1 Fermi Level

"Fermi level" is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electron energy levels at absolute
zero temperature. This concept comes from Fermi-Dirac statistics. Electrons are fermions and by the
Pauli exclusion principle cannot exist in identical energy states. So at absolute zero they pack into the
lowest available energy states and build up a "Fermi sea" of electron energy states. The Fermi level is
the surface of that sea at absolute zero where no electrons will have enough energy to rise above the
surface. The concept of the Fermi energy is a crucially important concept for the understanding of the
electrical and thermal properties of solids. Both ordinary electrical and thermal processes involve
energies of a small fraction of an electron volt. But the Fermi energies of metals are on the order of
electron volts. This implies that the vast majority of the electrons cannot receive energy from those
processes because there are no available energy states for them to go to within a fraction of an electron
volt of their present energy. Limited to a tiny depth of energy, these interactions are limited to "ripples
on the Fermi sea".
At higher temperatures a certain fraction, characterized by
the Fermi function, will exist above the Fermi level. The Fermi
level plays an important role in the band theory of solids. In
doped semiconductors, p-type and n-type, the Fermi level is
shifted by the impurities, illustrated by their band gaps. The
Fermi level is referred to as the electron chemical potential in
other contexts. Index

In metals, the Fermi energy gives us information about the Semiconductor

velocities of the electrons which participate in ordinary concepts
electrical conduction. The amount of energy which can be
given to an electron in such conduction processes is on the Semiconductors
order of micro-electron volts (see copper wire example), so for electronics
only those electrons very close to the Fermi energy can
participate. The Fermi velocity of these conduction electrons
can be calculated from the Fermi energy.

Table

This speed is a part of the microscopic Ohm's Law for

electrical conduction. For a metal, the density of conduction
electrons can be implied from the Fermi energy.

The Fermi energy also plays an important role in understanding the mystery of why electrons do not
contribute significantly to the specific heat of solids at ordinary temperatures, while they are dominant
contributors to thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity. Since only a tiny fraction of the electrons
in a metal are within the thermal energy kT of the Fermi energy, they are "frozen out" of the heat
capacity by the Pauli principle. At very low temperatures, the electron specific heat becomes significant.

Fermi energies for metals

Table of Fermi energies

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 2 Fermi Function
The Fermi function f(E) gives the probability that a given available electron energy state will be occupied at a
given temperature. The Fermi function comes from Fermi-Dirac statistics and has the form

The basic nature of this function dictates that at ordinary temperatures, most of the levels up to the Fermi
level EF are filled, and relatively few electrons have energies above the Fermi level. The Fermi level is on the
order of electron volts (e.g., 7 eV for copper), whereas the thermal energy kT is only about 0.026 eV at 300K.
If you put those numbers into the Fermi function at ordinary temperatures, you find that its value is essentially
1 up to the Fermil level, and rapidly approaches zero above it.

The illustration below shows the implications of the Fermi function for the electrical conductivity of a
semiconductor. The band theory of solids gives the picture that there is a sizable gap between the Fermi level
and the conduction band of the semiconductor. At higher temperatures, a larger fraction of the electrons can
bridge this gap and participate in electrical conduction.

Index

Semiconductor
concepts

Semiconductors
for electronics

Note that although the Fermi function has a finite value in the gap, there is no electron population at those
energies (that's what you mean by a gap). The population depends upon the product of the Fermi function
and the electron density of states. So in the gap there are no electrons because the density of states is zero.
In the conduction band at 0K, there are no electrons even though there are plenty of available states, but the
Fermi function is zero. At high temperatures, both the density of states and the Fermi function have finite
values in the conduction band, so there is a finite conducting population.

Fermi-Dirac distribution as a function of temperature

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 3 Density of Energy States
The Fermi function gives the probability of occupying an available energy state, but this must be factored
by the number of available energy states to determine how many electrons would reach the conduction
band.This density of states is the electron density of states, but there are differences in its implications for
conductors and semiconductors. For the conductor, the density of states can be considered to start at the
bottom of the valence band and fill up to the Fermi level, but since the conduction band and valence band
overlap, the Fermi level is in the conduction band so there are plenty of electrons available for conduction.
In the case of the semiconductor, the density of states is of the same form, but the density of states for
conduction electrons begins at the top of the gap.

Index

Semiconductor
concepts

Semiconductors
for electronics

Reference
Simpson
Sec 4.7

Electron energy density function

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4 Population of Conduction Band for a Semiconductor

The population of conduction electrons for a semiconductor is given by

Show

where
For a semiconductor with bandgap eV (1.1 eV for Si, 0.72 eV for Ge)

at temperature K= °C

the conduction electron population is x10^ electrons/m3.

You could use this calculation to verify that the conduction electron population Ncb in germanium doubles for about a 13
degree rise in temperature. For silicon, Ncb doubles for about an 8 degree rise in temperature. Because of the larger band
gap, there will be fewer conduction electrons in silicon than germanium for any given temperature.

5 Band Theory of Solids

A useful way to visualize the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors is to
plot the available energies for electrons in the materials. Instead of having discrete energies as in
the case of free atoms, the available energy states form bands. Crucial to the conduction process
is whether or not there are electrons in the conduction band. In insulators the electrons in the
valence band are separated by a large gap from the conduction band, in conductors like metals the
valence band overlaps the conduction band, and in semiconductors there is a small enough gap
between the valence and conduction bands that thermal or other excitations can bridge the gap.
With such a small gap, the presence of a small percentage of a doping material can increase Index
conductivity dramatically.
Semiconductor
An important parameter in the band theory is the Fermi level, the top of the available electron concepts
energy levels at low temperatures. The position of the Fermi level with the relation to the
conduction band is a crucial factor in determining electrical properties. Semiconductors for
electronics

Closer look at bands Band gap dependence on interatomic spacing

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 6 Energy Bands for Solids

Index

Semiconductor
concepts

Semiconductors
for electronics

Click on any part of the illustration for further information.

Band theory More details on diagram

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7 Energy Bands Comments

Index

Semiconductor
concepts

Semiconductors
for electronics

Band gap dependence on interatomic spacing

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 8 Insulator Energy Bands

Most solid substances are insulators, and in terms of the band theory of
solids this implies that there is a large forbidden gap between the energies
of the valence electrons and the energy at which the electrons can move
freely through the material (the conduction band).

Glass is an insulating material which may be transparent to visible light for

reasons closely correlated with its nature as an electrical insulator. The
Index
visible light photons do not have enough quantum energy to bridge the band
gap and get the electrons up to an available energy level in the conduction
Semiconductor
band. The visible properties of glass can also give some insight into the
concepts
effects of "doping" on the properties of solids. A very small percentage of
impurity atoms in the glass can give it color by providing specific available
Semiconductors
energy levels which absorb certain colors of visible light. The ruby mineral
for electronics
(corundum) is aluminum oxide with a small amount (about 0.05%) of
chromium which gives it its characteristic pink or red color by absorbing
green and blue light.

While the doping of insulators can dramatically change their optical

properties, it is not enough to overcome the large band gap to make them
good conductors of electricity. However, the doping of semiconductors has
a much more dramatic effect on their electrical conductivity and is the basis
for solid state electronics.

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9 Semiconductor Energy Bands

For intrinsic semiconductors like silicon and germanium, the

Fermi level is essentially halfway between the valence and
conduction bands. Although no conduction occurs at 0 K, at Index
higher temperatures a finite number of electrons can reach the
conduction band and provide some current. In doped Semiconductor
semiconductors, extra energy levels are added. concepts

The increase in conductivity with temperature can be modeled in Semiconductors

terms of the Fermi function, which allows one to calculate the for electronics
population of the conduction band.

Band theory of solids

Show the effect of impurities Silicon energy bands Germanium energy bands

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 10 Conductor Energy Bands

Index
In terms of the band theory of solids, metals are unique as good
Semiconductor
conductors of electricity. This can be seen to be a result of their
concepts
valence electrons being essentially free. In the band theory, this
is depicted as an overlap of the valence band and the
Semiconductors
conduction band so that at least a fraction of the valence
for electronics
electrons can move through the material.

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11 Silicon Energy Bands

At finite temperatures, the number of electrons which reach the conduction band and contribute to
current can be modeled by the Fermi function. That current is small compared to that in doped
semiconductors under the same conditions.

Index

Semiconductor
concepts

Semiconductors
for electronics

12 Compare to germanium

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 13 Germanium Energy Bands
At finite temperatures, the number of electrons which reach the conduction band and contribute to current
can be modeled by the Fermi function. That current is small compared to that in doped semiconductors
under the same conditions.

Index

Semiconductor
concepts

Semiconductors for
electronics

14 Compare to silicon

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the highest energy level which an electron can occupy the valance band at 0k is called fermi energy level