5

or nominal group):
1. 77tis is the quickest route: fum left at the ligtrts, straight on to a roudabout, then rigtlt ...
2. Thatwas a pleasant surprise, your pomotian
(Examples from Morley, 1985, pp. 77-78)

Endophora and exophora. Textual references is also called endophoric reference, i.e. reference within or inside
the text, to portions of the text. lt is illustrated by all the examples mentioned above. When reference is made to
the e*ralinguistic reality, we speak of exo$toric reference, i.e" reference to entities outside the text. The term
situational reference is commonly used when the referents are in the immediate sunounding reality. lf the
situational context is extended along social and cultural dimensions, the sense itself of 'situational reference'
changes'rts dimensions.

Reference and co-refercnce. ln the traditional semantic view the relation of reference is taken to hold between
expressions in the text and entities of the world, thus roughly coinciding with exophoric reference (although it may
include reference to the text gua text, i.e. as 'entity of ihe world). The term co+eferene is applied to relations
between expressions in different pads of the text (see ENDOPHORA above).

Another use of coteferene is not strictly textual. Brown & Yule (1985) speak of co-reference where Halliday &
Hasan (1976) used the term reference in their own particular way. ln this view, co-referential forms "instead of
being interpreted semantically in their own right ... make reference to something else for their interpretation"
(Halliday & Hasan, 1976, 0.31). The types of co-reference relationships are illustrated by the following examples:

exophora Look at flraf

endophora fi\ anaphoric: Look at the sun. Ifs going down quickly.
(/f refers back to the sun.)
(ii) cataphoric: Ifs going down quickly the sun. (/f refers
forward to the sun.)
( that =
+*t
In the last two examples the co-reference relationship occurs between the full lexical expression the sun and the
pronominal expression tf. The examples below illus{rate several types of anaphoric co-reference relationships:
- repated fotm:
The Prime Mrhisferrecoded herthanksto Foreign Secretary.
The Prime Ministerwas most eloquent.
- partiaily repated form:
Dr E.C.R. Reeye chaired the meeting.
W. Reave invited Mr. Philips to report on the state of the gardens.
- lexicalreplacement:
Ro's daughter is ill again. The child is hardly everwell.
- gonominalform:
Ro said sfie would have to take Sophie to the doctor.

REMARK: A question arises regading the endophora-exophora distinc-tion. ln the text:

Lord Melbourne, who was Prime MinMer v'then Wduia became Queen in 1837, did not tike birdsong and
could not distinguish a woodlark from a nightingale. tle gefened the singing of blac*birds anyway; best of
alt he liked the cavving of rooks and could watch them for hours as they circted af sunsef.
the co.referential chain Lord Melboume -who-q -he -he -q can be lengthened by expandingthetext. The
que$ion is: is it really necessary to travel back each time fo the originalexpression to be able to achieve a
reference? Occasionally, it may be possible, but it cannot be the norm. "lt seems more likely that the prooessor
establishes a referent in his mental representation, rather than to the original expression in the text" (Brown &
Yule, 1983:.2AO-2A1!. Seen in this light, the distindion between endophoric and exophoric reference is much
haderto draw. ln such cases one must commonly look into his mental representation to determine reference.

Generic and nongeneric refercnce. Leaving aside the philosophical, logical and terminological problems, we
often say of noun phrases that they have generb reference when used in generic propositions, i.e. propositions

e
Textual reference, which is a semantic relationship, is often distinguished lram substitution which is a formal relationship
(lexico-grammatical), the 'structural mechanism', as Halliday puts it, for signalling the connection between the full lexical
expression and the pro-form substitute.