Grammar : The Units of English

This is your first lesson in your learning process.

Bring in a note-book and a pen. You may need them to take down notes for your future
reference.

Taking down notes will help you pay focused attention on what you learn.

It is strongly suggested that you had better take down notes of what you learn in every
lesson.

Let us start with the Units of English.

What is called a UNIT?

A Unit is a basic part, many of which bring out the whole.

Units make a word or a sentence complete.

How many Units are there in English?

There are FIVE UNITS.

1. Letter

2. Word

3. Phrase

4. Clause

5. Sentence

All these five Units make a sentence or a paragraph a meaningful one.

Let us see these Units of English individually.

1. Letter:
There are twenty six letters in English language.

They are:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y and Z .

These letters have been written in Capital forms.

The same letters can also be written in Small forms.

They are:

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z.

All these twenty-six letters are collectively called ALPHABET.

So the alphabet of English language has twenty-six letters.

These twenty-six letters can be classified into two groups.

They are:

I. Consonants

b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y and z. are called CONSONANTS. That

means there are 21 consonants.

II. Vowels

a, e, i. o and u are called VOWELS. That means there are five vowels.

2.Word:

A word converts the group of letters into a meaningful one. A word plays a pivotal role in
the Units of English.

A word is a group of letters with a meaning.

Ball, nation, ocean, boy, courage, install, save and organization are words.

The word ball is having four letters b..a..l..l.

The word organization is having twelve letters o..r..g..a..n..i..s..a..t..i..o..n.

In this way all the words are collective forms of few letters.
Every word carries a meaning.

Let us see few more words which we use regularly in our daily lives.

Son, father, mother, daughter, wife, husband, school, college, milk, street, bus, car, train,
sky, moon, sun, note, book, university, love, language, skill, communication, motivation,
can, will, no, yes, carry, on, down, up, color, white, red, computer, profit, business and
knowledge are few of the words which we use in our day-to-day lives.

It is must for one to know at least 25,000 words to become a very good communicator in
English.

Till you master that much of words and the Basics of English language, you have to keep
on learning so that you language-skill will get sharpened day by day. Becoming thorough
with the Basics of English is a matter of practice.

Understanding the meaning of the words determines your progress. Among the Units of
English, the unit word has its own place in understaning the Perfect English.The word-
power is indomitable. Rote learning of words will not take you to understand the Perfect
English.The meaning and the usages of every word should be understood. You should
allot more time to increase your word-power.These Units of English will take you to the
next level of learning process.

3.Phrase:

This is another important Unit in the Units of English.

A phrase is a group of words without a subject and a predicate but with a meaning.

(What are meant by subject and predicate? Let us see later.)

The basics of English language should be understood in a comprehensive manner. keep

on reading till all the lessons in the basics are over. Then begin once again from this Units
of English, that will give you better understanding of the Basics ofEnglish language.

Let us see few phrases.

i. The leader of the group

ii. The red ball

iii. Your class-mates

iv. Our family-members

v. A very distant place

vi. Business people

vii. To make up

viii. To get away with

ix. To score more marks

x. To attain fame

If the most important word in a phrase is a noun (what is noun? Let us see later.), it is
called a Nominal phrase or a Noun phrase.

In the foloowing sections, you will understand these pharses very well.

In the examples given above, the first six phrases have nouns as the most important
words.

“The leader of the group” has the noun “leader” as the most important word in that
phrase.

“The red ball” has the noun “ball” as the most important word in that phrase.

So they are called Nominal phrase or Noun phrase.

Few more examples for Nominal phrases:

i. All the admitted students

ii. Tax-payers from that state

iii. The primary colors

iv. Safe web-sites

v. Only English teachers

If the most important word in the phrase is verb (what is verb? Let us see later.), that
phrase is called Verbal phrase.

In the above-mentioned examples, vii, viii, ix and x have the verbs make-up, get away,
score and attain as the most important words. So they are called Verbal Phrases.
Few more examples for Verbal phrases:

i. To cultivate the lands

ii. To study into night

iii. To go around the city

iv. To donate liberally

v. To be there in time

4.Clause:

A clause is a group of words, with a subject and a predicate having a meaning.

Note:
A phrase does not have a subject and a predicate. But a clause has both.

i. You are my best friend

ii. It is not possible for him to do that now
iii. When the train arrived
iv. If you are qualified
v. As the election is declared

If clause is conveying the complete meaning, it is called Main clause.

The clause You are my best friend conveys the complete meaning. So it is called the
Main clause.

Few more examples for main clauses:

i. His letter is full of eulogies.

ii. The magicians have not yet come.

iii. The school-hour is over.

iv. Red-colored cars have very good demand.

v. Indians are religious by nature.

If the meaning of the clause is incomplete, then that clause is called subordinate clause.

The clause mentioned above “if you are qualified” does not have a complete meaning.

So that clause is called subordinate clause .

Few more examples for subordinate clauses:

i. It is possible only when

ii. Unless you score high marks

iii. Since your age is below 21

iv. As the time is not ripe

v. Because of high blood-pressure

Subordinate clauses begin with words such as:

Who, whom, whose, which, that, unless, as, because, when, how, where, what, since, etc..

Note:

A. There can not be a sentence without a Main clause.

B. In few sentences, the subordinate clause may occur between two parts of a main
clause.

5. Sentence:

A sentence is a group of clauses, conveying a complete meaning. A sentence is the form

which carries all the five Units of English by remaining one of the five Units of English.

Examples:

i. It is possible only when all the members support this project. ( 1 main clause and 1
subordinate clause).

ii. Do not try to be smart ( 1 main clause).

iii. When you come to my house, please, bring that book. (1 main clause and 1
subordinate clause).

iv. He is intelligent but he is lazy. (2 main clauses).

v. Since the students have not yet paid their fees, the exam was not conducted yesterday.
(1 subordinate clause and a main clause).

These are the basic Units of English. Here after you can enter the next area of Perfect
English.

So far we have clearly understood the following terms.

i. Units of English language

ii. Alphabet

iii. Consonant

iv. Vowel

v. Letter

vi. Word

vii. Nominal phrase or Noun phrase

viii. Verbal phrase

ix. Main clause

x. Sub-ordinate clause

xi. Sentence

These are the utter basics which constitute English language. From the first unit of the
five Units of English language, we have come to the unit of sentence.

Go through this page once again so as to understand all these

Units of English without any doubt. This slow-approach will give you strong foundation
to go ahead with your journey of learning of the Basics of English language.

NOTE:

Understanding the Basics of English(Grammar) very clearly will give you the strong
foundation needed to become a very good communicator.

Grammar : Parts of Speech

This section on Parts of Speech is your second lesson. Remember the first lesson so that
this lesson will be very clear for understanding.

You saw in the first lesson that the words are very important in the formation of
sentences.

The words constitute the Parts of Speech.

The words used in English are divided into eight parts according to the functions carried
out by those words in a sentence.

Those EIGHT PARTS are:

1. Noun

2. Verb

3. Adjective

4. Adverb

5. Pronoun

6. Preposition

7. Conjunction

8. Interjection

All these parts of speech have their own roles in the formation of sentences. In the
following lessons, we can see all these parts of speeches indepth. Now,let us see these
eight parts one by one briefly.

1.Noun:

A noun is a word used as a name of a person, place, thing,

state, quality, activity, action etc...

Examples:

• Mr. John is our English teacher.

In this sentence the words “Mr. John” and “teacher” are nouns.

• Harvard University is the oldest University.

In this sentence the words “Harvard” and “University” are nouns.

• Lions live in forest.

In this sentence the words “Lion” and “forest” are nouns.

• He is my best friend.
In this sentence, the words “He” and “friend” are nouns.

London, New Delhi, Himalaya, philosophy, beauty, car, road,

Management, science, school, students, books, Mrs. Raman, tree,

mango, fruits and flowers are few of the nouns.

Few other nouns are ball, town, bill, boy, child, hospital,

hotel, home, hall, fame, college, road, fruit, computer etc…

The another part in the parts of speech is

To know more about Noun

a. Noun-Types

Grammar :

Noun-Types

In this lesson we are going to see only Noun-Types. Other parts will be dealt with in the
following lessons.

What is NOUN?

A Noun is a word used as a name of a person, place, thing, state, quality, activity, action
etc...

Examples:

• Mr. John is our English teacher.

In this sentence the words Mr. John and teacher are Nouns.

• Harvard University is the oldest University.

In this sentence the words Harvard and University are Nouns.

• Lions live in forest.

In this sentence the words Lion and forest are Nouns.

• He is my best friend.
In this sentence, the words He and friend are Nouns.

London, New Delhi, Himalaya, philosophy, beauty, car, road,

Management, science, school, students, books, Mrs. Raman, tree,

mango, fruits; flowers are few of the Nouns.

Nouns can be classified into four Noun-Types.

The Noun-Types are:

i. Proper noun:

A proper noun is the name given to a particular person.

Mr.Peter, Hemingway, Kennedy, London, Italy, Mango and California

are Proper Nouns.

Examples:

• Italy is a developed country.

In this sentence, Italy is a Proper Noun.

• Mr. Clinton is good administrator.

In this sentence, Mr. Clinton is a proper noun.

• Ford is a car producing company.

In this sentence, the word Ford is a proper noun.

ii. Common noun:

A common noun is a name given in common to persons and things belonging to the same
species.

Examples:
• Italy is a developed country.
In this sentence, Italy is a proper noun.

• A developed country has more responsibilities.

In this sentence the word country is a common noun which could
be used for other countries like India, England, Germany, Brazil etc…

Man, woman, city, fruit, tree, river, book, hotel, country,

mountain are common nouns which we use in our day-to-day lives.
Another type in Noun-Types is Common Noun.

iii. Collective noun:

A collective noun is the name given to a collection or group of persons or things taken as
a single group or entity.

Examples:

• A herd of cows is crossing the road.

• A fleet of ships is sailing deep along the western coast.

• Army is called to rescue the boy caught in the flood.

In these sentences the words herd, fleet and army are collective nouns.

Herd means a group of cattle. Fleet means a group of ships.

Few other collective nouns are police, gang, galaxy, family, team etc…

iv. Abstract noun:

An abstract noun is the name given to a quality or action or state which we can
understand but we can not touch and see.

Examples:

• Kindness is expected of everyone.

• Laughter heals many deceases.

• Sleep regenerates our energy-system.

• Music is a product of harmony.

In these sentences, the words kindness, laughter, sleep and

“music” are abstract nouns which we could only understand but

could not see or touch.

Other abstract nouns are quality, goodness, beauty, mercy, youth,

movement, slowness, length, humility, truth, depth, wisdom,

pride, sanity, vacancy, novelty, justness, justice, height, life,

excellence, occupation, action, seizure, defense, hatred,

protection, choice, flattery, death, service, thought, advice,

obedience, vanity, bravery, strength, cruelty, freedom etc…

We believe that You have clearly understood the Noun-Types and their usages.It is better
for you to spend some more time on this section Noun-Types so as to become a better
qualified person to move on.

Other sections on Nouns are here.

b. Noun-Gender

The Noun-Gender tells us about the sex of the noun.

In Grammar-Nouns, there are FOUR GENDERS.

1. Masculine gender:

A noun is said to be in the Masculine gender if it refers to a male

character or member of a species.

Man, lion, hero, boy, king, horse and actor are nouns of
masculine gender.

Example:

• A boy is playing in the play-ground.

• Hero of the movie is not a native of this country.

In these sentences the words “boy” and “hero” are masculine-

gender nouns.

The next in the Noun-Gender is feminine gender.

2. Feminine gender:

A noun is said to be in the feminine gender if it refers to a female

member of a species.

Woman, lioness, heroine, girl, mare, niece, empress, cow and

actress are few of the feminine-gender nouns that we use.

Example:

• A girl is playing in the play-ground.

• Heroine of the movie is not a native of this country.

In these sentences the words “girl” and “heroine” are feminine-

gender nouns.

The next in the Noun-Gender is common gender.

3. Common gender:

A noun is said to be in Common gender if it refers to a member

of species which can be a male or a female.

Child, student, friend, applicant, candidate, servant, member,

parliamentarian and leader are few of the common-gender

nouns.

Example:

• A child is playing in the play-ground.

• A Parliamentarian should have command over his language.

In these sentences the words, “child” and “parliamentarian” are
nouns of common gender.

The next in the Noun-Gender is neuter gender.

4. Neuter gender:

A noun is said to be in the neuter gender if it refers to a member

of a species which is neither a male nor a female.

Normally nouns referring to lifeless objects are in neuter nouns.

Chair, table, tree, star, mountain, street, book, car, school,

paper, pencil and computer are few of the neuter nouns which
We use regularly.

Example:

• Computer has brought about drastic changes in our lives.

• Tree is cleansing the air.
• Stars are not visible in the day-time.
• Books are our best friends.

In these sentences the words, “computer”, “tree”, “stars” and

“books” are the neuter-gender nouns.

NOTE:

a. Collective nouns, even if they refer to living-beings, are used

as neuter-nouns.

Example:

i. The army is doing its task.

ii. The police are called to manage the situation.

In these sentences the nouns (army and police) refer to only

living-beings. But they are used only as neuter-nouns.

b.Objects noted for their power, strength, and violence are used
as Masculine gender nouns.

The sun, summer, time, death etc… are masculine-gender nouns.

Example:

i. The sun is so scorching now that we can not go out now to face
him without an umbrella.

ii. The death is cruel. He is as certain as tomorrow.

In these sentences the words “sun” and “death” have been used
as Masculine-gender nouns.

c. Objects noted for their beauty, gentleness and grace are used
as feminine-gender nouns.

The moon, the earth, spring, charity etc… are feminine-gender

nouns.

Example:

i. The moon is so bright at this time that she induces romantic

mood in us.

ii. The earth is patient. Her beauty is spoiled day-by-day.

The masculine-genders and their respective feminine-genders

have been given below for your reference.

Masculine genders-----Feminine genders

1. Bachelor----- Spinster

2. Bachelor----- Maid

3. Bullock----- Heifer
4. Dog----- Bitch

5. Drone------ Bee

6. Horse----- Mare

7. Nephew----- Niece

8. Jew----- Jewess

9. Wizard----- Witch

10. Heir----- Heiress

11. Manager----- Manageress

12. Poet----- Poetess

13. Shepherd----- Shepherdess

14. Benefactor----- Benefactress

15. Hunter----- Huntress

16. Negro----- Negress

17. Emperor----- Empress

18. Traitor----- Traitress

19. Prince----- Princess

20. Lion----- Lioness

21. Bull----- Cow

22. Ox----- Cow

23. Mayor----- Mayoress

24. Tiger----- Tigress

25. Actor----- Actress

26. Host----- Hostress

27. Uncle----- Aunt

28. Monk----- Nun

29. Gentleman----- Lady

30. Duck----- Duchess

Take many pracitising exercises to become familiar with the

Noun-Gender. As you read books, note down the various gender-
forms of nouns that you come across in those books. That is the
best method for you to know the difference among the Noun-
Genters.

c. Noun-Number

Grammar :

Noun-Number

There are two numbers in Noun-Number: Singular and Plural.

1. Singular:

When we speak about one person and one thing, we use the noun in singular form.

Single means one.

Plural means many.

Examples:

a. A man is smoking within the premises.

b. A group of cows is called Herd.

c. Joy is what we want in our lives.

d. Church is the worshipping-place of Christians.

e. This chair is made of plastic.

In these sentences, the nouns man, group, joy, church and chair are in singular forms.

Joy, run, wife, knife, army, hero, ox, life, loaf, baby, city and tooth are few singular-nouns
which we use. We have seen the singular form of Noun-Number.

The Noun has various dimention in its usages.

The same Noun can be used in different manner in different contexts.

Let us go to the next form of Noun-Number.

2. Plural:

When we speak about more than one person and one thing, we use the noun in plural
form.

Examples:

a. Few men are standing in the foyer.

b. The groups of cows, coming back to their sheds, are not milch cows.

c. These chairs are made of plastic.

d. Children should be given proper guidance.

e. Keep the knives in a safe place.

In these sentences, the words men, groups, chairs, Children and knives are plural-nouns.

Joys, runs, wives, knives, armies, heroes, oxen, lives, loaves, babies, cities and teeth are
few singular-nouns which we use.

How to form plural from singular?

1. By suffixing s to the singular-noun.

Examples:

• Joy-joys

• Run-runs

• Chair-chairs

• Radio-radios

• Canto-cantos

• Momento-momentos

• Dynamo-dynamos

• Piano-pianos

2. By suffixing es to the singular-noun

Examples:

• Glass-glasses

• Bench-benches

• Bush-bushes

• Church-churches

• Watch-watches

• Buffalo-buffaloes

• Negro-negroes

• Hero-heroes

• Echo-echoes

• Mango-mangoes

• Potato-potatoes
Noun-Number is another part under Noun.

3. By changing the last letter y into ies.

Examples:

• Baby-babies

• Lady-ladies

• Story-stories

• City-cities

• Army-armies

4. By changing the inside vowel of the singular.

Examples:

• Man-men

• Woman-women

• Foot-feet

• Tooth-teeth

• Goose-geese

5. By suffixing en to the singular.

Examples:

• Ox-oxen

• Child-children

6. By changing f or fe into ves.

Examples:

• Thief-thieves
• Life-lives

• Wife-wives

• Calf-calves

• Knife-knives

• Wolf-wolves

• Leaf-leaves

• Shelf-shelves

Exceptions:

• Chief-chiefs

• Roof-roofs

• Gulf-gulfs

• Safe-safes

• Proof-proofs

• Hoof-hoofs

7. Singular-nouns from foreign languages retain their original plural.

Examples:

• Erratum-errata

• Index-indices

• Radius-radii

• Formula-formulae (or formulas)

• Axis-axes

• Basis-bases

• Criterion-criteria
• Memorandum-memoranda

• Terminus-termini (or terminuses)

• Hypothesis-hypotheses

• Cherub-cherubim (or cherubs)

• Parenthesis-parentheses

8. By suffixing s to the main word in a compound word.

Examples:

• Commander-in-chief……..commanders-in-chief

• Son-in-law………………sons-in-law

• Step-son…………………step-sons

• Maid-servant…………….maid-servants

• Passer-by………………..passers-by

• Man-servant……………..men-servant

• Man-servant……………..man-servants

9. Special cases.

a. Few nouns which end in s are used in singular form.

Examples:

News, Mathematics, Physics, politics, innings etc…

b. Few collective nouns, though they are in singular forms, are used in plural forms.

Examples:

Poultry, Cattle, People, gentry etc…

c. Few nouns have the same forms both in singular and plural forms.

Examples:
Sheep, deer, swine, cod etc…

d. Few nouns are used only in the plural forms.

Examples:

Trousers, scissors, spectacles, drawers, thanks, billiards, draughts, annals, tidings etc…

e. Few nouns have two different forms in plural. But the two forms have different
meanings.

Examples:

• Brother………….Brothers (sons of same parents) Brethren (members of a society)

• Cloth………….....Cloths (pieces of cloth) Clothes (items of cloth)

• Fish………………Fish (more than one of same variety) Fishes (of different varieties)

• Genius……………Geniuses (persons of great talent) Genii (spirits)

• Index……………..Indexes (tables of contents) Indices (signs used in algebra)

10.Few nouns have different meanings in the singular and in the plural:

Examples:

• Advice (counsel)………….advices (information)

• Air (atmosphere)………….airs (artificial manners)

• Good (morally correct)……goods (merchandise)

• Force (strength)…………...forces (troops)

• Physic (medicine)………….physics (a branch of science)

• Wood (portion of tree)……woods (a grove of trees)

11.Few nouns have one meaning in singular but two or more meanings in plural.

Examples:

Custom (habit)…………………………customs (habits & taxes collected on imports

Quarter (one fourth & a direction)………quarters (fourth parts, living places &
directions)

Effect (result)…………………………...effects (results & property)

12.Letters, numbers and other symbols form their plural by adding an apostrophe
ands.

Examples:

• Write your i’s and l’s clearly.

• Add two 8’s and six 4’s.

These are various kinds of Noun-Number. That means a Noun can be classiffied by the
number of units that the Noun denotes.

d. Noun-Functions

Grammar :

Noun-Functions

A noun or a pronoun can perform five functions.

Those five noun-functions are:

1.It can be THE SUBJECT of a verb.

Examples:

• Mr. Ram leads the team.

“Mr. Ram” is the subject of the verb ‘leads’.

• He is writing.
“He” is the subject of the verb ‘is writing’.

• The monkeys destroyed the garden.

“The monkeys” is the subject of the verb ‘destroyed’.

• The children are playing joyfully.

“The children” is the subject of the verb ‘are playing’.

The second one in Noun-functions is:

2. A noun or a pronoun can be THE DIRECT or INDIRECT OBJECT of a verb.

Examples:

• I took the book.

“Book” is the direct object of the verb ‘took’.

• The Government will take the decision.

“The decision” is the direct object of the verb ‘will take’.

• A herd of elephants is crossing the river.

“The river” is the object of the verb ‘is crossing’.

• He gave me the news.

“Me” is the direct object and “news” is the indirect object of the verb ‘gave’.

The third one in Noun-functions is:

3. A noun or a pronoun can be THE OBJECT OF PREPOSITION.

Examples:

• I saw him in his office.

“Office” is the object of preposition ‘in’.

• The girl returns from school.

“School” is the object of prepositin ‘from’.

• The meeting will be held at short notice.

“Notice” is the object of preposition ‘at’.

• The children are shouting at the stray dogs.

“Dogs” is the object of preposition ‘at’.

The fourth one in Noun-functions is:

4. A noun or a pronoun can be DESCRIPTIVE OF ANOTHER NOUN OR A

PRONOUN.

That means that the noun can be in apposition with another noun. The word “apposition”
means “placed side by side” Or “placed parallel to”
Examples:

• I, the president of this association, will take the decision.

“The President” is in apposition with ‘I’.

• Mr. Ram, the captain, scored only fifty points.

“The captain” is in apposition with ‘Mr. Ram’.

• You, the eldest son of your parents, should assume all the responsibilities of your
family.
“Son” is in apposition with ‘You’.

• Everest, the highest peak in the world, is 29000 feet high.

“Peak” is in apposition with ‘Everest'.

• One of the most of US Presidents, Abraham Lincoln was known for his ready wit.
“One of the most famous of US Presidents” is said to be used in apposition with the
subject of the sentence “Abraham Lincoln”.

• Mahatma Gandhi, father of the Indian nation, led a non-violent struggle to attain
independence from the British.
“Father of the Indian nation” is in apposition with “Mahatma Gandhi”.

Examples:

1. The House of Commons, The Mother of Parliamentarians, has been the scene of many
scintillating debates between leading orators.

2. The greatest playwright of all times, William Shakespeare wrote not only plays but
also sonnets and other poems.

Examples:

1. The office is closed.

Here, the noun “office” is used as the subject.

2. My friend is the manager of this company.

Here the noun “manager” is used as the object.

3. Pickwick-papers, a novel, was written by Charles Dickens.

Here the noun “novel” has been used in apposition With Pickwick-papers.

4. Mr. K.R.Narayanan, the ex-president of India, is a fine gentleman.

The noun-phrase “the ex-president of India has been used in apposition with Mr.
K.R.Narayanan.

5. I met your friend yesterday.

The noun “your friend” has been used as “object” of the verb “met”.

e. Noun-Cases

NOUN-CASES is another topic which comes under NOUN. The CASE of a noun tells
us about the position of that noun in a sentence. In English there are FIVE CASES.

They are:

• Nominative case
• Objective case (or Accusative case)
• Dative case
• Possessive case (or Genitive case)
• Vocative case

All these five Cases have been explained in detail below.

Are you going as you wish in the process of learning Grammar?

Take a breath.

This section of Noun-Cases will simplify your process.

1. Nominative case:

A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb. (SUBJECT is the
person or the thing who or which carries out the action of the verb in the sentence)

Examples:

• Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy.

Mr. Ram is a proper noun in Nominative case.

• The painter paints the portraits.

The painter is a common noun in Nominative case.

• I am buying vegetables for my family.

“I” is a pronoun in Nominative case.

These examples carry another term "pronoun" which is a word used to represent a noun.

For example:

I, We, You, He, She, it and they are the seven pronouns.
There are only seven pronouns.

Only other variations of these seven pronouns are there.

Those variations can be used in place of the nouns.

The next one in the Noun-cases is:

2. Objective case (or Accusative case):

Nouns or pronouns are said to be in Objective cases if they are the direct objects of verbs
or if they are the objects of preposition. (Direct object is the person or the thing upon
whom or upon which the action of the verb is carried out).

Examples:

• I met your sister.

“Your sister” is in objective case.

• The vendors sell mangoes.

“Mangoes” is in objective case.

• The book is on the table.

“Table” is in objective case.
It is object of the preposition ‘on’.

• This is one of my policies.

“Policies” is in objective case.
It is object of the preposition ‘of’.

The next one in the Noun-cases is:

3. Dative case:

A noun is said to be in dative case if it is the Indirect object of the verb. (Indirect object
of the verb is the noun for whom or for which the action of the verb is carried out). There
should not be a preposition before the indirect object because in that case it will be the
object of that preposition.

Examples:

• The teacher gave the students few exercises.

“Students” is in dative case. It is the indirect object of the verb ‘give’.
• The Postman brought me a letter.
“Me” is in dative case.

• Get him a pen.

“Him” is in dative case.

The next one in the Noun-cases is:

4. Possessive case (Genitive case):

A noun is said to be in possessive case, if it denotes possession or ownership. A noun or

pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun that follows it.

Examples:

• This is your pencil.

(“Your” is in possessive case.

• It is our idea.
“Our” is in possessive case.

• John’s sister has been hospitalized.

“John’s” is in possessive case.

The last one in the Noun-cases is:

5. Vocative case:

A noun or a pronoun is said to be in Vocative case if it is used to call (or to get the
attention of) a person or persons.
Examples:

• Mr. Bill, students are waiting for you in the main hall.
“Mr. Bill” is in vocative case.

• You there, stand up.

“You” is in vocative case.

• Brother, a letter for you.

“Brother” is in vocative case.

• Chairman, all the letters are posted two days ago.

“Chairman” is in vocative case.

The nouns do not change their forms in the Nominative and Objective cases. But few
pronouns change their forms between Nominative and Objective cases.
Nominative case ________Objective case_________ Possessive case

1. I __________________ me__________________ my

2. We_________________us____________________our

3. You________________ You___________________your

4. He_________________ him____________________his

5. She_________________her_____________________her

6. It___________________it_______________________its

7. They_________________them______________________their

How do you feel about this Noun-Cases?

Other section, waiting for you, will also be as simple as this section of Noun-Cases.

Other sections on Nouns

2.Verb:

A verb is a word used to express an action or state.

Examples:

• She wrote a letter.

In this sentence, the word “wrote” indicates what she did. So the word “wrote” (write) is
a verb.

• New York is big city.

In this sentence, what is now the city “New York” is indicated by the word “is”. So the
word “is” is a verb.

• The child played in the hall.

Here in this sentence, “what the child did” is indicated by the word “played”. So the word
“played” (play) is a verb.

Few other verbs are talk, walk, speak, kill, elect, eat, conclude, confess, convene, collect,
go, freeze, pass, communicate, learn etc…

To know more about Verb

a. Verbs

Grammar : Verbs

Verbs are the word denoting actions or states.

Examples:

• Mr. Hales takes the class today morning.

What does Mr. Hales do today morning?

He takes the class.

The action he is doing is “taking” the class.

So the action is denoted by the word “takes”. In that case that word “takes” is the verb.

• The Students write their examination in the Lawtey hall.

Here, the word “write” is the verb.

• The university disqualified him.

Here, the word “disqualified” is the verb.

• His friends refused to support him when he was in critical moments.

Here, the word “refused” is the verb.

The verbs can be classified in different methods.

There are four types of verbs.

1. Transitive verbs.

A transitive verb is the verb which takes an object.

2. Intransitive verb.

An intransitive verb is a verb which does not take an object.

3. Auxiliary verb:

A verb which helps another verb to form its tense, voice or mood is called an Auxiliary
verb.

4. Modal verbs:

The following verbs are called Modal verbs:.

Shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought and dare are called modal
verbs.

Let us see them individually.

1. Transitive verbs:

Examples:

• Mr. Hales takes the class today morning.

By this sentence, Mr. Hales takes the class.

Here………

The word “Mr. Hales” is the noun.

The word “the class” is the object.

The word “takes” is the verb.

Only when all the three words are there, the whole sentence becomes complete and
meaningful.

In case the object word is not there, the sentence “Mr. Hales takes” conveys no meaning
and

the sentence does not become complete. In that case “what does Mr. Hales take?” is not
clear.

So only when the verb “takes” gets an object, the meaning behind the verb “takes”
becomes complete.

That means the verb “takes” needs an object to make itself complete.

Such a verb which needs an object is called transitive verb.

That means the action of the verb is transmitted to another noun or another thing.

• They brought the suitcase two days back.

Here the verb “brought” (bring) needs an object to become meaningful.

What was brought?

The suitcase was brought by them.

So the verb “bring” (brought) is a transitive verb.

• My father has written a book which may interest you.

• We are crossing the river by a boat.
• The child is reading English poems clearly.
• An uncivilized man killed John Kennedy.
• She created this structure for our proposed-house.
• My teacher gave me a pen before I entered the exam-hall.
• They sell their properties.

In all the seven sentences given above, the respective verbs

“write”, “cross”, “read”, “kill”, “create”,“give” and “sell”

need their respective objects to make the sentences meaningful.

So, all these verbs are transitive verbs.

Few other “Transitive verbs” are: build, carry, begin, bear,

eat, choose, eat, find, forget, feed, drink, deal, cling, give,

grind, have, hold, make, ride, lend, know, learn, win, steal,

weave, shut, spread etc…

2. Intransitive verbs.

As stated above, an intransitive verb is the verb that does not take an object.

Examples:

• He laughed loudly.

In this sentence, the verb “laughed” does not need an object to complete the sentence.
So the verb “laugh” is an intransitive verb.

• I daily wake up at 5am.

Here the verb “wake” does not need an object for completing itself.

So the verb “wake” is an intransitive verb.

• The ball fell down.

The verb “fell” (fall) is an intransitive verb.

• They are sitting on their cars.

The verb “sitting” (sit) is an intransitive verb.

• The river is winding through the forest.

Here the verb “winding” (wind) is an intransitive verb.

Few verbs go, fall, die, sleep etc are exclusively intransitive.

Few more “Intransitive verbs” are: swim, stand, sit, sink, smite, shine, run, rise, lie, leave,
kneel, grow etc…

Notes:

1. Many Transitive verbs can be used as Intransitive verbs as well.

Examples:

a. They fought their enemies. (Transitive verb).

They fought fiercely. (Intransitive verb).

b. He spoke the truth. (Transitive verb).

He spoke to me. (Intransitive verb).

c. The peon rings the bell. (Transitive verb).

The bell rings continuously. (Intransitive verb).

d. He walks. (Transitive verb).

The hostler walks the horse. (Intransitive verb).

e. Birds fly in the air. (Transitive verb).

The observatory flies balloon to study weather. (Intransitive verb).

f. The bulb broke. (Transitive verb).

The students broke the glass. (Intransitive verb).

Another type of verb is called “Auxiliary verb”.

3. Auxiliary verb:

A verb which helps another verb to form its tense, voice or mood is called an Auxiliary
verb.

Have, be(am,are,was and were) and do are usually used as auxiliary verbs, they can be
used as Main verbs as well.

Examples:

• I have few urgent works. (Main)

They have done very well in the examinations. (Auxiliary)

• God is in Heaven. (Main)

He is liked by all. (Auxiliary)

• The man does his work quietly. (Main)

Did he come here? (Main)

4. Modal verbs:

The following verbs are called Modal verbs.

Shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought and dare are called modal
verbs.

SHALL:

When “shall” is used in the second or third person, it has the force of a command, a
promise,
a thread, determination, certainty…

i. You shall not go out without my permission.

ii. He shall get my help.

iii. She shall be punished for his mistake.

iv. He shall apologize for his behavior.

v. No man shall take this way.

WILL:

When “will” is used in the first person, it can express (in addition to the future tense)
willingness,

a promise, a threat, determination…

i. I will help you.

ii. I will be there in your wedding.

iii. I will not allow him to go.

iv. I will not miss this opportunity.

MAY:

“May” has the force of possibility and permission. In the past tense “might” is used.

i. He may come here.

ii. You may go now.

iii. I believed that he might be honest.

CAN:

“Can” has the force of ability and permission.

i. He can do this work easily.

ii. She can go home.

iii. Everyone can learn this subject.

MUST:

“Must” has the force of compulsion, necessity, determination, duty, certainty of belief,
inevitability…

i. Everybody must attend this function.

ii. I must go urgently.

iii. I must have full freedom.

iv. A minister must be honest.

v. She must be made to talk like this.

vi. This building must be demolished in near future.

OUGHT:

“Ought” indicated duty or moral obligation.

i. You ought to be careful.

ii. As the secretary I ought to have attended that meeting.

This verb “ought” must be followed by “to”.

DARE:

“Dare” conveys the force of challenge or the courage to do a thing.

i. He dare not oppose me.

ii. The prime Minister dared the opposition to prove the charge.

NEED:

“Need” has the force of necessity or obligation.

When this verb “need” is used to mean obligation in the negative or interrogative form,

‘s’ is not added to need in the third person singular(present tense).

i. She need not come here.

ii. It need not be white in the Shirt.

iii. He need not have educational qualifications.

For you attention please:

The list of verbs is long one.

Every sentence will have a noun and a verb(predicate as well).

For your kind attention, few verbs have been given below.

1. arise

2. bear

3. beat

4. behold

5. bid

6. bite

7. blow

8. break

9. begin

10. become

11. bind

12. bleed

13. build

14. burn

15. carry

16. catch

17. cling
18. come

19. deal

20. creep

21. do

22. draw

23. drink

24. eat

25. fall

26. feed

27. feel

28. fight

29. find

30. fling

31. flee

32. forbid

33. forget

34. forsake

35. freeze

36. get

37. give

38. grind

39. have

40. hold
41. kneel

42. know

43. lay

44. lead

45. learn

46. leave

47. lend

48. lie

49. loose

50. make

51. mean

52. meet

53. pay

54. read

55. rid

56. ride

57. ring

58. run

59. rise

60. see

61. set

62. shoot

63. sling
64. slit

65. speak

66. slay

67. shake

68. shed

69. slide

70. spin

71. split

72. spring

73. stand

74. wed

75. write

b. Verb-Be

Grammar : The Verb Be

The Verb Be is a very important but peculiar verb in English.

The Verb Be can be used as a main verb as well as an “auxiliary verb.

Examples:

• I am in London.

In this sentence, the verb “am” has been used as a main verb.

• I am a qualified candidate.
In this sentence, the verb 'am' has been used as an auxiliart verb.Whereas the main verb is
“qualify”.

It has other forms when it is used as an indicator of tense of the verb.

They are:

Is, was, am, are and were.

Examples:

• He is a teacher. (main verb)

• He was sent out of the meeting hall for his ill-behaviors. ( was” is auxiliary verb and the
main verb is “send”)

The Verb Be is a very important but peculiar verb in English. It takes the following forms
in the Principal forms.

Present tense …………………….Past tense………………..Past Participle

Be................................................................Been

Am.......................................was.................

Is.......................................was.................

Are......................................were................

So, “be”, “been”, “is”, “was”, “are” and “were” are the only different forms of the verb
“be”.

Examples:

Many forms of the Verb-Be have beed used here. i. Be careful.

ii. Be kind to others.

iii. I am the secretary of the association.

iv. He is a kind man.

v. They are social workers.

vi. She was a good companion.

vii. The books were available.

viii. She has been the secretary for two years.

ix. You are not a member of this organization.

You can form your own sentences using the various forms of the Verb-Be.

Note:

The Verb Be can be used as a main verb and as an “auxiliary verb.

Main verb:

Examples:

i. The child is very cute.

ii. It was six o’clock.

iii. There were many people.

iv. They are the people whom we are looking after.

v. I am a student of that college.

vi. Be careful.

Auxiliary verb:

Examples:

The Verb Be is used as auxiliary verb as follows.

i. I am working here.

ii. She is doing her work quietly.

iii. The train was running late.

iv. The women were working in the field.

Note:

Unlike the other verbs, the verb “be” can not be split in the interrogative and negatve
forms of sentences. We use it as follows.

Negative:

Examples:

i. I am not your enemy.

ii. He was not responsible for the accident.

iii. The people were not excited.

Interrogative:

Examples:

i. Where is the building?

ii. How was the film?

iii. Were all the materials available?

Note:

The verbs “do” and “have” can be used as main verb and auxiliary verb.

Main verb:

Examples:

i. I do a lot of exercises.

ii. He does his work rather carelessly.

iii. I have no difficulty.

iv. They had a solution to this problem.

v. She has no compassion for others.

Auxiliary verb:

Examples:
i. I do not know anybody here.

ii. She does not love him.

iii. I have seen this film.

iv. A plan has been prepared.

Examples:

i. I do not have an answer to your question. (auxiliary verb)

ii. The committee has submitted the report. (auxiliary verb)

iii. They are investigating into the matter. (auxiliary verb)

iv. The matter is urgent. ( main verb)

v. He has done a lot of research. (auxiliary verb)

vi. All the candidates were present. ( main verb)

vii. She does all the work herself. ( main verb)

viii. The boy did not bring his book. (auxiliary verb)

ix. I had applied for the job. (auxiliary verb)

x. Our manager has been ill for quite some time. (auxiliary verb)

3.Adjective:

An adjective is word used to add something to the meaning of a noun.

Examples:

• He is a brave boy.
In this sentence, “what kind of boy is he” is answered by the
word “brave”. So the word “brave” is an adjective.

• They are perfect people.

In this sentence, “what kinds of people are they” is answered by
the word “perfect”. So the word “perfect” is an adjective.

Few other adjectives are beautiful, tall, shy, courteous, ugly, short, long, lengthy, costly,
calm, nice etc…

To know more about Adjectives

An adjective is a word that tells us something about a noun.

A noun may have many attributes.

Boy is a noun.

That boy may be tall or short, intelligent or fool, educated or uneducated, rich or poor.

What is the quality of that boy?

In order to express the quality of that boy, we have to use an adjective.

"That boy is a rich boy".

In this sentence, the word “rich” indicates that the boy is a rich boy.

That means that the boy has a lot of money.

Those words which tell us about the quality of the nouns (which might have been used
either as the subject or the object) are called adjectives.

• America is a country.
• America is a rich country. (“rich” is an adjective)

• Nile is a river.
• Nile is a long river.(“long” is an adjective)

• Harvard is the name of a university.

• Harvard is the name of the oldest university. (“Oldest” is an adjective)

• She is a student.
• She is a beautiful student. (“Beautiful” is an adjective)

• Water is an element.
• Water is one of the essential elements. (“essential” is an adjective)

Other sentences written with adjectives:

• London is a large city.

• Jacob is an honest man.

• We have had enough exercises.

• There has not been sufficient rain this year.

• The hand has five fingers.

• Most boys like cricket.

An adjective will come before a noun.

It will not come before a verb.

1. Adjectives of quality:

Good, honest, old, big etc…

Examples :

• Their good performance in their final examinations gave them what they expected.

• Mr. Antonio is an honest policeman.

• Our Chairman is an old man.

• The big temple might have been constructed a long time back.

• Their excellent presentation bagged them the first prize.

2. Adjectives of quantity:

Little, some, much, enough etc…

Examples :

• I know little about music.

• Adding some sugar will make the coffee tastier.

• We have enough study-materials for the forth-coming examinations.

3. Definitive numeral adjectives:

One, two, three, four, five, six, seven etc..

Examples :
• One student came forward to become a leader of this class.

• Two children make a perfect family.

• Four subjects of “Management Studies” are very difficult.

• Ten employees have resigned their jobs.

4. Indefinite numeral adjectives:

All, no, many, few, several etc…

Examples :

• All the employees have to be here by 10am tomorrow.

• No one will be exempted from paying the monthly due.

• Few birds have become extinct.

• It rained several days continuously.

5. Distributive numeral adjectives:

Each, every, either, neither etc…

Examples :

• Each one of you should support this cause.

• I mean that every employee has stake in the growth of this company.

• Either of you should take care of your child.

• Neither of you can go away from other.

6. Demonstrative adjectives:

This, that, these, those, such etc…

Examples :

• This dog is ours.

• That gentleman donated his fortunes to a charitable trust.

• These flowers are not for sales.

7. Interrogative adjectives :

What, which, whose, when etc…

Examples :

• What happened after I came out of the house is not known to me.

• Which team won the match is not our problem.

• Whose child is this is a mystery.

8. Adjectival Phrase:

Sometimes a phrase may be used as an adjective. In that case the phrase is called
adjectival phrase.

Very often this adjectival phrase appears after the noun that it qualifies.

In the following sentences, the adjectival phrases are colored blue.

Examples :

• The chief lived in house built-of-stone.

• A friend in need is a friend indeed.

• A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

• He was a student of great promise.

9. Adjectival Clause:

Often a full-clause may add meaning to a noun in which case it is known as an adjectival
clause.

In the following sentences the adjectival clauses are colored blue.

Examples :

• Nehru was a statesman whom everyone responded.

• The house which caught fire is in the street.

• John is the boy who broke the window.

4.Adverb:

An adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or

another adverb.

Examples:

• He worked the sum quickly.

Here, whether he worked the sum slow or quickly is answered by the word “quickly”. So
the word, “quickly” is an adverb.

• This flower is very beautiful.

Here the word “very” is used to add more meaning to the word “beautiful”. That means
the flower is more beautiful.So the word “very” is an adverb.

• She pronounced the word quite correctly.

Here the word “quite” is used to add meaning to the word “correctly”. So the word
“quite” is an adverb.

Few other adverbs are wonderfully, nicely, fast, beautifully, honestly, freely, slightly,
healthily, calmly etc…

Many of the adverbs end with -ly as stated above.

But it is not a condition.

The next part in the parts of speech is

To know more about Adverbs

Adverb

An Adverb will modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Examples:

• The deer runs very fast. (The word “fast” is an adverb which modifies the verb “run”)
• The mango is a very sweet fruit. (The word “very” is an adverb which modifies the
adjective “sweet”)

• Philips speaks quite clearly. (The word “quite” is an adverb which modifies the adverb
“clearly”)

• He runs fast. (The adverb “fast” modifies the verb “run”)

• I write slowly. (The adverb “slowly” modifies the verb “write”)

• The boy speaks clearly. (The adverb “clearly” modifies the verb “speaks”)

The most common adverbs are those which answer the questions when, where, how, and
why.

1. Adverbs may indicate time.

Examples:

Now, before, soon, yesterday, never, formerly etc…

2. Adverbs may indicate frequency.

Examples:

Often, twice, again, frequently, seldom etc…

3. Adverbs may indicate place.

Examples:

Here, there, everywhere, up, backward etc…

4. Adverbs may indicate manner.

Clearly, hard, soundly, slowly, sadly etc…

Note-1:

If the work of the adverb is performed by a phrase, that adverb (phrase) is called
adverbial phrase.

Examples:

• He lived in this house for nearly twenty years.

• I stood on the bridge at midnight.

• They sat for a while on the bench.

• I thank you with all my heart.

Note-2:

A full-clause may also do the job of an adverb. In that case such a clause is called
adverbial clause.

Examples:

• When you finish the work, you may go home.

• Before you go, bring me some water.

• I have left the book where I can find it again.

• Since you were not there, I spoke to your brother.

• If it rains, we shall stay at home.

• Unless you work hard, you will fail in the test.

• Emma is older than she looks.

• He had come while I was out.

• If he were rich, he would probably help us.

• The sum is so simple that everyone can solve it.

• Though he is poor, he is honest.

• The earth is bigger than the moon.

5.Pronoun:
A pronoun is word used instead of a noun.

Examples:

• Raman is boy. He is going to school.

Of these sentences, in the second sentence, the word “he” is used to indicate “Raman”. So
the word “he” is a pronoun.

• The students refuse to take their meals. They want to meet the warden.
Of these sentences, in the second sentence, the word “they” is used to indicate “the
students”. So the word “they” is a pronoun.

There are only seven pronouns. They are he, she, it, I, we, they and you. Other pronouns
are their variations.

To know more about Pronouns

Grammar : Pronoun

A pronoun is a word that is used to represent a noun.

Pronoun means for-a-noun.

Example-1:

• Ramu is not a member of this organization.

In this sentence the word Ramu is the name of a person. So Ramu is a noun. When we
write about the same person in the following sentence, we use the word He.

• So, he could not attend the meeting meant only for the members.

In this sentence the word he represents Ramu.

He is a pronoun.

Example-2:

Sri Lanka is a big island. It has many tourist-attractions.

In these sentences, Sri Lanka is a noun. It is a pronoun.

Example-3:

• I do not know why he did not continue his studies. It is a mystery for many of us.

In these sentences, the phrase why he did not continue his studies is noun but in phrase
form. It is a pronoun.

Example-4:

Oxygen is essential for life on earth. It is a purifying element.

• In these sentences, the word oxygen is a noun. The word it is pronoun.

There are seven types of pronouns.

They are:

1. Personal

2. Reflexive

3. Demonstrative

4. Indefinite

5. Distributive

6. Relative

7. Interrogative

Let us see one by one.

1. Personal :

There are only seven personal pronouns.

They are He, She, It, They, You, We and I.

Here we use the word you to indicate both the singular and plural forms.

Here we use the pronoun they to indicate the plural form of both neuter gender and
masculine or feminine gender.
SINGULAR PRONOUNS:

I, He, She, It and You.

PLURAL PRONOUNS:

We, They and You.

Examples:

• Mr. Gandhi, why not you seek his help?

Here the word you is used to indicate only Mr. Gandhi (singular).

See another sentence.

• Students, you have to be assembled at the Lawtey hall by 11pm.

Here the word you has been used to indicate the students (plural).

Examples:

• Mr. Clinton is the Chairman of this company. He has gone to Paris to attend a meeting.

Here, Mr. Clinton is noun and he is pronoun.

• Mrs. Clinton is the author of the book Why not you?. She has been nominated to the
Nobel Prize for her book.

Here Mrs. Clinton is noun whereas the word she is pronoun.

• This University was founded in 1907. Then it had only 75 students.

Here the University is noun whereas it is pronoun.

• The students of this university participated in the foot-ball competition. They have won
the competition.

Here, the students of this university is noun whereas They is pronoun.

• Mr. John, why can not you take more training in this field?

Here Mr. John is noun whereas you is pronoun.

• We, the natives of England, will support you for your humanitarian approach.
Here, the natives of England, is noun whereas we is pronoun.

• I, the father of the child, will attend the parents-meet scheduled to be held on 13th of
this month.

Here the father of this child is noun whereas I is pronoun.

The pronoun it is used to indicate only the neuter gender.

Tree, lion, river, sky, book, car, computer and language can be denoted by the pronoun it.

Al these seven Personal Pronouns as such are called Nominative forms of Personal
Pronouns.

All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Possessive forms of Personal
Pronouns.

Mine( I ), ours(we), his(he), hers(she), its(it), yours(you) and theirs(they).

Examples:

• This book is not mine.

• That house of hers is beautiful.

• That is the college of ours.

• This book is his.

All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Accusative forms of Personal
Pronouns.

Me( I ), us(we), you(you), him(he), her(she), it(it) and them(they).

Examples:

• He gave a book to me.

• The presents are meant for you and her.

• The Dean warned all of them.

• He gave us his house to stay for ten days as he went to Tokyo.

I, we, you, he, she, it and they are the seven personal pronouns. Because, they stand for
the three-persons.
i. The person speaking
ii. The person spoken to
iii. The person spoken of

The pronouns I and we, which denote the person or persons speaking, are said to be
Personal Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON.

The pronoun you, which denotes the person or persons spoken to, is said to be a Personal
Pronoun of SECOND PERSON.
YOU is used both in the singular and in the plural.

The pronouns, he, she, it, and they which denotes the person or persons spoken of, are
said to be Personal Pronouns of THIRD PERSON..

The following are the different forms of the personal pronouns.

A.FIRST PERSON:

I and We are First Persons.

Nominative forms:

• I will come to your house today evening.

• We will do our best to get the job.

Possessive forms:

• That book is mine.

• That University is ours.

Accusative forms:

• He gave me a five-rupee note.

• He called on us.

B.SECOND PERSON:

You is the only SECOND PERSON.

Nominative Form:
• You are our best friend.

• You are welcome.

Possessive form:

• That suitcase in brown cover is yours.

Accusative form:

• We gave you your room-key.

C. THIRD PERSON:

He, She, They and It are THIRD PERSONS.

Nominative forms:

• He is a student of this University.

• She is learning French.
• They are from Japan.
• It is my home-town.

Possessive forms:

• That book is his.

• That book is hers.
• That book is ours.
• Japan is a workaholic country. The growth that it has attained is its.

Accusative forms:

• They gave him an award.

• They praised her for her splendid performance.
• People voted us to power. We thanked them.
• A cow is giving us ten liters of milk a day. We feed it properly.

These are the only seven pronouns. The pronouns that you are going to see under other
different-types of Pronouns as mentioned below are various forms of these seven
pronouns only.

2. Reflexive (or Emphatic pronouns):

The pronouns which are used to reflect upon the person or persons or thing or things
which the pronouns represent are called reflexive pronouns.
Himself, herself, itself, themselves, yourself, yourselves, ourselves and myself are the
reflexive pronouns.

Examples:

• Mr. John himself called on us two days back.

• Mrs. Clinton herself came forward to contest the election to the post of Presidency of
this association.

• Students themselves went out of the class-room in protest against the increases in the
admission fees.

• You yourself can not cut you hair.

• You yourselves can organize a meeting to seek the opinions of all the students.

• We ourselves will come to your seeking your support.

• I motivated myself.

The singular form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourself.

The plural form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourselves.

3. Demonstrative :

This, that, those, and these are the demonstrative pronouns.

Examples:

• I want only this book.

• Those incidents changed his mind drastically.

• These people are not qualified to attend the training program.

• That train is not the one for which we are waiting.

4. Indefinite :

These pronouns refer to persons or things in general.

One, many, all, some, somebody, someone, few, many, others, nobody, everybody etc…
are the indefinite pronouns.
Examples:

• Somebody crossed the road.

• Nobody came forward to assume responsibilities.

• Few candidates did not attend the interview.

• All are welcome.

• One has to be wise enough to live peacefully.

• Anybody can do that.

In these sentences the indefinite forms have been used only in general. Those forms do
not represent anybody in particular.

5. Distributive :

The pronouns which are used to indicate all the members of the representative group are
called distributive forms.

Each, everyone, either and neither are the distributive forms.

Examples:

• Each one of you will be given a chance.

• Everyone, present here, should take their dinner.

• Either of you can take the matter to the chairman.

• Neither of you is qualified to attend the final.

6. Relative :

The pronouns which are used as conjunctions are called relative pronouns.

Who, what, that, which and where are relative pronouns.

Examples:

• The pronouns which are used as conjunctions are called relative pronouns.

In this sentence, the word which has been used to represent those pronouns used as
conjunctions.
That which is in relative form.

• The University which gave me admission is a very good University.

• Mr. Kobe who is a native of London is not the owner of this car.

• What you did is my problem.

• A grove of trees that is at the outskirts of the city is for sales.

7. Interrogative :

The interrogative forms of the pronouns are used here.

Whom, which, whose, what and that are interrogative pronouns.

Examples:

• Mr. Kodak whom we are searching for is a native of Japan.

• Mrs. Goosd whose son is studying in Harvard has been hospitalized.

6.Preposition:

A preposition is word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or thing
denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else.

Examples:

• There is cow in the garden.

Here the word “in” is preposition.

• He is in the play-ground.
Here the word “in” is a preposition.

• They are coming to your office.

Here, the word “to” is a preposition.

• The fruits are behind the leaves.

Here the word “behind” is preposition.

Few other prepositions are away, from, on, towards, till, until, unless, under, of etc…
The next part in the parts of speech is

To know more about Prepositions

Grammar : Preposition

Preposition is a word that is used with a noun or a pronoun or

a verb to explain their relation with another noun or pronoun.

There are two types.

1. Simple prepositions:

Examples:

1. A bird is on the tree.

2. I am fond of music.

3. The man was standing under the tree.

4. He runs after money.

5. I have to go to London to meet him.

6. Do not look at Sun at noon.

7. He is from your office.

8. One of you has to attend the meeting.

9. Go out.

10. You have to study English till you become a master of it.

11. He, with his friends, has gone to hotel to celebrate his birthday.

In the above sentences, the simple ones are colored red.

Few others are:

By, in, of, off, on, through, up, with, from, after, about, above,

across, amidst, among, around, before, behind,

below, within, between, inside, outside, without, beside, etc…

2. Phrasal prepositions:

A phrasal verb is formed by combining a verb with a preposition.

According to, agreeable to, along with, away from, in addition to,

in course of, in favor of, in honor of, in order to,

in spite of, with reference to, with regard etc…

Nouns, verbs, adjectives and participles are often combined with

prepositions such as Noun + Preposition, Verb + Preposition,

Adjective + Preposition, and Participle + Preposition.

Each combination has a separate meaning, sometimes totally different from the meaning
of the main verb.

Examples:

1. Every citizen should abide by the laws of his country.

2. This lake abounds in fish.

3. Rajeev Gandhi started his Prime Ministership with abundance of goodwill of Indians.

4. Why were you absent from class yester day?

5. When I entered the room, I found my grandfather absorbed in deep thought.

6. The Judge refused to accede to the request of the accused to release him on bail.

7. I regret that your proposal is acceptable to me.

8. Gupta is well-known to politicians and has a ready access to a number of ministers.

9. The Engineer was accused of taking a bribe from the contractor.

10. Are you acquainted with this neighborhood?

11. The accused was acquitted of the charge of perjury?

12. You have to adapt yourself to changing times.

The Phrasal ones in the above sentences are colored blue.

(Quite often as in this case-12, the main verb and the preposition may be separated by
other intervening words)

NOTE:

One can give thousands of examples. There is no grammatical rule to describe why a
particular preposition is used along with a particular word to convey a particular
meaning.

These combinations have come out of mere conventions and usages.

You would yourself be using such phrases in your writings and speeches without your
even being aware of them.

There are two ways, a preposition can be used.

The first is as in the following phrases:

Examples:

1. On the table

2. In the year

3. With his friend

4. From the village

5. At the post office

6. Between the books

7. Underneath the table’s

In sentences such as mentioned above, the preposition is written before the noun that
governs it.
That is why it is called pre-position.

Few prepositions are in the forms of two-words, three-words, four-words.

According to, in addition to,

The second way in which a preposition is used is after a verb, adjective or adverb.

Few are followed by or preceded by a certain words to provide a fixed meaning.

Examples:

1. Go after

2. Endow with

3. Participate in

4. Divide into

5. Confine to

6. Abstain from

7. Conform to

8. Affection for

9. Pity towards

10. Alliance with

11. Acquaintance with

12. Distrust of

13. Result of

14. Access to

15. Opposition to

16. Incidental to

17. Deficient in
18. Acquainted with

19. Delighted with

20. Accused of

21. Fond of

22. Anxious about

23. Grateful for

24. Tantamount to

25. Sympathy for

26. Sure of

27. Surrender to

28. Suspect of

29. Stick to

30. Ready for

'In', 'at', and 'on' have similar meanings, but there are conventions about their usages.

“IN” is used before large places such as a country, state or city.

Examples:

1. In India

2. In Texas

3. In New York

“ON” is used before middle sized places such as a road, train, plane, ship etc…

Examples:

1. On Mount road

2. On Parliament road
3. On the East coast

“AT” is used to denote an exact spot.

Examples:

1. At the door

2. At 7 O’clock

“IN” is also used to denote a very small place

I was staying in a room at Door No.43 on Anderson Street in Boston on East coast in
Massachusetts State in USA.

There are three conventional uses of these three ones in regard to time also.

“IN” is used before the year and month.

“ON” is used before the day and date.

“AT” is used before actual time.

That accident happened at 7.30pm on 7th March in 1989.

The correct phrasal forms to denote specific times of the day are:

Examples:

1. At dawn

2. In the morning

3. At noon

4. In the afternoon

5. At dusk

6. At night

The preposition “between” must be used when referring to two things or persons.

Examples:
1. The problem between Jack and Jill was solved by their parents.

2. This train is playing between New York and Chicago.

When more than two things or persons are involved, the correct preposition to be used is
“among”.

Examples:

1. Among all the students in this class, John is the most intelligent.

2. He dose not show partiality among his three children

3. There is not a good understanding among the Parliamentarians of the ruling party.

Examples:

1. Buttercups are avoided by the grazing animals because of the bitter juices.

2. By the time Columbus arrived at America in 1492, other Europeans had already
reached the New York.

3. In times of war, people must take precautions against not only actual violence but also
acts of sabotage.

4. Between Stephen and his sister, the latter is the taller one.

5. Despite the road block, the police allowed us to enter the restricted area to search for
our friends.

7.Conjunction:

A conjunction is word used to join words or sentences.

Examples:

• Ram is a student. John is a student. Ram and John are students.

Here the word “and” is used to join the two words Ram & John. So the word “and” is a
conjunction.

• I ran fast, but missed the train.

The word “but” is a conjunction.

Few other conjunctions are or, either…or, not only, so that, still, else, since, so, after
etc…

To know more about Conjunctions

Conjunction

Conjunction is word or a phrase which connects two words or two phrases or two
clauses or two sentences.

The Conjuctions are....

1. and

2. or

3. either...or...

4. for

5. but

6. also

7. neither...nor...

8. only

9. after

10. because

11. if

12. so...that...

13. that
14. as

15. when

16. while

17. till

Examples:

• You and he should attend the function. (The word “and” is connecting two other words
you & he)

• He and I are good friends. (The word “and” is connecting two other words HE& I)

• Pay the fees or you will not be admitted. (The word “or” is connecting two sentences
“Pay the fees” & “You will not be admitted)

1. A preposition may connect two words:

Examples:

• Jack and Jill come up the hill.

• We bought a book as well as a pen.

• You could find clean air not in the city but in the village.

• He will conduct either you or me.

• They offer not only coffee but also tea.

• You should be here when our Chairman arrives.

• I will not attend mobile-phone calls while driving my car.

• He has to study till he becomes thorough in the subject.

• We are waiting here for you only.

• Not only Shirts but also pants are sold here.

2. A preposition may connect two phrases:

Examples:
• The police have to find out not only who committed this crime but also how this crime
was executed in this day-light.

• A big-lorry in blue color as well as a car in white color went into this village one by one.

3. A preposition may connect two main clauses:

Examples:

• The 1973 oil-price adjustment checked the runaway consumption trend, but it was the
1979-increase that reversed it.

• J.W.Jeffrey, a retired University of London professor, conducted a thorough economic

assessment of British nuclear plants and concluded that nuclear plant is considerably
more expensive than coal-fired power.

• My father spent ten years to create a chemical solution, which, if used in agricultural
lands, will give very high yields, but he expired before he started manufacturing in big-
scale.

4. A preposition may connect a main and a subordinate clause:

Examples:

• If our generation persists in mining the soil so that we may eat, many of our children
and their children may go hungry as a result.

• Whereas the 60% of the trees in France had been affected by acid rain in 1982, 75% of
them were suffering in 1983.

• Because the last bus already left, we had to take a taxi.

• If the business goes on losing money, we will have to close it down.

• I shall get my air ticket to USA as soon as I receive the visa.

• What do you propose to do after you complete your graduation?

• The plane will not take off until the fog clears.

5. Coordinating conjunctions:
The conjunctions which coordinate two words are called coordinating conjunctions.

The following conjunctions are called Coordinating conjunctions:

1.and

2. but

3. for

4. or

5. nor

6. also

7. only

8. till

Examples:

• Mr. John and Mr. Rams are the only invitees to meet the Prime Minister.

• The whole country is waiting for the results of this international-tournament.

• We have to be here in London till we are acquainted by the court.

6. Subordinating conjunctions:

A word introducing a subordinate clause is called subordinating clause.

The following conjunctions are called subordinating conjunctions:

1. after

2. because

3. if

4. that

5. though

6. although
7. till

8. before

9. unless

10. as

11. when

12. while

13. how

14. until

Examples:

• You can come to the function after you finished your work.

• They have scored low marks in English because she did not study well.

• All of you are welcome if you have the entrance-tickets.

• It is not known how he bought this car at this rate.

• Your father has got you a motor-bike that is eight-year-old.

• He was not admitted to that college though he has scored very high marks in the
entrance.

• Her boy-friend postponed her marriage-proposal till he started his own business.

• You can not get a new telephone connection before 1st of next month.

7. Compound conjunctions:

There will be few words in every conjunction of this type.

1. in order that

2. in order to

3. on condition that

4. even if
5. so that

6. provided that

7. as though

8. in as much as

9. as well as

10. as if

Examples:

• He comes to this function on condition that we should leave him by 8pm.

• London is so big that you can not go by walk to reach your office.

• You as well as your father can go by the train.

• You will not catch your train even if you take a taxi now.

8.Interjection:

An interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feelings.

Examples:

• Hurrah! I have own the game.

• Alas! She is dead.

In these sentences, the words “hurrah” and “alas” are used to express the sudden feelings
of those who use these sentences.

These are the only eight parts of speech.We have seen these parts of speeches only
briefly.

We can see individually one by one in the following pages.

To know more about Interjections

Interjection
An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotions.

Examples:

• Hello! What are you doing here?

• Alas! He is dead.

• Hurrah! We have own the game.

• Ah! Have they gone?

• Oh! I got such a fright.

• Hush! Do not make a noise. Mt child is sleeping.

Such words Hello, Alas, Hurrah, Ah, Oh and Hush are used to express the emotions or
sudden feelings.

The words of Interjection may be used to express joy, grief, surprise or approval.

• In case of Joy the following words are used.

Hurrah, Huzza etc…

• In case of Grief, the following words are used.

Alas, Oh my god etc…

• In case of Surprise, the following words are used.

Ha, What etc…

• In case of Approval, the following words are used.

Bravo, Your goodness etc…

These words are used only to express the sudden feelings. They will be noticed that they
are not grammatically related to the other parts of the sentence.

Few other groups of words are also used to express the sudden feelings.

Ah me, for shame, Well done, Good gracious etc…