick, but the shape can vary by
manufacturer or product line.
• Most smoke detectors work either by optical detection
(photoelectric) or by physical process (ionization), while
others use both detection methods to increase sensitivity
to smoke.
•Smoke detectors in large commercial, industrial, and

residential buildings are usually powered by a central fire
alarm system, which is powered by the building power
with a battery backup. However, in many single family
detached and smaller multiple family housings, a smoke
alarm is often powered only by a single disposable
battery.
Fire detectors:
Photoelectric Detectors
In a photoelectric smoke detector, a light source and light sensor are
arranged so that the rays from the light source do not hit the light sensor.
•When smoke particles enter the light path, some of the light is scattered
and redirected onto the sensor, causing the detector to activate an alarm.
•These detectors react quickly to visible smoke particles from smoldering
fires, but are less sensitive to the smaller particles associated with
flaming or very hot fires.
Fire detectors:
Ionization Detectors
The ionization detector contains a small radioactive source that is used to
charge the air inside a small chamber. The charged air allows a small
current to cross through the chamber and complete an electrical circuit.
•When smoke enters the chamber, it shields the radiation, which stops the
current and triggers an alarm.
•These detectors respond quickly to very small smoke particles (even
those invisible to the naked eye) from flaming or very hot fires, but may
respond very slowly to the dense smoke associated with smoldering or
low-temperature fires.
Fire detectors:
Ionization and photoelectric – difference:
•Obviously domestic photo-electric detectors operate when visible smoke

reaches an appropriate concentration.
•Ion chamber detectors, on the other hand, substantially respond at a

certain concentration of particles, size not being as significant as might be
expected. If paper is burned fairly cleanly, for example, a detector can
alarm before smoke becomes visible.
Fire detectors:
•A characteristic of smoke is that as it ages (over a matter of ten minutes

or so) agglomeration occurs; in other words, a number of particles come
together to form one larger particle. An ion chamber detector will be much
less responsive to such aged smoke. To a crude approximation, therefore,
it can be said that an ion chamber detector responds when a particular
mass rate of burning is attained regardless of the nature of the
combustible.
•As a result, ion chamber detectors can be much slower than photo-
electric detectors in responding to smouldering fires as initiated by
cigarettes in chesterfields, for example, Unfortunately, when periods of
more than half an hour or so are involved, such smouldering fires can give
smoke levels that will render an escape route untenable before an ion
chamber detector will respond.
•On the other hand, when flaming combustion is involved, an ion chamber
detector can be expected to respond before most photo-electric types.
Response to cooking fumes is also usually faster and this feature makes
ion chamber detectors prone to false alarms when they are located near
kitchens.
Fire detectors:
Reliability:
•recommends the replacement of home smoke alarms every 10 years.
•Smoke alarms become less reliable with time, primarily due to aging of
their electronic components, making them susceptible to nuisance false
alarms.
•In ionization type alarms, decay of the 241Am radioactive source is a
negligible factor, as its half-life is far greater than the expected useful life
of the alarm unit.
•Regular cleaning can prevent false alarms caused by the build up of dust
or other objects such as flies, particularly on optical type alarms as they
are more susceptible to these factors.
•A vacuum cleaner can be used to clean ionization and optical detectors
externally and internally.
•However, on commercial ionisation detectors it is not recommended for a
lay person to clean internally. To reduce false alarms caused by cooking
fumes, use an optical or 'toast proof' alarm near the kitchen.
Fire detectors:
Smoke detectors – where to use?
Ionization or photoelectric smoke detectors are designed to identify a fire

during its smoldering or early flame stages and will meet the needs of
most areas containing primarily wood, paper, fabric, and plastic materials.
During combustion, these materials produce a mixture of smoke types
with detectable levels of both large and small smoke particles.
Smoke detectors are suitable for:

•Indoor areas with low ceilings such as offices, closets, and restrooms.
•Areas that are relatively clean with minimal amounts of dust and dirt.
•Areas that contain solid fuels like wood, paper, fabric, and plastic
materials.
Note: Some locations are unsuitable for smoke detectors due to the
potential for unwanted alarms -- work areas, kitchens, stairs, shafts,
high air flow locations, areas that are dusty or dirty, as well as
outdoor areas.
Fire detectors:
•Being overcome by smoke is the usual mechanism resulting in death by

fire in the home, However, heat detectors do have a part to play in a home
fire detection system. Their function is to complement smoke detectors,
where a high level of safety is desired, by sensing fire in closed
compartments remote from, far eg, the sleeping householder.
•Heat detectors may prove the best choice in a domestic kitchen largely
because moderate fires capable of activating them (e.g., fire in a frying pan)
can develop quite rapidly. A second justification for this use is by default,
that smoke detectors (particularly the ionization type) are unduly prone to
false alarm during normal cooking practices.
HOW DOES THE PERFORMANCE OF SMOKE AND HEAT DETECTORS

COMPARE?
•Heat detectors will only operate following the development of a vigorous
fire.
•They are therefore quite unacceptable (from the life-safety point of view')
for installation in the living areas and escape routes of a home.
Fire detectors:
Flame Detectors
Flame detectors are line-of-sight devices that look for specific types of
light (infrared, visible, ultraviolet) emitted by flames during combustion.
When the detector recognizes this light from a fire, it sends a signal to
activate an alarm.
Fire detectors:
Flame detectors – Where to use?
Flame detectors are best for protecting:

•Areas with high ceilings and open-spaces, such as warehouses and
auditoriums.
•Outdoor or semi-enclosed areas, where winds or draughts can prevent
smoke from reaching a heat or smoke detector.
•Areas where rapidly developing flaming fires can occur, such as
petrochemical production, fuel storage areas, paint shops, and solvent
areas.
•Environments that are unsuitable for other types of detectors.
Fire detectors:
Responses of Fire Detectors:

•Once the fire is detected, the immediate response of the detector is to
trigger a desired responsive action.
•The immediate responsive action depends upon the overall design of
fire prevention system.
•It can be activation of audible and visual alarms.
•In some arrangements, fire detectors can transmit signals to remote
monitoring stations.
•It can even activate fire extinguishing systems and emergency
shutdown of equipments and processes that might increase the
severity of fire.
•In some emergency response systems, they also activate the emergency
shutdown of energized equipment and initiate the fire fighting system in
place.
•Timely intimation of fire can save lives and avoid material losses
effectively
Fire detectors:
Protection of fire detectors:
Detectors that are installed outdoors and need to be shielded from the
weather to work properly or may be exposed to corrosive environments
must be protected from corrosion.
• Provide a canopy, hood, or other suitable protection (such as a non-
corrosive coating) for detection equipment, requiring protection from the
weather
•In order to keep detection equipment operable, they must be located
away from or out of contact with materials or equipment which may
cause physical damage or be protected by a cage or metal guard.
•Locate or otherwise protect detection equipment, so that it is protected
from mechanical or physical impact that may render it inoperable.
•All detectors must be securely mounted to a solid surface, such as
screwed to a junction box with a mounting plate or other appropriate
method that prevents them from putting pressure or stress on attached
wires or tubing.
•Assure that detectors are supported independently of their
attachment to wires or tubing
Fire detectors:
•Over time, dust, dirt, and other foreign material can build up inside a
detector’s sensing elements, resulting in reduced sensitivity, which can
limit the amount of warning time given during a fire.
•Dirty or dusty detectors can also result in unwanted alarms that can
desensitize occupants to the alarm system or produce more serious
behavior (such as disconnecting the system altogether).
•To avoid malfunctions and unwanted alarms and to make sure your fire
detection system will perform as expected in the event of a fire, you are
required to: Operate and maintain your system in a working condition,
making sure it is always turned on, except during repairs or maintenance.
•Test and adjust fire detectors and fire detection systems often to
ensure that they operate correctly and maintain reliability.
•Detectors found to be unreliable and/or with reduced sensitivity must
be replaced or cleaned and recalibrated.
•Have a qualified person service, maintain and test all fire detection
systems, including cleaning and necessary sensitivity adjustments.
•Have fire detectors cleaned of dust, dirt or other particulates at
periodic intervals to assure their proper operation.
•All fire detection equipment must be returned to normal operation as
soon as possible after being tested, used, or accidentally activated
Fire detectors:
Number, location and spacing of detecting devices :
The number, spacing, and location of detectors must be based on design

data obtained from:
•Field experience or testing,

•Engineering surveys,
•The manufacturer's recommendations, or
•A recognized testing laboratory listing.
Fire detectors:
The following applies to fire detection systems used for specific

applications:
•When a fire detection system is installed for the purpose of activating a fire
extinguishing or suppression system, it must be designed to respond in time to
control or extinguish the potential fire
•When a fire detection system is installed as an employee evacuation alarm,

it must be designed and installed to provide a warning for emergency action and
safe escape of employees
•Do not delay alarms or devices actuated by fire detectors for more than 30
seconds, unless the delay is necessary for the safety of employees. For example,
if a fire suppression system uses a compressed gas that will flood an
occupied area, it will be necessary to give employees time to escape.
Fire detectors:
Fire detectors:
Interconnect detectors:
• there are now some models of the smoke detectors that include radio or tone
generator transmitters which can send a signal to remote receivers without
the necessity of interconnecting wiring.
•Any detector that alarms will send a coded signal to operate a horn in the
receiver which can be installed in any bedroom.
Alarm Systems
Fire Alarm System:

An automatic fire alarm system is designed to detect the unwanted presence of
fire by monitoring environmental changes associated with combustion.
General Types:
• Automatically activated,
• Manually activated, or
• Combination of both automatic and manual.
General application:
• Intended to notify the building occupants to evacuate in the event of a fire or
other emergency,
• report the event to an off-premises location in order to summon emergency
services, and to prepare the structure and associated systems to control the
spread of fire and smoke.
Cost:
• Relatively high - these systems are generally found only in larger homes.
• The system can cost $1000 or more to install, with 24-hour monitoring service
adding $15 to $20 per month.
Alarm Systems
Wireless and Wired Fire Alarm Systems

• For a wired fire alarm wires from each individual sensor is connected to the
main unit which indicates where there is a fire.
• For the wireless unit the principle is radio waves transmitted from individual
sensors to the main alarm unit.
Fundamental Configuration:
1. Fire alarm control panel(FACP) or Fire alarm control unit (FACU):
2. Primary Power supply:
3. Secondary (backup) Power supplies:
4. Initiating Devices:
5. Notification appliances:
6. Building Safety Interfaces:
Alarm Systems
Fundamental Configuration:
1) Fire alarm control panel(FACP) or Fire alarm control unit (FACU):
• Hub of the system, monitors inputs and system integrity, controls outputs and
relays information.
• It is an electric panel that is the controlling component of a fire alarm system.
• The panel receives information from environmental sensors designed to
detect changes associated with fire, monitors their operational integrity and provides
for automatic control of equipment, and transmission of information necessary to
prepare the facility for fire based on a predetermined sequence.
• The panel may also supply electrical energy to operate any associated
sensor, control, transmitter, or relay.
Different types of FACP:

• There are four basic types of panels:
coded panels,
conventional panels,
addressable panels, and
multiplex systems.
Alarm Systems
Primary Power supply:

• Commonly the non-switched 240 Volt Alternating Current source supplied
from a commercial power utility.
• In non-residential applications, a branch circuit is dedicated to the fire
alarm system and its constituents.
• "Dedicated branch circuits" should not be confused with "Individual branch
circuits" which supply energy to a single appliance.
Secondary (backup) Power supplies:

• This component, commonly consisting of sealed lead-acid storage batteries or
other emergency sources including generators, is used to supply energy in the
event of a primary power failure.
Initiating Devices:
•This component acts as an input to the fire alarm control unit and are either
manually or automatically actuated. Examples would be devices like pull stations or
smoke detectors.
• Two Types:
Manually Activated devices
Automatically Activated devices
Alarm Systems
Manually actuated devices:

•Break glass stations, Constructed to be readily
•Buttons and located (near the exits),
• manual pull station identified, and operated.
Automatically actuated devices

Convected thermal energy;
heat detector,
products of combustion;
The newest innovations can use
smoke detector,
cameras and computer
radiant energy;
algorithms to analyze the
flame detector,
visible effects of fire and
combustion gasses;
movement in applications
carbon monoxide detector and
inappropriate for or hostile to
release of extinguishing agents;
other detection methods.
water-flow detector.
Alarm Systems
Notification appliances:
•This component uses energy supplied from the fire alarm system or other stored
energy source, to inform the proximate persons of the need to take action, usually
to evacuate.
•This is done by means of a flashing light, strobe light, electromechanical horn,
speaker, or a combination of these devices.
Other methods include:

•Audible textual appliances, which are employed as part of a fire alarm system that
includes Emergency Voice Alarm Communications (EVAC) capabilities.
•High reliability speakers are used to notify the occupants of the need for action in
connection with a fire or other emergency.
•These speakers are employed in large facilities where general undirected
evacuation is considered impracticable or undesirable.
•The signals from the speakers are used to direct the occupant's response.
• Speakers are automatically actuated by the fire alarm system in a fire event,
and following a pre-alert tone, selected groups of speakers may transmit one or
more prerecorded messages directing the occupants to safety.
•These messages may be repeated in one or more languages.
Smoke Alarm Systems
Alarm Location
Do not install smoke alarms…
•In or near kitchens, bathrooms or laundry rooms, if the alarm
has an ionization sensor
•In attics, cellars or other areas that become very hot, cold or dusty
•On un-insulated exterior walls or ceilings that are not insulated
from the roof (the alarm will get too hot and/or cold)
•In the “dead air zones” that occur within two feet of any corner of a
room or hallway
•In the “dead air zone” that is found within four inches of the edge
of any ceiling, or the top edge of any wall
•In any area where air flow is restricted or there is a very strong
draft or air flow
Smoke Alarm Systems
Alarm Location
DEAD AIR
Example of the “dead air
ZONE zone” at the boundary
between a ceiling and a
wall
Acceptable mounting
locations for smoke alarms
Smoke Alarm Systems
Alarm Location
Proper Installation Location

Smoke Alarm Systems
Preferred Placement of Alarms

Whenever possible, install smoke alarms on ceilings
•Near the center of the room is usually best
•If the room has an arched, vaulted or gabled ceiling, put the alarm at or
near the highest point of the ceiling
•Do not install smoke alarms within four inches of a wall or within two
feet of a corner
Ceiling installation is preferable, but if it isn’t practical, smoke alarms

may be installed on a wall
Install alarms in the narrow area at least four inches, but not
more than twelve inches, below the ceiling
Remember: do not install a smoke alarm on an un-insulated
exterior wall
Fire Sprinkler
Fire Sprinkler System:

• It is an active fire protection measure, consisting of a
water supply system, providing adequate pressure and
flow rate to a water distribution piping system, onto
which fire sprinklers are connected.
• Although historically only used in factories and large

commercial buildings, home and small building systems
are now available at a cost-effective price.
• In the US, sprinklers are today required in all new high rise and underground
buildings generally 75 feet (23 m) above or below fire department access,
where the ability of firefighters to provide adequate hose streams to fires is
limited.
• Sprinklers may be required to be installed by building codes, or may be
recommended by insurance companies to reduce potential property losses or
business interruption.
Fire Sprinkler
•During the incipient fire stage, heat output is relatively low and unable to cause
sprinkler operation.
•As the fire intensity increases, however, the sprinkler's sensing elements
become exposed to elevated temperatures (typically in excess of 135-225°F/57-
107°C)and they begin to deform.
•Assuming temperatures remain high, as they would during an increasing fire, the
element will fatigue after an approximate 30 second to 4 minute period.
•This will release the sprinkler's seals allowing water to discharge onto the fire.
• In most situations less than 2 sprinklers are needed to suppress the fire.
•In fast growing fire scenarios such as a flammable liquid spill , up to 12 sprinklers
may be required for control.
typical sprinkler system in operation

Fire Sprinkler
Standard Sprinkler Head Styles

Fire Sprinkler
• The sprinkler is the spray nozzle which

distributes water over a defined fire hazard area
(typically 150-225 sq. ft.).
• The typical sprinkler consists of a frame,
thermal operated linkage, cap, orifice, and
deflector.
• Styles of each component may vary but the
basic principles of each remain the same.
Standard Sprinkler Head

Components
Fire Sprinkler
Frame.
•The frame provides the main structural
component which holds the sprinkler together.
•The water supply pipe connects to the
sprinkler at the base of the frame.
•The frame holds the thermal linkage and cap
in place, and supports the deflector during
discharge.
•Frame styles include standard and low
profile, flush, and concealed mount.
•Some frames are designed for extended spray
coverage, beyond the range of normal sprinklers.
•Standard finishes include brass, chrome,
black, and white.
•Custom finishes are available for aesthetically
sensitive spaces.
•Special coatings are available for areas subject
to high corrosive effect.
•Selection of a specific frame style is dependent
on the size and type of area to be covered,
anticipated hazard, visual impact features, and
atmospheric conditions.
Fire Sprinkler
Thermal linkage.
•The thermal linkage is the component which controls water release.
•Under normal conditions the linkage holds the cap in place and prevents water
flow, however, as the link is exposed to heat it weakens and releases the cap.
•Common linkage styles include soldered metal levers, frangible glass bulbs,
and solder pellets.
•As mentioned previously, the common operating temperature is usually between

135-225°F/57-107°C.
•Higher temperature sprinklers, however, may be utilized where excessive
ambient temperatures exist, i.e. mechanical plant rooms.
•Upon reaching the desired operating temperature, an approximate 30 second to 4
minute time lag will follow.
•This lag is the time required for linkage fatigue and is largely controlled by the link
materials and mass.
•Standard responding sprinklers operate closer to the 3-4 minute mark while
quick response (QR) sprinklers operate in significantly shorter periods.
•Selection of a sprinkler response characteristic is dependent upon the existing risk,
acceptable loss level and desired response action.
Fire Sprinkler
•In museum applications the advantage of quick response sprinklers becomes

apparent. The faster a sprinkler reacts to a fire, the sooner the suppression activity
is initiated, and the lower the potential damage level. This is particularly beneficial in
high value or life safety applications where the earliest possible extinguishment is a
fire protection goal.
•It is important to understand that response time is independent of response
temperature. A quicker responding sprinkler will not activate at a lower temperature
than a comparable standard head.
Fire Sprinkler
Cap.
•The cap provides the water tight seal which is located over the sprinkler orifice.
•This component is held in place by the thermal linkage. Operation of the linkage
causes the cap to fall from position and permit water flow.
•Caps are constructed solely of metal or a metal with a teflon disk.
Orifice.
•The machined opening at the base of the sprinkler frame is the orifice.
•It is from this opening which extinguishing water flows.
•Most orifice openings are 1/2 inch diameter with smaller bores available for
residential applications and larger openings for higher hazards.
Deflector.
•The deflector is mounted on the frame opposite the orifice.
•The purpose of this component is to break up the water stream discharging from
the orifice into a more efficient extinguishing pattern.
•Deflector styles determine how the sprinkler is mounted, by the angle of their
tines. Common sprinkler mounting styles are upright (mounted above the pipe),
pendent (mounted below the pipe, i.e. under ceilings), and sidewall sprinklers which
discharge water in a lateral position from a wall.
•The sprinkler must be mounted as designed to ensure proper action.
•Selection of a particular style is often dependent upon physical building constraints.
Fire Sprinkler
Operation
•Each closed-head sprinkler is held closed by either a heat-sensitive glass bulb or
a two-part metal link held together with fusible alloy.
•The glass bulb or link applies pressure to a pip cap which acts as a plug which
prevents water from flowing until the ambient temperature around the sprinkler
reaches the design activation temperature of the individual sprinkler head.
•In a standard wet-pipe sprinkler system, each sprinkler activates independently
when the predetermined heat level is reached.
•Because of this, the number of sprinklers that operate is limited to only those near
the fire, thereby maximizing the available water pressure over the point of fire
origin.
Sprinkler system in operation

Fire Sprinkler
•Below the design temperature, it does not break, and above the design
temperature, it takes less time for higher temperatures.
•Under standard testing procedures (135 °C air at a velocity of 2.5 m/s), a 68 °C
sprinkler bulb will break within 7 to 33 seconds, depending on the RTI (Response
time index).
A sprinkler activation will do less damage than a fire department hose

stream, which provide approximately 900 liters/min (250 US gallons/min).
•A typical sprinkler used for industrial manufacturing occupancies discharge
about 75-150 litres/min (20-40 US gallons/min).
•In addition, a sprinkler will usually activate between one and four minutes,
whereas the fire department typically takes at least five minutes to arrive at
the fire site after receiving an alarm, and an additional ten minutes to set up
equipment and apply hose streams to the fire. This additional time can result in a
much larger fire, requiring much more water to achieve extinguishment.
Fire Sprinkler
Additional actions may occur when sprinkler activation happens. These

include initiation of building and/or
•fire department alarms,
•operation of supplemental water supply systems,
•shutdown of selected electrical and mechanical equipment
•closing of fire doors and dampers,
•and suspension of processes
Different types of Automatic fire sprinklers:

• wet pipe system
• dry pipe system
• deluge system
• pre-action system
• foam water sprinkler system
• water spray
Fire Sprinkler
Aesthetic Appeal:
•To ensure proper design, the institution and
design team should take an active role in the
selection of visible components.
•Sprinkler piping should be placed, either
concealed or in a decorative
arrangement, to minimize visual impact.
•Only sprinklers with high quality finishes
should be used.
•Often sprinkler manufacturers will use
customer provided paints to match finish
colors, while maintaining the sprinkler's
listing.
•The selected sprinkler contractor must
understand the role of aesthetics.
Fire Sprinkler
How can I maintain my sprinkler system?

Most importantly, have your system periodically inspected by a professional. This
will catch any problems before they become major. In addition, maintenance will
usually lower insurance premiums.
Do: Test the system monthly by opening the test valve and listening for an alarm
bell.
Know the location of the system shutoff valve.
Make sure the system control valve is always open.
Have your system reevaluated for needed upgrades when:
Water supply changes--addition or change of water meter, or reduction of
public water supply.
Building occupancy or use changes.
Building changes (walls, partitions, additions).
Leave the building and contact the fire department when any activation of the
system occurs, even if the fire has apparently been extinguished.
Don't:
Paint the sprinklers.
Damage sprinklers (report any damage immediately).
Hang objects from any part of the system.
Obstruct of cover the sprinklers.
Dry and Wet Risers
Dry and Wet Risers:

•A Dry Riser is a system of valves and pipework which enables the Fire Service to
pump water on to the upper floors of a building.
•A Wet Riser is a system of valves and pipework which are kept permanently
charged with water.
Where do you find dry / wet risers?

Dry risers will be found:
•in buildings over 18 metres above ground level
•in low level buildings where there are excessive distances from entrances (60m)
Wet risers will be found in buildings over 60 metres above ground level
Service and maintenance

•Risers are prone to neglect and vandalism.
•If your fire risk assessment concludes that you would need the
intervention of the Fire Service to fight a fire, you must ensure
that your riser systems or hydrants are working properly.
Dry and Wet Risers
A dry riser is a main vertical pipe intended to distribute

water to multiple levels of a building or structure as a
component of the fire suppression systems.
Dry risers have to have fire engine access within 18m

of the dry riser inlet box. (Dry Risers in occupied
buildings have to be within a fire resistant shaft, usually
one of a building's fire escape staircase enclosures.)
A dry standpipe includes a fire department connection

which is an external access point at ground level
through which water can be pumped from the fire
department's fire engine pump to firefighters' hose
attachments on each floor.
Dry and Wet Risers
Identification of Dry and Wet Risers

•Dry Risers - External "Fire Brigade Inlet" or
"Dry Riser Inlet", these should be red painted
and near a road on an external wall.
•In some areas where vandalism is a problem,

the normal glass front can be replaced with
steel.
•Wet Risers - External no obvious signs

except the building will usually be very tall, 18
plus floors etc.
Dry and Wet Risers
Fire Protection – In Indian cities:

Many malls in Hyderabad are `death traps‘:
•Some malls had provided only one fire extinguisher on each floor, which were
also not working properly.
•"No shopping mall (up to 15 meters height) was found to be fire proof by
fulfilling all mandatory measures.
In Mumbai – Its high rise towers:

•fire safety equipment and measures in around 80 percent of the city’s high -rises
are ill-maintained.
•It also revealed that the mandatory refuge area in these buildings was misused
by residents and developers.
Dry and Wet Risers
• Most of these buildings were equipped with fire safety equipment, they were not
in working condition.
1. No fire extinguishers or sand buckets in the metre room,
2. Exit doors on each floors are locked when they are supposed to be self -
closed (which can be opened by turning the knob),
3. Fire water tank in building premises was not filled and not maintained,
4. Water pumps are not working,
5. Pipes of wet riser are broken,
6. Holes of sprinklers are filled with colour and plaster and
7. Smoke detectors are not functional in passage areas,
8. Staircase and courtyard are not free of obstruction for easy movement
during fire.
Dry and Wet Risers
•The survey also identified that the refuge area above 24 meters of height in
high-rise with 1.2-metre wall and open area — where rescuers are kept in case
of fire were misused by developers and residents.
•Societies have either dumped waste or are using the area for recreational
purpose. In some cases people are even staying in these areas.
•two buildings in Byculla and Mulund, the place for refuge area was sold by
the developer.
•In yet another building, the flat occupant had made an entrance through
the refuge area to his room by setting a ladder.
•Till the fire engines and firemen reach the spot, these equipment can
control the damage and save lives of people – that is the intention, but what is
happening?.
•High-rises are supposed to undertake evacuation drills, but no one practices
them.

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UNIT V FIRE SAFETY, FIRE DETECTION AND FIGHTING

How did the Great Fire start?

- Started in the baker, Thomas Faynor’s shop.

BUILDING SERVICES III

-Temporary buildings - ill equipped and disease easily spread.

BUILDING SERVICES III

BUILDING SERVICES III

BUILDING SERVICES III

BUILDING SERVICES III

BUILDING SERVICES III

Home heating appliances:

Careless smoking habits:

Old, damaged and sub-standard electrical House wiring and accessories:

BUILDING SERVICES III

BUILDING SERVICES III

• Emergency evacuation plans: emergency exits in the building is top most

• Mock drills at regular intervals

BUILDING SERVICES III

Electronic office equipment

BUILDING SERVICES III

The smoke will also pass through any holes or

It moves rapidly up staircases or lift wells and

BUILDING SERVICES III

The toxic smoke and gases are an

Common causes of fire and

BUILDING SERVICES III

BUILDING SERVICES III

The main causes of all deaths were,

Building damage – can be very significant, particularly if the building materials

Flora and fauna damage – can be significant, particularly in a hot draught or

BUILDING SERVICES III

BUILDING SERVICES III

• Lifts and escalators shall not be considered as exits.

• Exit, exit access or exit discharge - continuously maintained free of all

• Exits – in sufficient numbers  as per DCR.

• Alteration to the size or the number of exits – not permitted.

• Exits – Clearly visible and

BUILDING SERVICES III

Reason – to avoid the funnel or flue effect  upward spread of fire.

• Exits – shall provide continuous means of egress (Way out).

• Exits – should be reached without passing through another occupied unit.

BUILDING SERVICES III

Mezzanine floor – occupant load  taken by the floor below.

BUILDING SERVICES III

Note: Total occupants from a particular floor –

Size of the exit door - calculated according to the travel distance.

BUILDING SERVICES III

Group of occupancy Number of occupants Number of Number of

BUILDING SERVICES III

Group of occupancy Maximum travel distance Maximum travel distance

BUILDING SERVICES III

BUILDING SERVICES III

BUILDING SERVICES III

• Min 1000 mm is width except assembly buildings – 2000 mm

In Central corridor – the doors of rooms shall open inward.

• Exit doorway – not open immediately upon a flight of stairs,

• Should be openable without the key, from the sideway.

•Mirrors shall not be placed – to avoid confusion.

BUILDING SERVICES III

• Lift lobbies and corridors shall be adequately ventilated.

• constructed as a self contained unit with an external wall of the building

• A staircase shall not be arranged round a lift shaft.

• Hollow combustible construction shall not be permitted.