PRACTICAL APPROACH

TO

CATHODIC PROTECTION

AUTHOR
Gulzar Ahmed Rana (Ph.D.)

First Edition
March 2005
 FOREWARD

Numerous books on the subject of Corrosion and Cathodic Protection have been written
internationally. The book titled “Practical Approach to Cathodic Protection” is the first of its
kind written by a Pakistani author with the sole purpose of creating awareness of corrosion and
its deleterious effects. Corrosion control methods, monitoring techniques, system troubleshooting
and system design features are presented in detail in such a manner that will guide those working
in this field to gain sufficient knowledge to efficiently operate and monitor Cathodic protection
systems. System design guidelines are presented in such a way that with time and experience a
corrosion engineer will gain sufficient knowledge to enable him to undertake complex design
work.

The book starts off explaining the fundamentals of electricity. Ohm’s law and the Faraday’s laws,
which are so important in the understanding of cathodic protection functions, are explained in
detail with mathematical models.

Corrosion being an electrochemical phenomenon, an entire chapter is devoted to this subject.

Various types of corrosion cells and how they function are illustrated followed by in-depth
discussion on the various forms of corrosion that are menace to the industry.

Coatings being the first line of defense against corrosion, an entire chapter are devoted to this
subject.

A detailed discussion on material selection is presented which includes various types of anodes
(sacrificial and impressed current), and DC power sources.

System designs as well as monitoring techniques are explained in sufficient detail.

ii
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

The author, Dr. Gulzar Ahmed Rana is the director of corrosion projects in the Oilman
Technologies (Pvt.) Ltd. He received his Ph.D. in Cathodic Protection from Trinity College &
University (South Dakota, USA).

He has to his credit over 50 years of experience in diversified fields of cathodic protection. He
had worked 20 years in Aramco’s Corrosion Control Department (Saudi Arabia) and retired in
1980 as a corrosion control engineer. Soon after retirement he joined Saudi Maple (also in Saudi
Arabia) as a project engineer responsible for designing over 1100 oil well casing’s cathodic
protection systems.

Since his repatriation from Saudi Arabia (1985), he has designed cathodic protection systems for
well casings of 56 wells in Pakistan belonging to OGDC (Oil & Gas Development Corporation),
PPL (Pakistan Petroleum Limited) and OPI (Orient Petroleum Inc.). Cathodic protection design,
installation and commissioning work also included Oil terminals, Oil and gas facilities, fertilizer
plants, pipelines and flow lines. He also did cathodic protection critique and audit surveys of
facilities owned by PPL, FJFC, BHP and OPI.

The book “Practical approach to Cathodic Protection” has been written with the sole purpose of
providing corrosion awareness and its control. It is hoped that the reader will learn and benefit
from it.

BADAR H. KHAN
Managing Director
Oilman Technologies (Pvt.) Ltd
Karachi, Pakistan

ii
 Preface
External corrosion of subsurface metallic objects such as pipelines, storage tank bottoms, sea
going vessels, jetties and piers, is not a strange phenomena to those who are particularly involved
in the oil and gas industries, marine installations, power plants and fertilizer plants etc., the list
can go on and on.

Corrosion directly cost the national economy approximately 4% of its GNP. It would be fair to
assume that the cost of corrosion in Pakistan is in excess of 2 billion dollars annually. The huge
dollar amount represents the cost of material, labor, equipment and funds associated with lost
revenues that are caused by corrosion damage to metallic structures including bridges, gas and
liquid pipelines, motor vehicles, aircraft and oil production facilities.

The effectiveness of cathodic protection in controlling corrosion is well recognized through out
the world. Corrosion handbooks, textbooks and manuals have been written on this subject by
well-known authors and researchers. Continuing research is ongoing and as a result new
materials and techniques are being made available by various institutions, N.A.C.E. (National
Association of Corrosion Engineers) being the world-renowned.

The purpose of this book is “not to re-invent the wheel” but to provide basic knowledge and
guidance to those who are beginning a career in the field of corrosion and cathodic protection.
The real intention of the author is to provide sufficient knowledge for practical people actively
engaged in cathodic protection work as a corrosion engineer or a technologist.

As Peabody has said so rightly that any textbook of similar nature is in no way intended to be
used as a manual for selecting materials, survey methods and design philosophies. Each
installation whether it is a pipeline, an oil & gas facility or an industrial plant, be treated as a
unique system and incorrect selection of material, survey methods or application of designs may
prove to be hazardous and greatly affect the safety of personnel and capital investment.
Therefore, it is strongly emphasized that those who are new in this filed must not embark on
material selection and CP system design work on their own unless they have gained sufficient
experience working under the guidance of experienced corrosion engineers,

Corrosion engineering is a subject, which cannot be classified as a complete science. There are
no Universities in the world, which offer degree in corrosion engineering. Even today this subject
remains much of an art than it is a science and thus can only be learned by the actual “hands-on”
experience in the field. Many corrosion engineers today may hold degrees in electrical
engineering, chemical engineering, and metallurgy or may possess no degree at all. All of these
men become corrosion engineers by working with or under the guidance of experienced
corrosion engineers and by perseverance.

Steel is by far the most common material of construction, which presents a real challenge.
Its wide spread use lends itself to its physical properties, abundance and it is comparatively cheap
as compared to other metals and alloys. Most pipelines buried or submerged are made of steel.
The submerged surfaces of piers and jetties are made of steel. Almost all of the buried equipment

iii
within oil & gas plants as well as other industrial installations comprises of steel objects.
Although, steel is a strong material, it is chemically very unstable and when exposed to the
elements, will deteriorate.

Cathodic protection is the state-of-the-art technology which when applied in combination with
coatings, can effectively control corrosion and provide long lasting equipment’s service life
which can be almost free of corrosion.

This book concentrates on familiarizing the reader with the fundamentals of corrosion
mechanism, cathodic protection, coatings and various field survey methods.

Chapter-1 is devoted to the understanding of fundamental electricity and Ohm’s law and is intended for
those readers who require this subject as a re-fresher.

Chapter-2 is devoted to electrochemistry. This chapter discusses the Faraday’s law and its applicability in
defining rates of corrosion of various metals in aqueous environments.

Chapter-3 briefly discusses electrochemistry as is applies to corrosion of metals.

Chapter-4 presents Faradays Laws as it relates to corrosion rate of metals.

Chaptrer-5 defines corrosion, discusses various forms of corrosion, and behavior of different types of
corrosion cells.

Chapter – 6 presents fundamentals of corrosion mechanism, various types of corrosion cells and their
reactions and how they relate to real world situations.

Chapter – 7 is devoted to coatings.

Chapter – 8 outlines the history of cathodic protection and goes on to briefly describe the polarization
phenomenon and cathodic protection system types followed by a detailed discussion on the different type
of environments affecting metals.

Chapter – 9 is devoted o soil resistivity measurement techniques.

Chapter – 10 present’s details discussion of sacrificial & impressed current anodes, coke breeze backfill
and the DC power sources for cathodic protection.

Chapters – 11 & 12 are devoted to practical design aspects of cathodic protection.

Chapter – 13 discusses CP design types. Also discussed are the monitoring instruments and techniques
and safety devices.

Chapter – 14 discusses in detail the various survey techniques and methods.

Chapter –15is devoted to criteria of protection

Chapter-16 discusses some unusual problems encountered and their solutions

iv
Chapter-17 discusses special surveys including coating evaluation.

Chapter-18 is devoted to troubleshooting

v
 CONTENTS

Chapter - 1 ......................................................................................................................... 1
Basic Concept of Electricity............................................................................................ 1
Ohm’s Law.................................................................................................................. 2
Types of circuits .......................................................................................................... 2
Power and Energy ....................................................................................................... 3
Voltage Drop in an Electric Circuit ............................................................................ 4
Measurements of voltage (IR Drop) In Electrical Circuits ......................................... 4

Chapter – 2 ........................................................................................................................ 5
Electrochemistry ............................................................................................................. 5
Nomenclature .............................................................................................................. 5
Current Phenomena ......................................................................................................... 6
Faraday’s Laws ........................................................................................................... 7
The Faraday................................................................................................................. 7
Electrochemical Equivalents ....................................................................................... 8
Electrochemical Series ................................................................................................ 8
Over voltage ................................................................................................................ 9
Back Electromotive Force (EMF) ............................................................................. 10
IR Drop In Cathodic Protection Circuits................................................................... 10
Depolarization ........................................................................................................... 12

Chapter - 3 ....................................................................................................................... 13
Definition of Corrosion ................................................................................................. 13
Forms of corrosion ........................................................................................................ 13
Uniform Corrosion .................................................................................................... 13
Pitting Corrosion ....................................................................................................... 13
Crevice Corrosion ..................................................................................................... 16
Galvanic Corrosion ................................................................................................... 16
Erosion Corrosion ..................................................................................................... 17
Cavitation Erosion .................................................................................................... 18
Fretting Corrosion ..................................................................................................... 18
Intergranular Corrosion ............................................................................................. 18
Exfoliation corrosion ................................................................................................ 19
Dealloying ................................................................................................................. 19
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) ............................................................................. 20
Corrosion by Microbial Action ................................................................................. 20
Electrolytic Corrosion ............................................................................................... 21

Chapter – 4 ...................................................................................................................... 23
Fundamentals of Corrosion Mechanism ....................................................................... 23
Corrosion Cell ........................................................................................................... 23
Corrosion Cell Reaction ............................................................................................ 24
Various Types of Corrosion Cells ............................................................................. 25

vi
 Differential Aeration Cell ......................................................................................... 25
Electrolyte Concentration Cells ................................................................................ 26
Potential Due to Mechanical Forces ......................................................................... 26
Dissimilar Electrolyte cell ......................................................................................... 27
Mill Scale .................................................................................................................. 29
Shielded Corrosion.................................................................................................... 29
Terminology of current flow ..................................................................................... 30
Natural Electrode Potential ....................................................................................... 31
Corrosion Cell Current .............................................................................................. 32
Weight of Metal Loss ................................................................................................ 32
Area Effects............................................................................................................... 32

Chapter – 5 ...................................................................................................................... 34
Coatings ........................................................................................................................ 34
Moisture .................................................................................................................... 36
Coke .......................................................................................................................... 36
Mechanical Faults ..................................................................................................... 36
Faults Covered by Wrappers ..................................................................................... 36
Mill Coated Pipe ....................................................................................................... 36
Plastic Tapes (Pressure-Sensitive) ............................................................................ 37
Pressure Sensitive Tapes ........................................................................................... 37
Film Thickness (PVC) .............................................................................................. 37
Laminated Tapes with Primers ................................................................................. 37
Tape Thickness ......................................................................................................... 38
Coal Tar Tapes .......................................................................................................... 38
Extruded Plastic Coatings ......................................................................................... 38
Thin Film Coatings ................................................................................................... 38
Reinforcing Materials ............................................................................................... 39
Asbestos Wrappers.................................................................................................... 39
Glass Outer-wrap ...................................................................................................... 39
Paper Outer-wrap ...................................................................................................... 39
Glass Inner Wrap ...................................................................................................... 40
Rock shield................................................................................................................ 40
Coating Disbondment ............................................................................................... 40

Chapter – 6 ...................................................................................................................... 39
Cathodic Protection ....................................................................................................... 39
History....................................................................................................................... 39
Basics of Cathodic Protection ................................................................................... 39
Basic Theory ............................................................................................................. 42
Polarization ............................................................................................................... 42
Cathodic Protection Systems .................................................................................... 43
Environment .................................................................................................................. 43
Atmosphere ............................................................................................................... 43
Natural Waters .......................................................................................................... 44
Soil Variables ............................................................................................................ 48

vii
 Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) ......................................................... 49

Chapter - 7 ....................................................................................................................... 50
Soil Resistivity .............................................................................................................. 50
Soil Box Procedure ................................................................................................... 50
Wenner 4-Pin Method ............................................................................................... 52
Geonics Method ........................................................................................................ 54

Chapter - 8 ....................................................................................................................... 57
Anodes .......................................................................................................................... 57
Anodes Classification ............................................................................................... 57
Extruded Galvanic Ribbon ........................................................................................ 59
Impressed Current Anodes ........................................................................................ 59
Graphite Anode ......................................................................................................... 59
High Silicon Chromium Cast Iron ............................................................................ 60
Anode specifications ................................................................................................. 61
Scrap Steel Anode ..................................................................................................... 61
Platinized Anode ....................................................................................................... 64
Magnetite Anode ....................................................................................................... 65
Anodeflex .................................................................................................................. 65
Carbonaceous Backfill .............................................................................................. 66
D.C. Power Sources ...................................................................................................... 67
Conventional Transformer/Rectifier ......................................................................... 67
Pulse Rectifier ........................................................................................................... 68
Theory behind the pulsed systems ............................................................................ 69
Solar Power Unit ....................................................................................................... 70
Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) .............................................................................. 70
Energy Converters (Ormat) ....................................................................................... 71

Chapter –9 ....................................................................................................................... 71
Ground bed Resistance ................................................................................................. 73

Chapter – 10 .................................................................................................................... 79
CP Design Considerations ............................................................................................ 79
Electrically Remote Structures.................................................................................. 80
Cathodic Protection Design Parameters .................................................................... 81
Examples of C.P. System Designs ............................................................................ 83
Example-1: ................................................................................................................ 83
Example-2: ................................................................................................................ 85
Example-3a: .............................................................................................................. 88
Example-3b: .............................................................................................................. 89
Example-4: ................................................................................................................ 90
Example 5: ................................................................................................................ 91
Example 6: ................................................................................................................ 93

Chapter - 11 ..................................................................................................................... 97

viii
 Criteria of Protection..................................................................................................... 97
Instant-off 100mV Shift ............................................................................................ 97
Minimum –850mV with Cathodic Protection Applied............................................. 97
Minimum –850mV with CP Current interrupted. ..................................................... 98
Cathodic Protection Coupons ................................................................................... 98
Maximum Allowable Potentials ............................................................................... 98
Monitoring Techniques ............................................................................................. 99
Basic Instruments Used in Monitoring ..................................................................... 99
Cathodic protection Monitoring .................................................................................. 103
Long Term Monitoring ........................................................................................... 103
Routine Monitoring................................................................................................. 105

Chapter –12 ................................................................................................................... 113

Some Unusual Problems ............................................................................................. 113
Parallel Buried line ................................................................................................. 113
Induced AC ............................................................................................................. 113
DC Decoupling Devices.......................................................................................... 114
Cathodic Protection Coupons ................................................................................. 115
Pipeline Casings ...................................................................................................... 117
Insulating flanges ........................................................................................................ 120

Chapter – 13 .................................................................................................................. 121

Special Surveys ........................................................................................................... 121
Coating Evaluation Surveys .................................................................................... 121
Miscellaneous other Surveys .................................................................................. 126
Ground bed Performance ........................................................................................ 131

Glossary of Terms ......................................................................................................... 135

ix
Chapter - 1
Basic Concept of Electricity
In the understanding of Corrosion and
Cathodic Protection it is very essential
that the basic principles of DC electricity
and its generation is known.
All electrical power sources such as
generators, transformers, rectifiers and
batteries are merely instruments for
moving electricity from one place to
another and doing work and returning
back to its source.
The conductors through which the
electric current flows offers more or less
resistance to it, depending on the
conductor’s material and its cross-
sectional area. Copper wire is mostly
used because it offers little resistance to
the current flow.
Volt: The current in an electrical circuit
must have pressure to overcome the
resistance of the conductor or the
components of an electrical circuit
through which current passes. The
pressure is called “voltage” and is
caused by difference in potential across
the terminals of the power source.
This pressure, which causes current
flow, is measured in “Volts”.
Ohm: The restriction, which opposes the
current flowing along a conductor, is
called “resistance”.
The unit for the measurement of this
resistance is called “Ohm”. The standard
ohm is the resistance of a column of
1
mercury 106.3 centimeters in length and
one square millimeter in cross-section
under standard laboratory conditions.
Ampere: The ampere is the quantity of
current flowing in a circuit. By
definition, an ampere is the current
produced when a pressure of one volt is
impressed upon a circuit having a
resistance of one ohm.
Conductor: Any metallic object
through which electrons can flow is
called “conductor” Metals such as
copper, aluminum, gold and, silver are
the best conductors of electric current,
other metals like zinc, iron and tin
platinum, mercury and carbon are poor
conductors.
Copper is particularly used as electrical
conductors on account of its good
(although not the best) conductivity,
availability of it in abundance and the
ease with which it is worked into various
shapes.
The resistance of a conductor varies
directly with the length and inversely
with its cross-sectional area, the general
formula for the resistance is: -
pL
R=
A
Where:
R = resistance
L = Length
p = Resistivity of material
A = Cross sectional area
Ohm’s Law
Ohms law establishes a definite relation
ship between voltage, current and
resistance. When a current flows in any
electric circuit, the magnitude of that
current is determined by the
electromotive force (EMF) acting upon
that circuit and the resistance of the
circuit, the resistance being dependent
on the material, cross-section, and length
of the conductor.
The relation that determines the amount
of current flowing through a circuit is
known as “Ohm’s Law”. It is a very
simple law but is of such a great value
that without it, complete understanding
of how electricity works, would not be
possible. This law can conveniently
resolve the majority of problems of
Types of circuits
Resistances may be connected in series,
parallel or combination of series-parallel
circuits. When two or more resistors are
connected in series, the total resistance
of the group is higher than that of each
individual resistor. When, on the other
hand, two or more resistors are
connected in parallel the total resistance
is less than the resistance of the lowest
individual resistor. A series resistance
may be defined as one in which the
resistances are connected in a continuous
run (i.e., connected end to end) as shown
in fig. 1-1. It is evident that since the
circuit has no branches, the same current
flows through each resistance.
+ -
BATTERY

E4=IR4
E1=IR1

electric circuits. R1 R4

Ohm’s Law states that in a given circuit R2 R3

the amount of current in amperes is E2=IR2 E3=IR3

equal to the pressure in volts, divided by Figure 1-1
the resistance in ohms, that is:
The total potential drop (IR) across the
PRESSURE = VOLTS whole circuit equals simple addition of
CURRENT =
RESISTANCE OHMS voltage drop (IR) across each individual
Which when expressed by symbols, resistor
becomes: E1 = IR1
E
E2 = IR2
I= E3 = IR3
R
E4 = IR4
Where Since E = E1+E2+E3+E4
I = current flow in amperes. and R = R1+R2+R3+R4
E = pressure in volts.
R = resistance in ohms. The equation for the total potential drop
of the circuit becomes:
In the form as thus written, Ohm’s law E = IR1+IR2+IR3+IR4
applies only to direct current circuits or = I (R1+R2+R3+R4)
non-inductive alternating current
circuits. In cathodic protection work, all Therefore: -
circuits involved are direct current
circuits.

2
 R2
E E
I = =
R1 + R2 + R 3 + R 4 R
R1 R3 R5
A C D B
If several resistances are connected as
shown in Figure 1-2, so that each resistor R4
is conducting part of the total current
flowing from point “A” to point “B”
then the resistors are said to be in Figure 1-3
parallel circuit,
. The resistance from (A) to (B) of such a
A circuit is the sum of all the resistances of
I1 R1 I1= E /R1
the several parts. Thus the resistance
from (A) to (B) is equal to the resistance
I2 R 2 I2 = E /R2
from (A) to (C) plus that from (C) to (D)
I3 R 3 I3= E /R3 plus that from (D) to (B).

B The main thing to remember when

Figure 1-2 dealing with series and parallel
combination of resistances is to reduce
The voltage E between points (A) and each parallel group into its equivalent
(B) is the same over any branch of the resistance component and then add up
circuit. the result to obtain the total resistance of
the circuit.
It may then be stated:
The total resistance of the circuit is: -
E = I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3 1
R =R + +R 5
And I = I1 + I2 + I3 1
1 + 1 + 1
( )
R2 R3 R4

When Ohm’s law is applied to the Power and Energy

individual resistances, the following
equations are obtained. When a steady current “I” flows through
a conductor and the voltage drop across
I1 = E/ R1 the terminals of the conductor is “E”, the
I2 = E/ R2 power or the energy per unit time,
I3 = E/ R3 delivered to the conductor is: -
Hence:
I = E/ R1 + E/ R2 + E/ R3 P = EI
The complex arrangement of conductors Current is expressed in amperes, the
in an electrical circuit is a combination potential in volts and power in watts
of the series and parallel circuit such as (joules per second). When the voltage
that shown in Figure 1-3 and current are variable, their
instantaneous values being represented
by “E” and “I” gives the instantaneous

3
power, that is, the instantaneous rate at
which energy is being delivered.
VOLTMETER
When a known value of the current “I”
flows through a conductor whose
resistance “R” is known, then the power
per unit time is: - 10 OHM CURRENT
0.01A
2
P= I R
Figure 1-4a
Voltage Drop in an Electric A voltmeter placed directly across the
Circuit resistor reads the IR drop across that
resistor which is the product of current
and resistance, that is, 0.01 x 10 = 0.1 V
When an electric current is used at a
considerable distance from the power
source, the voltage at the receiving end
Figure 1-4b illustrates measurement of
of the line is always less than the power
IR drop with the current flowing through
source voltage. This voltage drop in the
earth.
line is equal to the current times the
resistance of the entire length of the line
(IR). Using larger size conductors can
reduce the voltage drop in ordinary
ANODE
circuits. When the current return path
involves earth as a conductor, the IR
drop at the metal/earth contact is
dependent upon the surface area of the
-
metal contacting the earth and the V
resistivity (or conductivity) of the earth. +

This IR drop can be a significant portion

- +
of the overall IR drop in a cathodic STRUCTURE

protection circuit and will be discussed

further in later chapters. Figure 1-4b

Measurements of voltage (IR The voltage measured between two

Drop) In Electrical Circuits
The IR drop occurs if the resistor is a
metallic (electron) conductor or an
electrolye (ion) conductor.
screw drivers driven in earth and placed
some distance apart is the IR drop
through soil which is conducting current
from the anode to the structure. Both
screw drivers must be of the same metal.

Figure 1-4a illustrates the measurements

of IR drop in a metallic circuit.

4
Chapter – 2
Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is that branch of
science, which deals with the electrical
energy that causes chemical changes by
transfer of electrons from one substance
to the other. In other words, reaction by
which electricity is generated by
electrochemical means.
Nomenclature
Because the equipment and procedures
associated with the applications of
electrochemistry are different than those
used in ordinary chemistry, a
nomenclature specific to
electrochemistry has been developed
which is as follows: -
Anions:
Anions are negatively charged particles.
These particles are attracted towards the
anode.
Ions:
Ions are negatively or positively charged
particles.
Anode:
The anode is the metal or surface of a
metal which discharges current into the
electrolyte.
Cations:
These are positively charged particles.
These particles are attracted towards the
cathode.
Anolyte:
This is the body of the electrolyte in the
vicinity of anodic surface.
Catholyte:
This is the body of the electrolyte in the
vicinity of cathodic surface,
Electrolyte:
Any solution which is capable of moving
negative and positive charges (ions) through
its body.
Electrolysis:
The process of causing chemical changes by
the flow of current.
Electrolytic Conductors:
Any solutions containing acids, bases and
salts and which permit movement of ions
accompanied with chemical reactions.
Metallic Conductors:
A metallic object, which permits movement
of electrons through its body

Cathode:
The cathode is the metal or surface of a
metal which receives current from the
electrolyte.

Electrodes:
The metallic objects picking up or
discharging current in the solution are
called electrodes.

5
 causing tremendous changes in the
properties. The metal ions are soluble in
water, has virtually no color, it now has
CHAPTER-3 no weight and can carry positive charges
Electro Chemistry of corrosion: of electricity through an electrolyte. In
electrochemical language the reaction
It is quite certain that when metals can be written as”
corrode the reactions taking place are
electrochemical in nature. Michal M-2e =M++
Faraday had laid down the ground work
for the theory based on which Sir
Humphrey Davy in 1824 applied In summary, electrochemistry of
cathodic protection for the first time. He corrosion deals with the changes of
was engaged by the Royal navy to study metals to ions, ions to metals or gases.
the corrosion of copper cladding on the Corrosion results when metals change to
wooden hulls of navel vessels. By ions.
carrying forward the work of Faraday he
experimented by attaching metals more
reactive than copper and study their
behavior. He first tried attaching to
copper, steel plates and then zinc plates
and observed by doing so the corrosion
of copper was arrested; he thus named
this process “Cathodic Protection”

Fortunately, we do not to posses very

much knowledge about the chemistry to
understand the electrochemical reactions
taking place when metals corrode.
Metals are generally opaque, dense,
hard, and insoluble in pure water, has
color can conduct electricity and has
mass (weight).

The most important part of an atom is

“electron”. It maintains electrical
neutrality when the number of electrons
is equal to the number of protons which
are also part of the atom.

By loosing one or more electrons, metal

still exists but now it is not a metal atom
anymore and has changed to metal ion.
What has happened is that an
electrochemical change has taken place

6

CHAPTER-4
Faraday’s Laws
Faraday’s first law states that, when a
reaction takes place at the surface of
metals which involves the passage of the
current, then the weight of material
liberated or deposited by the flow of
current is directly proportional to the
quantity of electricity which has passed
and are independent of factors, such as
size of electrode, voltage, temperature,
etc.
In other words, the same amount of
metal will be deposited by 1 amp in 60
sec. as by 2 amps in 30 sec. or by 3 amps
in 20 sec.
Faraday’s second law gives the
numerical relation between the quantity
of electricity flowing through the cell
and the quantity of material liberated at
the electrodes, specifying that the
quantities of material liberated at the
anode by a given quantity of electricity
are proportional to the equivalent
weights of the substance involved.
Equivalent weight is the combining
weight of the substance defined as the
atomic weight divided by the valance of
the substance. For example, valence of
Ferrous is +2 while of Ferric is +3.
If a unit of electricity dissolves 5 pounds
of silver, for example, then the same unit
of electricity will dissolve copper at the
ratio of 107.88 (equivalent weight of
silver) and 31.6 (equivalent weight of
copper). Since the ratio of the equivalent
weights = 107.88/31.6 = 3.4, then the
weight loss of copper will be 3.4*5 = 17
pounds.
7
Figure 4-1 (below) is a schematic
description of Faraday’s second law. A
silver plate is immersed in electrolyte in
the left container and it is connected to
the positive terminal of an automotive
battery. Another metallic plate in the
same container, which is acting as a
cathode in this series circuit, is
connected to a copper plate immersed in
the right hand side container. Finally a
fourth plate in the right container is
connected to the negative terminal of the
battery. As can be seen, silver and
copper are both acting as anodes since
these plates are discharging current into
the electrolyte. This being a series
circuit, the quantity of current discharged
at the surface of silver is same as that
discharged by the surface of copper. As
described earlier, the metal loss of both,
silver and copper will differ even though
the current discharged from both anode
surfaces into the electrolyte is same.
Equivalent weight of each anode metal
will govern the amount of metal loss per
unit time.
Figure 4-1
The Faraday
In electrochemistry an ampere is defined
as that quantity of current which when
passing through a solution of Silver is called the electrochemical equivalent
Nitrate (AgNO3) will deposit silver at of the element. For scientific purposes
the rate of 0.001118 grams per second. the weight loss units are stated in
This quantity of current is called a milligrams per coulomb, grams per
“coulomb”. ampere-hour, lbs. per 1000 amp hr. and
The number of coulombs required to lbs. per amp-yr. A table of
dissolve one equivalent weight of silver electrochemical equivalents of the more
(107.88) in grams will therefore be important elements is given in Table 4-1.
107.880.001118=96493.7 coulombs.
This is considered as a unit quantity of For any other element not listed in Table
electricity necessary to liberate or 4-1, the amount of element liberated at
deposit one equivalent weight of any the anode by electrochemical action can
metal in a solution and is called be calculated as per the following
“faraday”, after its discoverer, and for conversion factors: -
ordinary calculation this number is
rounded off to 96,500 coulombs.  Atomic equivalent weight x
0.010363 = mg. per coulomb (per
ampere-sec.)
Electrochemical Equivalents
By the use of the numerical relationship  Atomic equivalent weight x
given by the Faraday’s 2nd law, we can 0.0382073 = gr per amp-hr
calculate weight of any element that will
be liberated by a unit amount of current  Atomic equivalent weight x
in a unit time. Take aluminum for 0.082073 = lbs. per 1000 amp-hr
example, its atomic weight is 26.97 and
the valence is 3. Therefore, it’s  Atomic equivalent weight x
combining or equivalent weight is 0.718955 = lbs. per amp-yr.
26.97÷3=8.99. As stated by the 2nd law
of Faraday, 96500 coulombs will
dissolve 8.99 grams of this element. This
Table 4-1
Electrochemical equivalents of Elements
ELEMENT

VALENCE

COULOMB
SYMBOL

mg. PER/

AMP-HR

AMP-YR
AT. WT.

gr. PER

lb. PER

lb. PER
HOUR
AMP-
1000

Aluminum Al 26.97 3 0.093 0.335 0.738 6.463

Copper Cu 63.57 1 0.659 2.372 5.217 45.704

Gold Au 197.2 1 2.044 7.357 16.185 141.778

Hydrogen H 1.008 1 0.010 0.038 0.083 0.725
Iron (ferrous) Fe 55.84 2 0.289 1.042 2.291 20.073
Iron (ferric) Fe 55.84 3 0.193 0.694 1.528 13.382
Lead Pb 207.2 2 1.074 3.865 8.503 74.487
1
Magnesium Mg 24.32 2 0.127 0.454 0.998 8.742
Silver Ag 107.8 1 1.118 4.025 8.854 77.561

8
 8
Tin Sn 118.7 2 0.615 2.214 4.871 42.670
Zinc Zn 63.38 2 0.328 1.182 2.601 22.784
Carbon C 12.01 4 0.031 0.112 0.246 2.159

Since the voltage developed by the

Electrochemical Series
The discovery by Alessandro Volta of
the “potential series” was a stride
towards the development of
electrochemistry. This series is also
called the electrochemical series, and is
arranged in the order in which the metals
replace each other chemically.
different combinations varies depending
on the properties of the electrolyte used,
some of the metals which are very close
together in the series may change their
position relative to each other on the
voltage scale and such a change will not
take them far apart from each other. In
most cases the general order remains
unchanged. Table 4-2 is the
electromotive series of metals.

Table 4-2
Electromotive Series of Metals
(Referred to Hydrogen Standard Electrode)
Electromotive Series of Ion Formed Potential
Metals
Potassium K+ -2.92
Barium Ba++ -2.90
Calcium Ca++ -2.87
Sodium Na+ -2.71
Magnesium Mg++ -2.40
Aluminum Al+++ -1.70
Manganese Mn++ -1.10
Zinc Zn++ -0.76
Chromium Cr++ -0.56
Iron (ferrous Fe++ -0.44
Cadmium Cd++ -0.40
Cobalt Co++ -0.28
Nickel Ni++ -0.23
Tin Sn++ -0.14
Lead Pb++ -0.12
Iron (ferric) Fe+++ -0.04
Hydrogen H+ 0.00
Antimony Sb+++ +0.10
Bismuth Bi+++ +0.23
Copper(cupric) Cu++ +0.34
Copper(cuprous) Cu+ +0.47
Silver Ag+ +0.80
Mercury Hg++ +0.80
Platinum Pt++++ +0.86
Gold (aurous) Au+ +1.50

The potential shown in the last column is established by immersing an electrode in

the standard electrode potential which is a “standard” solution of its own ions and

8
measuring the potential difference up to a certain limit. In some cases the
between it and a standard hydrogen values vary considerably with the
electrode to which is assigned the characteristics of the electrolyte,
arbitrary value of zero. The standard particularly between acid and alkaline
solution adopted is that which contains electrolytes. The temperature and
an ion concentration of one mole per pressure of the electrolyte also have
1000 grams of water, and the standard some effect.
temperature for making the
determination is 25C. Actual potentials The values of over voltage as determined
developed between pairs of electrodes in by different investigators vary
various solutions and at various considerably, depending on the
concentrations can vary from the values conditions used in the experiment.
shown, but as stated earlier the general Tables 4-3a & 4-3b give some maximum
order remains the same in most and minimum values recorded by
situations, that is, no metal moves very various investigators; this shows the
far from the position shown. general character and magnitude of a
number of typical over voltages.
Over voltage Table 4-3a
The term over voltage, as generally used, Over Voltage of Hydrogen
is simply another name for the Electrode Min V Max V
Platinum (platinized) 0.00 0.07
polarization in a corrosion cell in which Graphite 0.002 1.22
gases are produced at one or both Platinum (smooth) 0.02 0.77
electrodes. The chief components of Gold 0.02 0.95
Silver 0.10 1.08
over voltage are the ohmic resistance due Carbon 0.14 1.23
to gas film on the surface of the Monel 0.19 1.21
Iron 0.20 1.29
electrode and the bubbles on and near Copper 0.23 1.27
the electrode, and any electrode effect Tin 0.24 1.23
that may exist between the particular Brass 0.38 1.25
Zinc 0.48 1.24
electrodes in question and the gas being Aluminum 0.30 1.29
produced at their surfaces. Since both of
these factors are variable over rather Table 4-3 b
wide limits and, so far as known, are Over voltage of Oxygen
independent of each other, the resulting Platinum (platinized) 0.24 0.77
combination may amount to nearly one Iron 0.24 0.83
volt. In most cases it is probable that the Copper 0.42 0.84
Platinum (smooth) 0.44 1.38
resistance factor is greater than the
Gold 0.52 1.66
electrode effect. The prime-determining Graphite 0.53 1.28
factor in over voltage is the particular Silver 0.58 1.014
combination of electrode and gas that is
brought together. The smoother the
surface of the electrode the higher is the
over voltage. Over voltage increases
with increasing current density, and in
most cases increases with time, at least

9
Back Electromotive Force
(EMF)
When a circuit in an ordinary electrolytic
cell is broken the voltmeter connected
across its terminals will continue to read
for some moments after the current flow
has stopped and then gradually fall off to
zero. This, being opposed to the applied
EMF of the cell, has been called “back
electromotive force.” If there is any
concentration polarization in the cell, it
will be manifested as a back EMF on
breaking the circuit, but most if not all of
the back EMF is due to the accumulation
around the electrodes of some of the
products of electrolysis in a reactable
form, so that as soon as the electrolyzing
current is no longer acting, these
products on the electrodes set up a
recombination process, which, of course,
is in the reverse direction to the applied
EMF since the direction of reaction is
reversed. Many would consider this
EMF a part of the polarization, which is
not entirely correct, for only a portion of
the back EMF is true polarization. Most
of this EMF is due to reversal of the
“decomposition voltage”.
IR Drop In Cathodic Protection
Circuits
Figure 4-2 schematically shows a typical
cathodic protection system together with
the current flows and voltmeter
connections to measure upscale
indication of IR drops. Note the cathodic
protection system has both, metallic and
electrolytic IR drops.
10
ANODE
- +
V V
+ -
- +
STRUCTURE
Figure 4-2
A voltmeter connected across a span of
wire connecting the anode to structure,
directly reads IR drop in the cable.
Similarly a voltmeter connected across a
span of the pipeline directly reads the IR
drop across that span. IR drop in soil is
the voltmeter reading between two
identical electrodes placed some distance
apart in the path of current flow through
soil from anode to cathode. The level of
cathodic protection is determined by the
potential of the cathode half-cell reaction
on the surface of a protected structure.
This potential exists at the interface
between the structure and its
environment (e.g., between pipe and soil
interface).
An excessive IR drop is included if the
reference half-cell used in the potential
measurement is placed anywhere other
than at the closest location from the
structure being monitor. This in no way
means that half-cell directly placed over
the pipe line will not include some
degree of IR drop. However, such an IR
drop is minimal and if the environment
is water or wet soil, the measured
potential may be acceptable. An IR
drop is also included in this potential
measurement if the test point (metal
connection) is placed anywhere other
than at the metal side of the structure-
environment junction.

Nevertheless, if measurements are made
potentiometerically, it does eliminate the
IR drop in the potentiometer lead wires,
and meter connections. This is because
the function of a potentiometer is such
that there is no current flow through the
instrument hence, there is no IR drop in
the potential measuring portion of the
circuit.
During cathodic protection
measurements, the current flowing
through soil causes an IR drop in the
electrolyte (soil) thus making the pipe-
to-soil potential appears more negative
than it really is. Figure 4-3 illustrates the
IR drop between the pipe surface and the
electrode placed at grade level.
Figure 4-3
The rectifier’s positive current is
discharged by the ground bed, which
then flows through the earth and is
collected by the buried pipeline and
returned to the rectifier’s negative
terminal. The earth current path acts as a
resistor and voltage drop occurs which
can be read on the meter if two half-cells
11
are placed in such a way that one is
buried at the pipeline depth (permanent
reference electrode) and the other is
placed directly on the surface of the soil.
The IR drop increases with increasing
distance between the structure and the
reference electrode. It also increases with
resistivity and current. IR drops in
excess of 100 millivolts are not
uncommon. An anode and structure are
remote if the regions of significant IR
drop caused by each do not overlap. The
included IR drops are often larger if the
protected structure is not remote to the
cathodic protection anode.
The IR drop can be ignored if it falls
within the acceptable error of the
measurement. The magnitude of the IR
error can be estimated from the current
value, the resistivity of the media, and
the distance between the reference
electrode and the structure. If the current
is small and the distance between the
structure and the reference electrode is
also small, the IR drop contribution can
be negligible. In such cases the IR drop
can be acceptable..
Clearly neglecting the IR drop is the
easiest way of considering it. The
method has the disadvantage of causing
a significant error if the IR drop is not
small. A surface potential of –950
millivolts vs. CuCuSO4 might represent
a protection level of less than –700
millivolts in 5000 ohm-cm soil. This
situation aggravated particularly in case
of bare structures with high current
requirement.
Figures 4-4 & 4-5 illustrate the danger
in ignoring IR drop correction.
If the half-cell is laterally moved away Figure 4-4b demonstrates the effect of
from the pipeline, the error in the high soil resistivity as the half-cell is
measured value increases with the moved closer and closer to the protected
distance (figure 4-4a). pipe.

Similarly, the change in the depth of

STRUCTURE burial of a pipeline will have the same
error effect since the vertical distance
mV
between the half-cell and the surface of
-930 pipe has increased (figure 4-5).
-935

-939 VM

-964 A
1.0V B 0.8V

-1004 HALF CELL

LOCATIONS

-1109

Figure 4-4a
An actual case of IR drop was
demonstrated by excavation of a pipeline
in a fertilizer plant near Karachi. The
cathodic protection operators had
reported potentials in excess of 5V at a
number of locations where the soil
resistivity was predominantly in excess
of 10000 ohm-cm.
Figure 4-5
The above figure simply demonstrates
that even though the measured value at
location A is more than the minimum
criterion of protection the pipeline is not
protected as shown by the measurement
at location B.
Depolarization
As its name indicates, depolarization is
the process of more or less removing or
neutralizing, in a cell, the polarizing
effect of one or more of those particular
polarizing factors, which are operating in
the cell.

Depolarization is also a tool by which

the level of protection can be
determined. Potential measured within
300 to 500 ms immediately after the
Figure 4-4b current source is turned off, indicates
that the protection is adequate if -100mV

12
potential is achieved. That is, that this
potential value is 100mV more negative
than the natural potential of the structure.
If the natural potential data is not
available then a graph can be constructed
where the instant off potential is plotted
at time “0” hour on the “X” axis. This
value in our example is –1200 mV (See
figure 4.6)
If the difference between the instant off
potential and the completely depolarized
state of the structure is -100mV or more
then it can be said that the NACE
potential criterion of 100 mV shift has
been attained.
Figure 4-6
13
This is done by completely turning off
the cathodic protection current and
monitoring the polarization decay versus
time. A plot is constructed as shown in
Figure 4-6.
In this particular example, time 0 hour to
time10 hour is the period over which the
depolarization continued. At the end of
this period potential stabilized at a value,
which is considered as the natural
potential of the structure provided of
course that the pipeline is not connected
to any dissimilar metal such as plant’s
electrical grounding system and there are
no stray currents flowing in the earth by
unknown current sources.
Within a plant it is seldom possible to Writers experience has shown that a
isolate the electrical grounding system PVC access tube for lowering portable
from the buried lines. In such cases use half-cell to measure potentials will be
of permanent reference half-cells (PRE) much more trustworthy. Such an access
located as close as possible to the tube layout is shown in Figure 4-7
pipeline at each test station is popular
among most corrosion engineer. In the
opinion of the writer, PRE are not 100%
reliable and their design seldom If ever
meets the design life of the systems for
which these are installed. Their stability
is also highly questionable. This is
substantiated by actual tests performed
in a plant that had been in approximately
7 years in service.

TP Perma-cell vs.
no portable half-cell
(mv)
1 027
2 -028
3 055 CP coupons which are gaining wide
4 046 spread acceptance through out the
5 091 industry worldwide can be made
6 093 economical and more reliable when
access tubes are used in place of the
7 207
permanent reference cells.
8 024
9 143
When protection system is closely
10 054
spaced distributed anode, these test
stations should be installed in the middle
Column-1 is the test post numbers where of any 2 adjacent anodes. Alternatively,
PRE were installed. Column-2 shows the CP test coupons can be used which have
potential difference between the Perma- a minimum 1 square cm. bare surface
cells and a fresh portable half-cell. This area and are connected to the pipe line
clearly shows the instability of PRE. The through a toggle switch. When the toggle
true potential readings would be
switch is in the on position the CP
measurements made with the PRE less coupon attains the same potential as the
the values shown in column-2. As an potential of the pipeline to which it is
example a potential value of -950mV tied in to. By switching off the CP
with reference to PRE would actually be coupon from the pipeline the
807mV with reference to a fresh portable instantaneous off potential of the CP
reference electrode. coupon will be very nearly the same as if
all power sources turned off.

13
 FIGURE-4-7

Prior to potential measurement and

before lowering portable half-cell,
sufficient water needs to be added to wet
down the soil in the access tube. It goes
without saying that the access tubes are
installed adjacent to the regular potential
measuring test stations.

12
Chapter - 5
Definition of Corrosion
Corrosion is defined as the destruction of
all materials of construction by
interaction with its environment. Since
the word “all materials” makes this
definition very broad so as to include not
only the metals but also all non-metals
such as plastics, ceramics, woods etc.
This definition can be narrowed down to
read as “undesirable destruction of
metals by the interaction with its
environment”. The word “undesirable”
will then exclude the corrosion of
materials such as zinc, magnesium and
aluminum because, when these materials
are used as anodes, the energy released
by their corrosion becomes the source of
cathodic protection.
Forms of corrosion
There are many forms of corrosion each
of which has distinct characteristics.
These can be grouped as follows: -
Group-1: Forms of corrosion that can be
visually identified.
 Uniform corrosion
 Pitting
 Crevice corrosion
 Galvanic corrosion
Group-2: Forms of corrosion that may
require Supplementary Means of
Examination
 Erosion corrosion
 Cavitation
 Fretting corrosion
 Intergranular corrosion
13
Group-3: Forms of corrosion that may
require microscopic examination.
 Hydrogen embrittlement
 Environmental cracking
 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
 Exfoliation
 Dealloying (selective leaching)
 Corrosion fatigue
Uniform Corrosion
This type of corrosion proceeds evenly
over the entire surface area or a large
part of the surface area of the structure.
Therefore, general thinning is the result
due to which time to failure is long.
On the basis of tonnage wasted. This is
the most important type of corrosion.
This type off corrosion can be easily
detected, measured and protected
against.
Protection methods include painting,
increasing the metal thickness or the use
of expensive alloys for structures
exposed to atmospheres.
For structures buried of submerged,
cathodic protection in combinations of
coatings is used.
Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a localized form of
corrosion by which cavities or "holes"
are produced in the material. Pitting is
much more dangerous than uniform
corrosion damage. It is more difficult to
detect, and design against. Corrosion
products usually cover the pits. A small,
narrow pit with minimal metal loss can
lead to the failure of the structure.
One pit in a large system can be
disastrous and result in catastrophic
failure of that system. Examples have
been the destruction of large oil
processing plant and an oil gas
separating plant in Saudi Arabia.
Complete destruction of many large
plants throughout the world is
documented. All these failures were the
result of small pin-hole gas leaks which
continued to spread as a blanket until
ignited
Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a localized form of
corrosion which usually results under
shielded areas, such as those formed
under gaskets, washers, insulation
material, fastener heads, surface
deposits, disbonded coatings, threads,
lap joints and clamps.
As oxygen diffusion into the crevice is
restricted, a differential aeration cell is
set up between crevice and the adjacent
external surface.
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic or dissimilar metal corrosion
refers to corrosion damage caused when
two dissimilar materials are coupled in a
corrosive electrolyte. It occurs when two
dissimilar metals are electrically
connected in a corrosive soil.
When a galvanic couple forms, one of
the metals in the couple becomes the
anode and corrodes faster than it would
all by itself, while the other becomes the
cathode and does not corrode.
16
Either (or both) metal in the couple may
or may not corrode by themselves in
electrolytes if not in electrical contact
with each other. When contact with a
dissimilar metal is made, however,
corrosion rates will change as follows: -
 Corrosion of the anode will
accelerate.
 Corrosion of the cathode will
decelerate or even stop.
The driving force of corrosion is a
potential difference between the different
materials. Luigi Galvani discovered the
bimetallic driving force in the late part of
the eighteenth century in a series of
experiments with the exposed muscles
and nerves of a frog that contracted
when connected to a bimetallic
conductor. The principle was later put
into a practical application by
Alessandro Volta who built, in 1800, the
first electrical cell, or battery; a series of
metal disks of two kinds, separated by
cardboard disks soaked with acid or salt
solutions. This is the basis of all modern
wet-cell batteries, and it was a
tremendously important scientific
discovery, because it was the first
method found for the generation of a
sustained electrical energy.
Sir Humphrey Davy and Michael
Faraday also engineered the principle
into the useful protection of metallic
structures in the early part of the
nineteenth century. The sacrificial
corrosion of one metal, such as zinc,
magnesium, or aluminum, is a
widespread method of cathodically
protecting metallic structures.
In a bimetallic couple, the less noble
material (more negative than the other)
will become the anode of this corrosion
cell and tend to corrode at an accelerated
rate, compared with its uncoupled
condition. The more noble material will
act as the cathode in the corrosion cell.
Galvanic corrosion can be one of the
most common forms of corrosion as well
as one of the most destructive.
The relative nobility of a material can be
predicted by measuring its corrosion
potential. The well known galvanic
series lists the relative nobility of certain
materials in seawater. A small anode to
cathode area ratio is highly undesirable.
In this case, the galvanic current is
concentrated onto a small anodic area.
Rapid thickness loss of the dissolving
anode tends to occur under these
conditions. Designing to avoid these
problems in the first place should control
galvanic corrosion problems. Galvanic
corrosion cells can be set up on the
macroscopic level or on the microscopic
level.
Erosion Corrosion
Erosion corrosion is acceleration in the
rate of corrosion attack in metals due to
the relative motion of a corrosive fluid
on the metal surface. The increased
turbulence caused by pitting on the
internal surfaces of a tube can result in
rapidly increasing erosion rates and
eventually a leak. Erosion corrosion can
also be aggravated by faulty
workmanship. For example, uneven
surfaces left at cut tube ends can upset
smooth water flow, because localized
turbulence and high flow velocities,
resulting in erosion corrosion.
A combination of erosion and corrosion
can lead to extremely high pitting rates.
In offshore well systems, the process
17
industry in which components come into
contact with sand-bearing liquids, this is
an important problem. Materials
selection plays an important role in
minimizing erosion corrosion damage.
Caution is advisable when predicting
erosion corrosion behavior on the basis
of hardness. High hardness in a material
does not necessarily guarantee a high
degree of resistance to erosion corrosion.
Design features are also particularly
important. It is generally desirable to
reduce the fluid velocity and promote
smooth flow; increased pipe diameters
are useful in this regard. Rough surfaces
are generally undesirable. Designs
creating turbulence, flow restrictions and
obstructions are undesirable. Abrupt
changes in flow direction should be
avoided. Tank inlet pipes should be
directed away from the tank walls,
towards the center. Welded and flanged
pipe sections should always be carefully
aligned. Impingement plates or baffles
designed to bear the brunt of the damage
should be easily replaceable.
The thickness of vulnerable areas should
be increased. Replaceable ferrules, with
a tapered end, can be inserted into the
inlet side of heat exchanger tubes, to
prevent damage to the actual tubes.
Several environmental modifications can
be implemented to minimize the risk of
erosion corrosion. Abrasive particles in
fluids can be removed by filtration or
settling, while water traps can be used in
steam and compressed air systems to
decrease the risk of impingement by
droplets.
De-aeration and corrosion inhibitors are
additional measures that can be taken.
Cathodic protection and the application
of protective coatings may also reduce
the rate of attack.
Cavitation Erosion
Cavitation is a process where the
pressure of a flowing liquid is decreased
below that liquid's vapor pressure,
usually by a discontinuity like an orifice
plate, the leading edge of a propeller
blade, or a shell caught in a condenser
tube. The decrease in pressure causes the
water to boil locally, creating bubbles.
These bubbles will collapse as soon as
they travel to an area of higher pressure.
The bubble collapse creates little
pressure waves and plenty of noise.
Cavitation is possible in some propeller
designs, and is commonly caused by
orifice plates and throttled valves.
Cavitation-corrosion usually looks like
as if small chunks of the metal have been
ripped from the surface. In milder cases
it can appear as heavy etching.
How do we know whether the
mechanical forces cause damage from
the flow alone or whether corrosion
contributes? It is easy to think that the
damage is purely mechanical. However,
if cathodic protection is applied to a part
that is undergoing erosion, impingement,
or cavitation-corrosion, the amount of
metal loss can be significantly reduced
or eliminated. The amount of metal loss
that is not affected by cathodic
protection is the amount of damage that
is caused by the purely mechanical
processes.
The only exception to this is that
extreme amounts of cathodic protection
can generate hydrogen bubbles that will
18
cushion the impact of cavitation bubble
collapse, creating a purely mechanical
barrier for the damage. This level of
cathodic protection is quite unusual,
however.
For minimizing cavitation damage steps
that can be taken include: -
 Minimization of hydrodynamic
pressure gradients
 Designing to avoid pressure
drops below the vapor pressure
of the liquid
 The prevention of air ingress
 The use of resilient coatings and
cathodic protection
Fretting Corrosion
Fretting corrosion refers to corrosion
damage at the areas of contact surfaces.
This damage is induced under load and
in the presence of repeated relative
surface motion, as induced for example
by vibration. Pits or grooves and oxide
debris characterize this damage, which is
typically found in machinery, bolted
assemblies and ball or roller bearings.
Contact surfaces exposed to vibration
during transportation are exposed to the
risk of fretting corrosion. Damage can
occur at the interface of two highly
loaded surfaces, which are not designed
to move against each other. The most
common type of fretting is caused by
vibration. The protective film on the
metal surfaces is removed by the rubbing
action and exposes fresh, active metal to
the corrosive action of the atmosphere.
Intergranular Corrosion
The microstructure of metals and alloys
is made up of grains, separated by grain
boundaries. Intergranular corrosion is
localized attack along the grain
boundaries, or immediately adjacent to
grain boundaries, while the bulk of the
grains remain largely unaffected.
This form of corrosion is usually
associated with chemical segregation
effects (impurities have a tendency to be
enriched at grain boundaries or specific
phases precipitated on the grain
boundaries). Such precipitation can
produce zones of reduced corrosion
resistance in the immediate vicinity. A
classic example is the sensitization of
stainless steels or weld decay.
Chromium-rich grain boundary
precipitates lead to a local depletion of
Cr immediately adjacent to these
precipitates, leaving these areas
vulnerable to corrosive attack in certain
electrolytes. Re-heating a welded
component during multi-pass welding is
a common cause of this problem. In
austenitic stainless steels, titanium or
niobium can react with carbon to form
carbides in the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
causing a specific type of intergranular
corrosion known as knife-line attack.
These carbides build up next to the weld
bead where they cannot diffuse due to
rapid cooling of the weld metal. The
problem of knife-line attack can be
corrected by reheating the welded metal
to allow diffusion to occur.
Many aluminum base alloys are
susceptible to intergranular corrosion on
account of either phases anodic to
aluminum being present along grain
boundaries or due to depleted zones of
copper adjacent to grain boundaries in
copper containing alloys. Alloys that
have been extruded or otherwise worked
heavily, with a microstructure of
19
elongated, flattened grains, are
particularly prone to this damage.
Exfoliation corrosion
Exfoliation corrosion is a further form of
intergranular corrosion associated with
high strength aluminum alloys. Alloys
that have been extruded or otherwise
worked heavily, with a microstructure of
elongated, flattened grains, are
particularly prone to this damage.
Corrosion products building up along
these grain boundaries exert pressure
between the grains and the end result is a
lifting or leafing effect. The damage
often initiates at end grains encountered
in machined edges, holes or grooves can
subsequently progress through an entire
section.
Dealloying
Dealloying or selective leaching refers to
the selective removal of one element
from an alloy by corrosion processes. A
common example is the dezincification
of unstabilized brass, whereby a
weakened, porous copper structure is
produced. The selective removal of zinc
can proceed in a uniform manner or on a
localized (plug-type) scale.
It is difficult to rationalize
dezincification in terms of preferential
Zn dissolution out of the brass lattice
structure. Rather, it is believed that brass
dissolves with Zn remaining in solution
and Cu plating out of the solution.
Graphitization of gray cast iron, whereby
a brittle graphite skeleton remains
following preferential iron dissolution is
a further example of selective leaching.
Stress Corrosion Cracking fracture the material in the absence of
(SCC) the corrosive environment. As cracking
penetrates further into the material, it
Stresses that cause environmental eventually reduces the supporting cross
cracking arise from residual cold work, section of the material to the point of
welding, grinding, thermal treatment, or structural failure from overload. SCC
may be externally applied during service occurs in metals exposed to an
and, to be effective, must be tensile (as environment where, if the stress was not
opposed to compressive). present or was at much lower levels,
there would be no damage. If the
Stress definition or stress variables are: structure, subject to the same stresses,
 Maximum stress were in a different environment (non-
 Biaxial corrosive for that material), there would
 Minimum stress be no failure. Examples of SCC in the
 Constant load/constant strain nuclear industry are cracks in stainless
 Mean stress steel piping systems and stainless steel
 Plane stress/plane strain valve stems.
 Cyclic frequency
 Wave shape Corrosion by Microbial Action
 Strain rate
Corrosion of iron and steel in anaerobic
Stress origins are: - waterlogged conditions is usually caused
by sulfate reducing bacteria. These
 Intentional microbes reduce dissolved sulfates to
 Shearing, punching, cutting sulfides and consume hydrogen in the
process. The bacterial action is
 Residual
characterized by the fact that a) it occurs
 Welding
in the absence of air, and b) sulfides are
 Grinding
present in the corrosion product. The
 Produced by reacted products most important species from the point of
 Bending, crimping, riveting view of corrosion is Desulfovibrio
 Machining Desulfuricans. Consumption of hydrogen
 Quenching at the pipe surface acts to depolarize the
 Vibration steel at cathodic areas thereby
 Thermal cycling accelerating corrosion attack. The
 Thermal expansion significance of anaerobic bacteria is
 Bolting related to the degree of damage they can
 Rotation do in oxygen free conditions where pipe
 Pressure metal deterioration would not normally
 Dead load be anticipated.

The cracks form and propagate In practical terms increased amount of

approximately at right angles to the current are required to maintain cathodic
direction of the tensile stresses at stress protection in the presence of anaerobic
levels much lower than those required to bacteria. It has been suggested that
higher than normal protective potentials

20
should be used in areas where anaerobic Electrolytic Corrosion
bacteria are active and an additional
Electrolytic or electrochemical corrosion
100mV of protective potential has been
is the corrosion of metals which are
recommended.
either buried or submerged and are thus
exposed to corrosive aqueous medium
Until recently it had been necessary to
called the electrolyte. The soil
take samples with considerable
surrounding a buried pipeline is an
precautions and to grow cultures under
electrolyte. Seawater is another example
laboratory conditions.
of an electrolyte to which jetties, piers
and sea going vessels are exposed.
The test taken in these instances were
Prevention methods against electrolytic
within the scope of field operations and
corrosion include coatings and cathodic
although cultures again had to be grown
protection, which will be discussed in
they matured in a very much shorter time
detail later on.
due to new sampling techniques.

21
Chapter – 6
Fundamentals of Corrosion
Mechanism
Metals are normally found in nature in
one of their lowest energy states, usually
as oxides, sulfides, chlorides, etc. In
reducing and refining metals to produce
useful alloys (such as the carbon and low
alloy steels used in gas and oil
transmission pipelines), significant
amount of energy is consumed which is
stored in the reduced metallic structure.
Subsequent corrosion of steel pipelines
thus represents the natural tendency of
the iron in the pipe to return to a
preferred, lower energy state (usually as
an oxide, carbonate or sulfide).
Corrosion is caused by the formation of
a “cell” rightfully named as “corrosion
cell”. There are certain conditions, which
are essentials for a functional corrosion
cell. These conditions are:
 Presence of an anode (negative
electrode)
 Presence of a cathode (positive
electrode)
 Electrolyte surrounding both, the
anode and the cathode
 A metallic conductor connecting
both, the anode and the cathode
together.
Corrosion Cell
Probably one of the most common
galvanic or corrosion cell that we can
consider as an example is the simple
flashlight battery shown in Figure 6-1.
23
Figure 6-1
The metal, zinc, is used as the case of the
battery and is the anode. The carbon rod
in the center of the battery is the cathode.
And the space in between the two is
filled with an acid (or alkaline)
substance, which is the current
conducting material, the electrolyte.
Three of the four conditions of a
corrosion cell are present, so there is yet
no reaction. But when the battery is
connected to an external load (a bulb in
this case), the fourth condition is also
met and electric current is then caused to
flow from the zinc (anode) through the
electrolyte to the carbon rod (cathode).
This is a perfect example of a galvanic
cell.
The numerous other galvanic cells,
which cause corrosion on buried
pipelines, all work very much in the
similar manner as the simple battery cell
described above.
The actual mechanisms of the corrosion
process may be more complex but the
principles are the same.
Figure 6-2 is another typical illustration
of a corrosion cell composed of two The ferrous ions react with the
dissimilar metals. negatively charged hydroxyl ions which
ELECTRON FLOW are present in the electrolyte forming
POS. CURRENT FLOW
ferrous hydroxide [Fe (OH) 2] which is
ELECTROLYTE
the corrosion product called rust. The
- -
OH
OH
- OH
reaction can be represented as follows: -
H+ H+
H+
Fe(OH)2

OH
-
e-
e - POS. CURRENT
- FLOW
H2
H+
e-
e-
OH
- Fe++ + 2(OH) -  Fe (OH) 2
e- H+
H+ e- OH - H+
H+ OH
- H+ H2 e-
OH Fe(OH)2
- H+
e-
-
At the cathode surface, a corresponding
H+ OH
H+
OH

IRON H+ COPPER
H+
ANODE CATHODE
Figure 6-2
Copper electrode forms the cathode and
the Iron electrode forms the anode. The
potential difference between the two
electrodes acts as the driving voltage that
sets up the electrons in motion. The
electrons begin to flow from the negative
electrode to the positive electrode
through the wire connecting both
electrodes. The direction of the positive
(conventional) current flow is opposite
the direction of electron flow, that is,
from the positive terminal (cathode) to
the negative terminal in the metallic
circuit. Positive current flow in the
electrolyte is from the anode to the
cathode, that is, from the iron anode to
the copper cathode.
Corrosion Cell Reaction
The chemical reactions taking place are
the electrons migration from the Iron
(anode) to the copper (cathode) through
the connecting metallic path (wire)
leaving behind positively charged
ferrous ions. The Iron has undergone
oxidation reaction as follows: -
Fe  Fe++ + 2e
(Iron  Iron ion + 2e)
reaction goes on by which the surplus of
arriving electrons combine with the
hydrogen ions of the electrolyte and
form hydrogen gas molecules. The
hydrogen is said to have undergone the
chemical process called “reduction” as
per the following reaction:
2e + 2H+  H2 (gas molecule)
The combined reaction of the cell is the
Oxidation-Reduction; oxidation taking
place at the anode surface resulting in
the dissolution of iron or corrosion of
Iron and reduction taking place at the
cathode surface which results in the
formation of hydrogen gas, some of
which may escape to the atmosphere but
most of it clings to the surface of the
copper cathode as thin film. As the
hydrogen film buildup progresses, the
cell current begins to drop partly on
account of the decreased area of copper
cathode in contact with the electrolyte,
and partly because the hydrogen tends to
produce a voltage which is in the
opposite direction.
This phenomenon is generally referred
to, as “polarization” which in fact is the
cathodic polarization. Anodic
polarization, although not as
pronounced, takes place simultaneously
at the surface of anode due to increase in

24
concentration of the metal (Fe) ions. The
combined result is decrease in the
current flow as the potential difference
between the anode and the cathode
decreases.
The changes taking place at the anode
and the cathode surfaces can be
summarized as follows:
At the Anode Surface:
Metal  Metal Ion + 2e
Metal Ion + Hydroxyl Ion  Metal
hydroxide
At the Cathode Surface:
Electrons + Hydrogen Ions  Hydrogen
atom
Hydrogen atoms  Hydrogen Gas
Various Types of Corrosion
Cells
The cell described in the above example
was a Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell,
which represents the generalized
concepts of corrosion cell. The driving
potential or the cell voltage in this
particular case is the result of the
difference in the half-cell (electrode)
potentials of each of the metals
comprising the cell.
The cell driving voltage can be
developed by various other means. Some
of these are listed below.
 Surface Irregularities such as
scratch in mill scale or permeable
paint.
 Portion of the metal partly in
poorly aerated soil and partly in
well-aerated soil.
25
 Same metal in two different
concentrations of the same
electrolyte
 Same metal in two chemically
different electrolytes.
 Same metal in same electrolyte at
different temperatures.
 Same metal with section(s) under
stress
Some demonstrations of the corrosion
cell formation of similar metals under
different circumstances are shown in the
following examples.
Differential Aeration Cell
Perhaps the most common concentration
cell affecting engineered structures is
that of oxygen diffusion. When oxygen
has access to a certain area of a metal
surface, it causes that area to become
cathodic with respect to its adjacent
areas and thus corrosion is promoted.
Sections of a metal that are covered by
dirt or scale will often corrode faster,
since the flow of oxygen to these
sections is restricted. An increased
corrosion rate will lead to increased
residue, further restricting the oxygen
flow to worsen the situation. Pitting
often results from this "runaway"
reaction.
The “corrosion cell” illustrated in Figure
4-3 is “differential aeration” cell also
known as the oxygen concentration cell.
In this example, the material of both the
cathode and the anode is the same metal
immersed in two different compartments
of the cell. Porous membrane separates
both compartments, yet provides
communication between the two concentrated electrolyte causing the
electrolytes. deterioration of anode, which in turn
increases the concentration of ferrous
The compartment on the left side is open ions in the right compartment. If the
to atmosphere and the oxygen is easily process continues the cell will cease to
diffused creating comparatively high function as the equilibrium in
concentration while the compartment on concentration between the two
the right side is covered on the top and compartments is reached.
isolated from the atmosphere resulting in DILUTE
HIGH CONCENTRATION
ELECTROLYTE
oxygen starvation thus creating potential ELECTROLYTE

difference between the two iron + -

IRON (ANODIC)
electrodes.

IRON (CATHODIC)
HIGH OXYGEN OXYGEN
CONCENTRATION STARVATION
+ -
IRON (CATHODIC)

IRON (ANODIC)

Porous
membrain

Figure 6-4
Potential Due to Mechanical
Forces
Porous
membrain It has been known for many years that
purely mechanical forces could produce
Figure 6-3 potential differences. An area of metal
under strain or stress is always positive
This particular differential aeration cell to the area of the same metal without
shows current flow through the such mechanical forces.
electrolyte from the oxygen-starved
electrode (anode) to the electrode, which This has been one of the great
is exposed to high oxygen concentration difficulties to overcome in the
(cathode). measurement of electrode potentials, for
the metals will not give reproducible
Electrolyte Concentration Cells results unless they are always under the
same condition of internal strain or
In basic principle, the dissimilar
external stress.
electrolyte cell shown in Figure 6-4 has
similarities with the differential aeration
Two electrodes in a solution will show a
cell as illustrated in Figure 6-3.
minute potential difference when one
electrode is placed above the other, due
In the corrosion cell shown in Figure 6-
to gravity of solution or soil stress. The
4, the electrolyte is ferrous chloride. The
lower electrode will experience
higher concentration of FeCl2 in the left
relatively higher stress than the electrode
compartment makes the metal cathodic
above it.
with respect to the other. The current
begins to flow from the dilute to the

26
As shown in Figure 6-5, two pipelines
are separated vertically. The one below
is under relatively higher stress than the
other pipeline. Similar stress cells can
also exist on a single pipeline running
through different degree of soil
compactions or varying depths from
place to place.
TEST STATION
GRADE LEVEL
LOW STRESS
+ As shown in Figure 6-6, section of a
HIGH STRESS
- cathodic (more positive) with respect to
Figure 6-5
Dissimilar Electrolyte cell
Consider a metal immersed in an
electrolyte in such a way that the
chemical composition of the electrolyte
in contact with one part of the metal
surface differs from the composition of
the electrolyte contacting the other part
of the same metal surface. Although the
metal properties are identical at both
surfaces, a potential difference will be
created due to the difference in the
chemical composition of the electrolytes,
thus, creating a corrosion cell in which
one surface of the same metal will
become anodic to the other surface of the
metal and will undergo corrosion.
Corrosion Cells as Applied to Buried
Structures on any metallic object in
contact with electrolyte such as a storage
tank bottom, buried vessel, pipeline, well
casing etc., corrosion results due to
formation of a corrosion cell of one kind
or the other.
27
The underground corrosion of pipelines
and industrial plant equipment is mostly
the result of such “corrosion cell”
formation. On a given surface area of the
structure, the corrosion cells are
multitudinous and can shift locations
giving the appearance of general
corrosion rather than localized corrosion.
It would therefore, be worth its while to
look at how some of these cells could be
formed in the real world situations and
what their behavior would be.
steel pipe is encased in concrete. The
concrete encased section becomes
the adjacent sections.
GRADE FLOW OF CURRENT
PIPE IN CONCRETE
Figure 6-6
Potential difference between the encased
steel and the adjacent areas of steel is
created and corrosion cell forms.
Current begins to flow from the more
negative areas out side the concrete
encasement through the soil to the
concrete encased pipe section.
A new replacement section of a pipe
(Figure 6-7) connected to an old piping
network will become anodic with respect
to the old pipe.
 GRADE
FLOW OF CURRENT
OLD PIPE OLD PIPE
NEW PIPE
Figure 6-7
Thus a corrosion cell will form in which
the new section of the pipe will begin to
corrode much rapidly than the old pipe.
This will continue until such time the
anodic potential of the new pipe
approaches the cathodic potential of the
old pipe.
Another example is the mill scale on hot
rolled steel, which becomes cathodic
with respect to the rest of the steel pipe
thus forming a corrosion cell.
Dissimilar metal corrosion cell can form
as illustrated in Figure-6-8.
Bare copper electrical grounding system
of a storage tank farm for example,
becomes cathodic to tank bottom plates
and soil sides of these plates begin to
corrode by the copper steel galvanic cell
thus formed. Figure 6-8 illustrates the
corrosion cell action on a tank bottom.
STORAGE
TANK
STEEL CATHODE
GRADE
ARROWS INDICATE
DIRECTION OF
CURRENT FLOW
COPPER CATHODE
Figure 6-8
Numerous other corrosion cells,
although not as sever as the copper/steel
28
couple, can form because of non-
homogenous steel surface or due to soil
variations from place to place
underneath a tank bottom. These cells
will then keep shifting locations and
uniform corrosion of the tank bottom
will result. The corrosion of the tank
bottom in the presence of copper
grounding would indeed be much more
severe and may over-shadow the effect
of other corrosion cells.
When a pipeline is excavated and re-
backfilled, the soil compaction is
relatively less dense than the compaction
of soil in the adjacent areas. This permits
oxygen diffusion through the backfilled
section. This results in an oxygen
concentration as illustrated in Figure 6-9.
PSP
- 0.6 - 0.6
GRADE
- 0.4
LOOSE SOIL COMPACT SOIL
COMPACT SOIL
PIPE
ANODE CATHODE ANODE
Figure 6-9
The section in the middle represents an
area loosely backfilled while the
adjacent areas on either side are
undisturbed and compact. The higher
oxygen diffusion in the middle section
causes this section to become cathodic
(more positive) with respect to the
adjacent sections. A potential difference
is created and the current begins to flow
from the negative anodic areas in to the
soil and from the soil to the positive
cathodic areas. The return path for the
current flow is provided by the pipeline
itself, which acts as the metallic path
connecting the anodic and cathodic
areas.
Another corrosion cell formation on a
pipeline results when the pipeline passes
through soil of differing chemical
compositions. Figure 6-10 demonstrates
the mechanism of a dissimilar electrolyte
cell.
PSP
-0.4 - 0.6
GRADE
SOIL TYPE "A"
SOIL TYPE "B"
PIPE
CATHODE ANODE
Figure 6-10
Because of the different soil chemical
compositions or different electrical
resistivity through which the pipeline
traverses, the section of the pipeline in
soil type “A” has a different half-cell
potential than the section of the same
line passing through soil type “B”. This
results in an overall potential difference
between the two sections of the pipeline
with one behaving as anode and the
other as cathode.
The circuits for the current flow are
setup in much the same manner as
described for the differential aeration
cell causing corrosion of the pipeline at
the anodic area.
Mill Scale
Mill scale on pipe, if not properly
removed prior to wrapping, makes the
29
affected section of the pipe cathodic with
respect to the adjacent areas. Thus a
corrosion cell is created because of the
potential difference.
Shielded Corrosion
Shielded corrosion refers to that type of
corrosion, which occurs on a metallic
structure, which is seemingly under
adequate cathodic protection. Cathodic
protection current path to certain areas of
the metal structure is obstructed either by
a metallic object or a dielectric object
such as the disbonded pipeline coating
itself. To better understand this
phenomenon let us consider an
analogous light and shadow condition.
Visualize a room, which is illuminated
by a fluorescent lamp. When an object is
placed near the lamp both the object and
the wall behind the object remain
illuminated. Now if the object is moved
closer and closer to the wall a shadow on
the wall will begin to appear which will
become more and denser as the object
approaches the wall. It can be stated that
the wall is shielded from light when the
object is very close to it. Similarly, the
cathodic protection current discharged
by a remote ground bed can reach the
surfaces of several pipelines running in
parallel provided sufficient distance
(spacing) between lines exists. If these
lines are spaced very close together, as is
the case in some plant piping, mutual
shading effect (shielding) will result.
This will prevent current reaching some
areas of the buried pipelines.
A typical example of such shielding
effect is shown in Figure 6-11 (below).
. would be shielded from the cathodic
EA
AR
ED
LD
IE
SH
RE
BA
NE
LI
PE
PI
NT
R RE
CU
Figure 6-11
As shown in the above diagram, both,
the pipeline and the bare copper
grounding wire are running parallel. In
the shielded area enclosed inside the
ellipse, the copper wire is situated very
close to the pipeline. Hence, the copper
wire picks up current flowing towards
the pipeline and none reaches the
pipeline surface. In the adjacent areas,
the copper wire is sufficiently separated
from the pipe and the protection current
reaches, both, the pipeline and the
copper grounding system.
Similarly, if a pipeline is located in the
middle of two other lines and
particularly when the separation between
lines is negligible, or a small diameter
pipeline is in the middle of two big
diameter lines, shielding can occur on
the middle line.
The above described shielding is by
metallic object. Non-metallic object can
also cause shielding, which differs from
the earlier described as the “shading
effect”. The perfect example is the
pipeline coating, which has disbonded.
Such a coating can permit moisture
penetration through voids or holidays in
the coatings and become a conducting
electrolytic path between macro
corrosion cells under the coating, which
E
protection current because of the high
IR
W dielectric strength of the coating
G
IN
ND
OU material.
GR
R
PE
P
CO
Terminology of current flow
W
O
FL
The electric current flow is generally
understood to be the flow of electrons in
the circuit from the negative potential
terminal to the positive potential
terminal. This is true when speak of
electronic current flow (movement of
electrons). Electric current by definition
is any movement of electric charges. A
voltage difference between two terminals
of a power source causes a flow of
negatively charged electrons in the wire,
which is an electric current (electronic
current). But in other materials, electrons
may or may not carry the current. Any
positive or negative charged particles
could do the job. In the explanation of
the function of corrosion cell in previous
example illustrated in Figure 6-2, it was
shown that the electrons begin to migrate
from the negative electrode, which is
called the “anode” and the movement of
these electrons is towards the positive
electrode through the metallic path,
which is called the cathode. Now, if we
were to complete the circuit, it would be
logical to assume that the current return
path is from the cathode to the anode.
Although the above is true when we
speak of electronic current flow, the
actual flow through the electrolyte;
already discussed in the previous section,
is by migration of positive ions (electric
charges) from the anode towards the
cathode.
This is in reverse of the direction of
current shown in Figure 6-12.
30
 ELECTRON FLOW ions under standard laboratory
conditions against a standard reference
POWER SOURCE
electrode. These potentials are also
referred to as the half-cell potentials or
the corrosion potentials of the metals,
Table 6-1 lists some of the most
CURRENT FLOW common metals arranged in the order of
(NEGATIVE IONS) their corrosion potentials.
ANODE
CATHODE

Figure 6-12 Some of the most common metals and

their electrode potentials were shown in
Table 2-2 (Chapter-2). The EMF
Since it is the reactions taking place in
(electromotive force) series listed in
the electrolyte that are of concern to a
Table 6-1 is more practical from a
corrosion engineer and also because the
corrosion engineer’s standpoint. This is
positive charges are carried by the
because all values listed are with
positive ions it can be said that the
reference to a copper/copper sulfate half-
direction of positive current flow is
cell, which is a standard reference
from the anode to cathode in the
electrode, used in fieldwork. The metals
electrolyte and, hypothetically again,
at the top of the list are more reactive
from cathode to anode in the external
than the metals below them. If any two
circuit.
metals shown in the list are connected
together and placed in a conductive
When we speak of the current flow
medium such as soil or water
under the galvanic action, it will always
(electrolyte), the metal that is more
be from the negative terminal (electrode)
reactive will behave as an anode and
to the positive terminal (cathode) in the
begin to corrode.
electrolyte. Reverse is true in the case of
impressed current system and that is, that
the current will flow from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal in the Table 6-1
Electromotive Force Series of Metals
electrolyte. Confusing? Yes, it may be to In Neutral Soil Reference to Copper/Copper
some extent. But if it is remembered that Sulfate Electrode
the conventional or the positive current Metal Volts
direction is always from the anode to Magnesium; Pure -1.75
cathode, the confusion can be cleared. Magnesium Alloy -1.60
(6%Al,3%Zn)
Why? Because in the galvanic system Zinc -1.10
the anode is negative while in the Aluminum Alloy (5% -1.05
impressed current system the anode is Zinc)
positive. Pure Aluminum -0.80
Mild Steel (shiny) -0.5 to -0.8
Natural Electrode Potential Mild Steel (rusted) -0.2 to –0.5
Cast Iron -0.50
Natural electrode potential of an element Lead -0.50
is a relative value, which is assigned to it Mild Steel in Concrete -0.20
by comparing the potential of the pure Copper, High Silicon -0.20
metal in a standard solution of its own Cast Iron

31
 Carbon +0.30
The corrosion or the metal loss of the
anodic electrode will be dependent on
the difference in potential of the two
metals, the conductivity of the
electrolyte and the value of the total
current passage.
The higher the potential difference the
greater will be the anodic corrosion loss
in any given medium provided of course
rapid polarization of anode or cathode
does not alter the reaction rate as will be
discussed later on under the “Area
Effect”.
Corrosion Cell Current
Consider that a corrosion cell is formed
where copper is the positive electrode
and iron is the negative electrode. Both
of these electrodes are immersed in
electrolyte and externally connected
together with an insulated copper wire.
From Table-4-1, the potential difference
of the two metals comprising the
corrosion cell (Copper and Iron) is
(-0.2) - (-0.50) = 0.30 volts.
Assuming that each electrode to
electrolyte resistance is 0.25 ohms and
the resistance through the electrolyte
path and the metal path completing the
circuit is disregarded then the total
circuit resistance of the cell is equal to
0.5 ohms. The corrosion current flowing
under the above condition can be
computed by using the basic Ohm’s Law
which is”
I = E/R =0.3/0.5 =0.6A.
Weight of Metal Loss
As previously discussed in Chapter-2,
the loss of metal is directly related to the
current flowing in amperes. From Table
32
2-1 (Chapter-2) the metal consumption
rate in pounds per ampere/year is 20 lbs.,
for iron. Therefore the Iron electrode
will loose 12 lbs per year with a current
discharge of 0.6 amperes (20 x .6 = 12).
Area Effects
The area effect of the current flow on
polarization is not only related to the
total amount of current flow but also to
the current density, which is current flow
per unit area. One can easily visualize
the effect produced by any given amount
of current on a small area of the metal
surface as compared to the same amount
of current on a much greater surface.
This area effect in terms of current
density can be illustrated in a practical
illustration by combinations of steel and
copper as either plates or the fastenings
used to join them and immersed in a
corrosive solution. If steel rivets are used
to join copper plates (Figure 6-13a), the
current density on the relatively large
cathodic copper plates will be low.
COPPER PLATE
STEEL RIVET
Figure 6-13a
Therefore, cathodic polarization of the
copper will be slight and the voltage of
the galvanic couple will maintain a value
close to their open circuit potential. At
the same time the current density on the
small anodic steel rivets will be very
high and the consequent corrosion will
also be very high.
With arrangement reversed that is copper
rivets joining steel plates (Figure 6-13b),
the current density on the copper cathode Figure 6-13b
will be much higher with The current density on the anodic surface
corresponding high cathodic will be very low since the current is
polarization of the copper reducing the spread over a relatively large anodic
open circuit potential below its initial area.
value. Therefore, the undesirable galvanic
STL.PLATE
effect will hardly be noticeable.

COPPER
RIVET

33
Chapter – 7
Coatings
The major cost component of a buried
pipeline installation is the cost of
coating, which is applied to provide a
barrier between the metal and the
surrounding environment. The degree of
effectiveness of this barrier depends not
only on the material used but also on the
surface pretreatment by chemical or
mechanical means, method of
application and the final inspection of
the finished job.
It is well recognized that a poor coating
material may, with excellent
pretreatment and application method
with strict inspection, perform better
than a superior coating material if it is
not properly applied. The need for
proper surface pretreatment by chemical
or mechanical means cannot be
overemphasized to assure adhesion of
coating to the surface of steel.
Some poor coating jobs can be traced to
the lack of knowledge of the proper type
of coating to be used, poor control of
coating temperature, poor pipe cleaning
operation, applying the coating over
dead or incompatible primer, improper
application of tape or wrong tension,
careless handling of the coated pipe after
being coated or during lowering in and
backfilling operation.
Wide variation of coating systems is
available to choose from. These include
bituminous, waxes and greases, plastic
tapes, laminated tapes, coal tar tapes,
extruded plastics, and thin film fusion
bonded epoxies.
34
It is generally conceded that corrosion of
underground pipe would not exist if
moisture were prevented from contacting
the metal. If the coating waterproofs the
pipe completely then there would be no
contact of the metal surface to its
environment and hence virtually no
corrosion will occur.
When pipe is installed in the earth and
covered with backfill, it is subjected to
mechanical forces generated by its
contact with the bottom of the ditch due
to expansion and contraction of the soil,
as it passes through wet and dry stages.
The metal possesses sufficient strength
to resist such mechanical stresses under
ordinary conditions. The coating
materials do not have this strength so the
soil will act upon them causing coating
damage.
A good bond cannot be assured if the
coating is applied over a primer that has
been applied over mill oil or lacquer. In
fact, during warm weather it is
sometimes possible to roll the coating
off the pipe when it has been applied
over the mill oil.
Primers will gradually lose their volatile
liquids after they have been applied to a
metal surface for a period of time
because of evaporation. The primer is
said to be dead when this occurs and if
enamel is applied over a dead primer it
will not bond. The period of time after
application before the primer becomes
dead depends upon the heat and
humidity of the air.
The best test for a dead primer is to see
if it will flake off when the fingernail is
scraped over it. When this occurs the
cleaning machine is run over the pipe
and it is again primed.
Moisture
Most, if not all, primers contain a small
amount of moisture. When the
percentage exceeds 1 to 2 percent it will
cause a considerable number of holidays.
This condition will continue as long as
the primer is used. The faults look like
craters with the bare metal exposed at
the bottom. The pits are most frequent
on the top and side of the pipe close to
the top where the enamel is at its highest
temperature. The remedy is to secure
new primer.
Coke
When a coating machine is made ready
for use it is customary to heat all the
parts with a high temperature torch.
During this operation the material from
the last operation may change to coke.
This will flow with the coating when the
machine is put into operation. Particles
of coke will cause the coating to fail. If it
does not clear in a short time, check the
kettles to make sure the coating has not
formed into coke. Never depend upon
the thermometers in the coating kettle.
Check with a portable thermometer.
Mechanical Faults
When the coating machine is put into
operation some parts of it may rub the
pipe causing the enamel to be either too
thin or be removed. Watching the
machine can check this. In flood coating
types the Iron is often found to rub. This
is apparent when the faults occur on
either up or down grades.
36
Faults Covered by Wrappers
Asbestos felts as used for pipeline
wrappers will absorb a certain amount of
moisture. If the moisture content
becomes too high, it will cause steam to
form when hot enamel comes into
contact with it. When the steam is
trapped under the wrapper it will cause a
blister, which will blow the enamel from
the pipe surface. At times this can be
observed by wisps of steam given off the
wrapper surface. The remedy for this is
preventive. Keep the felt in a good
storage room with a good roof and keep
the felt from contacting the dirt or
cement floor. If it becomes too bad the
felt will have to be discarded.
If the material used to saturate the felt
contains too much naphthalene, the
naphthalene will tend to form on the
surface of the felt in the form of white
crystals. The naphthalene crystals will
evaporate when the heated enamels
contact them and form a gas that may
affect the enamel in a manner similar to
steam. It may also cause a sufficient loss
of solvents to cause the saturating
material to become brittle causing the
felt to break readily when being used.
Mill Coated Pipe
When hot enamels or waxes are applied
at the coating mill the conditions under
which they are applied are much more
favorable than over the ditch or yard
applications. Moisture and dust on the
pipe to be coated is seldom if ever
encountered. Asbestos felt wrappers
used over the coating are stored under
conditions that preclude an excess of
moisture being absorbed. Even though
these conditions do not exist, faults in
the coating will occur making it
necessary for the applicators to test the
coating with high voltage electricity to
expose the faults. Because the paper is
used as a packaging material for the pipe
it is customary to use a higher test
voltage than would be used for an over
the ditch coating. This is because the
dielectric of the paper is added to that of
the enamel and the felt.
Most difficulties encountered with mill-
coated pipe occur during the unloading,
stringing and bending operations.
Protection of the pipe and the welds
often presents a considerable problem.
Heat shrink sleeves or hot enamel types
are used for joint protection.
Plastic Tapes (Pressure-
Sensitive)
Base materials for the plastics used in
the tape are natural products processed
through chemical plants. The virgin
plastic materials are calendared into a
film and during the process a pressure
sensitive adhesive is applied to one side
of the film.
Pressure Sensitive Tapes
Sensitive plastic tapes for wrapping
underground pipe fall into two general
categories. In the first, the backing is
classified as a primary functional
protective wrap and the adhesive
selected serves merely as a means of
applying this functional wrap to the pipe.
The second approach is to use the
adhesive mass as a primary protective
coating and to consider the backing
merely as a carrier or protective shield.
Various thickness of backing and
adhesive and selection of their
composition all relate in either case to
37
the approach used. There can be
combinations of two approaches.
Film Thickness (PVC)
Two basic films are used in the
manufacture of Polyolefin and PVC
pressure sensitive tapes. These tapes are
furnished in a variety of thicknesses,
which range from 10 mils to 20 mils.
The backing thickness to adhesive
thickness ranges from 8 & 2 and 15 & 5
mils.
Additional thickness of the adhesive film
is important and desirable where the
surface to which the tape is being
applied is rough. The extra thickness
permits the adhesive to extend to the
bottom of the rough area, thus securing
stronger bond.
When a plastic tape with a pressure
sensitive adhesive is applied to pipe, the
metal surface should be free of rust, dirt,
dust, and mill scale. Also, it is good
practice to apply a primer to the metal
surface just prior to tape application.
For protection against abrasion and
additional wrapper can be applied over
the plastic tape. Tar or asphalt saturated
asbestos felt wrappers may be used for
this purpose.
Laminated Tapes with Primers
There are several laminated tapes on the
market. The two main categories are
those having polyolefin backings and
those having polyvinyl chloride backing.
The butyl adhesive masses used in these
tapes require a primer to affect an
immediate bond to the pipe. Primers
usually are polymeric systems carried in
the solvent systems of mixed aliphatic
hydrocarbon distillates. The primers
recommended for each tape are
specifically designed for the tape
selected for use, and should be applied
according to individual tape
manufacturer’s specifications.
Tape Thickness
Standard thicknesses available are as
follows: -
 8 mils vinyl—7 mils butyl
 8 mils vinyl—12 mils butyl
 10 mils vinyl—15 mils butyl
 10 mils polyolefin—5 mils butyl
 12 mils polyolefin—6 mils butyl
 12 mils polyolefin—8 mils butyl
 16 mils polyolefin—10 mils
butyl
Various types of polyolefin and
polyvinyl chloride outer wrap are
available in thickness ranging from 13
mils to 40 mils. The 40 mils is specially
designed as a rock shield protection.
Coal Tar Tapes
Coal tar tapes have been in use as
protective coating for over half a
century.
Both hot-applied and cold-applied tapes
are available. Hot applied tapes require
use of torch to heat the underside of the
coating immediately prior to wrapping.
Cold-applied tapes are wrapped directly
over primed surfaces. The coal tar tapes
generally consist of a layer-specified
thickness of coal tar pitch applied to a
coal tar saturated fabric, plus a
somewhat thinner coal tar coating on
top, with a separator (paper or plastic
film) on top of the outer layer.
Refinements in the coating are included
for a wider range of applications and use
of a special plastic film that serves as
38
both separator and outer wrap for
protection against abrasion.
Extruded Plastic Coatings
Relatively the newest application of
plastic materials to pipe protection is the
extruded polyethylene coating, applied at
the mill. The coatings are a special high
molecular weight polyethylene extruded
over a rubber-based adhesive compound
that holds the coating to the pipe. The
coating is cut back at the ends to permit
welding and joints are either wrapped
with pressure sensitive tapes or heat
shrink sleeves.
Thin Film Coatings
Another relatively new in protective pipe
coatings is the thin film coating.
Essentially, these are thermosetting
materials, in powder for liquid form, that
are sprayed on heated pipe to form a thin
coating of 6 to 10 mils thickness.
Application of such coatings, of
necessity, is performed in a coating
plant.
Materials in use include epoxy resins,
epoxy-silicon combinations, polyester
resins, butadiene-styrene copolymer
resins, and vinyl resins.
The epoxy resins and combinations
based on epoxy resins, as well as the
polyester resins, are powdered materials
with complex catalysts and pigments.
These are applied to pipe that is
preheated to temperatures up to 500 F.
The vinyl resin, which does not require a
catalyst, is applied in the same fashion.
Use of electrostatic deposition methods
permits application of the powders in a
fashion that insures continuity of the
coating and desired thickness. In this
system, the heated pipe is grounded
while the powder has a positive charge
and is attracted to the pipe in a uniform
manner. Precise heating of the pipe to
the exact temperature that is required for
each type of material is also necessary.
After the film is formed on the pipe, the
coating is” quenched” by spraying cool
water on the pipe. Final step is to inspect
the coating using an electrical holiday
detector.
All of the materials cure to a strong, hard
bond that does not flow under pressure.
The materials have high impact strength
and high abrasion resistance.
For coating field joints, and for applying
such coating to fittings, valves, etc., a
flame-spray unit is used that heats the
surface of the object to be coated and
sprays the powder (or liquid) on to the
surface. The resultant coating is
compatible with the mill or yard-applied
coating.
Another method of making field joints
and coating fittings, tees, valve, etc., is
to use a two part epoxy resins that is
brushed on to heated surface (about 350
to 450F). Heat shrink sleeves are also
gaining wide spread acceptance.
Reinforcing Materials
Materials used to reinforce hot applied
coatings by becoming an integral part of
the coating or a wrapper that is bonded
to the enamel so that a greater resistance
to sag and penetration is secured. In the
later case they also act as a shield against
backfill.
Asbestos Wrappers
The general form for wrappers of this
type is asbestos felt. The material
ordinarily is a mixture of 85% asbestos
39
fibers and 15% organic material before
saturation with either asphalt or coal tar
enamel. Fibers may be either of the short
or long fiber type.
The wrapper is applied directly over the
hot enamel as it is flooded or sprayed on
the pipe. In this manner it becomes
tightly bonded to the enamel. Tension of
the wrapper should be so adjusted that it
does not pull through the hot enamel and
come in contact with the metal surface.
Cutting out a section of the coating at the
lap in the wrapper and making a physical
examination can accurately check this. It
is often indicated by the size at the bead
formed at the lap in the wrapper.
If the bead is of considerable size, the
felt has been pulled in too tight
squeezing the enamel out at the lap.
Excessive tearing of the felt during the
application will indicate too much
tension or it may be caused by
evaporation of the volatile liquids out of
the cutback used to saturate felt.
Ordinarily a 15-lb felt wrapper,
approximately 28 mils in thickness, is
used as an outer-wrap with hot enamels.
Thinner felt wrapper of 8-lb weight also
is available. This wrapper is generally
reinforced with wrapper to prevent
tearing. Care should be taken to make
sure that the wrapper used is compatible
with the enamel being applied.
Glass Outer-wrap
Glass outer wrap is a thick film of glass
fibers held together with a binder. The
wrap may or may not be furnished
saturated with a tar or asphalt cutback.
Paper Outer-wrap
When pipe is coated at a coating mill a
paper outer-wrap is applied over the felt
wrapper to protect it during shipment
and handling. On some over-the-ditch
jobs it has also been used. In this case it
is probably used to resist the damage
caused by backfill. Paper has relatively
short life when it is installed
underground because of rot and bacteria
action. Paper should not be applied over
and bonded to the enamel.
Glass Inner Wrap
Glass in the form of single filaments laid
down in random form and bonded
together with a tough, flexible binder is
formed into a wrapper that is used with
hot enamel applications. Sufficient
tension is applied to this wrapper to pull
it into the enamel but not through the
enamel to the metal surface. Purpose of
the web-like formation of glass fibers is
to reinforce the enamel to make it more
resistant to physical damage by soil
stress or penetration, and to prevent sag.
Care should be exercised to make sure
that the glass filaments are completely
saturated with hot enamel. Unless this is
accomplished, it is possible for capillary
action to draw water into the enamel
where the glass is exposed.
Rock shield
Rock shield is used to prevent damage to
coated and wrapped pipe where a
considerable amount of rock is
encountered in the backfill or where the
pipe may be handled roughly because of
the terrain. In one form of manufacture,
the standard padding consists of mineral
filled mastic or asphalt saturated organic
felt bound with mineral filled mastic or
asphalt. Because of its thickness, it
cannot be wrapped around the pipe, but
is installed in the form of sheets fastened
around the pipe with steel strapping or
by use of glass filament tape with an
adhesive.
40
Coating Disbondment
For protection of pipelines, coatings and
cathodic protection work synergistically.
Current required to protect a bare
pipeline can be 20,000 times more than
that needed to protect a pipeline with
superb coating. Coating alone cannot
protect the pipeline. On the contrary,
with increasing quality of coating, time
to failure can becomes short. This is
because of the fact that no coating is
completely free of holidays and
therefore, corrosion cell action will be
concentrated on a much smaller surface
areas of coating faults. The effectiveness
of a good quality coating is its resistance
to disbondment around holidays. An
intact coating that is well bonded to the
pipeline surface will resist all forms of
corrosion regardless of the coating
quality. However, all coatings
experience some degree of disbondment
and, therefore, the behavior of a
disbonded coating is important in the
overall performance of a coating system.
The major cause of coating disbondment
is overprotection. A polarized potential
of 1.2 volts (IR free negative vs. CSE) is
considered by many as the safe limit for
cathodic protection if disbondment is to
be prevented.
The polarization potential can be
measured by momentarily interrupting
the current source and immediately
measuring the pipeline potential with
respect to CSE directly over the line. If
on steel pipelines, this potential is less
negative than –1.2V, the danger of
coating damage is slight. If the current
off (polarization) potential is at or more
negative than this value, free hydrogen
may be produced, and possible coating
damage should be expected.
41
Chapter – 8
Cathodic Protection
History
Sir Humphrey Davy is known as the
inventor of cathodic protection. In the
1920s, he was engaged by the royal navy
to investigate the corrosion of copper
cladding on the wooden ship hulls of the
naval vessels. He found that by attaching
zinc plates he was able to protect copper.
He named this method “Cathodic
Protection” which later became known
as galvanic protection. In the early days
almost all of the cathodic protection
work was related to sacrificial anode
systems.
Thomas Edison used impressed current
cathodic protection by applying current
to ship hulls in the 1890’s. He was
unsuccessful in finding suitable DC
power sources and anode materials. The
commercial use of impressed current
systems began in the early 1920’s.
In 1937 a French engineer (Sorel)
patented a method of coating steel by
dipping it in molten zinc. He named this
process “Galvanizing”.
Extensive use of cathodic protection
began in the United States by 1945.
Galvanic system in Pakistan had become
known earlier but Sui Southern Gas
Transmission Company introduced the
first use of impressed current cathodic
protection in 1955.
Although we have come a long way from
the days of Sir Humphrey Davy, the
science of cathodic protection is still not
39
fully understood and is in its infancy
stage. That may very well be the reason
for it to be classified as “more of an art
than science”.
Basics of Cathodic Protection
As a matter of fact, the basics of
cathodic protection are very simple. It is
as simple as the operation of a common
flashlight cell explained in Chapter-4. In
much the same manner, when we install
bare copper grounding system in a plant
facility where other steel structures also
exists we are unknowingly creating a
cathodic protection system. By virtue of
the steel structures in electrical contact
with the copper grounding system, a
capable working cathodic protection
system has been created. Here, one metal
(steel) is providing cathodic protection to
another metal (copper). Such a cathodic
protection system, however, is
undesirable because the copper is
protected at the expense of steel
equipment that is essential for the
existence of the plant. Suppose that zinc
metal is now substituted for the electrical
grounding system. Here, we now have an
efficient working cathodic protection
system and our plant equipment is also
protected. The basic concept of cathodic
protection, therefore, is applying
techniques by which the metal intended
for protection is made “cathode” in the
corrosion cell system.
Thus, the cathodic protection is very
much similar to the corrosion cell itself.
One metal is protected at the expense of
the other metal (or alloy). In other words,
it is fair to state that cathodic protection
technique does not in reality stops
corrosion. It only shifts corrosion from
one metal to the other.
A trained corrosion engineer possesses
the proper understanding and knowledge
of the basic principles of cathodic
protection and with proper application of
the basic concepts he can effectively use
cathodic protection to control corrosion
of the pipelines and plant equipment.
Basic Theory
In Chapter-6, various corrosion cell
actions were described. From the study
of these cell actions and applying them
to the field conditions, it becomes
obvious that the causes leading to
corrosion of buried steel are mainly due
to the formation of anodic and cathodic
areas on the surface of the steel. The
anodic areas discharge current into the
soil and cathodic areas pickup this
current from the soil.
Corrosion results at surfaces discharging
current into the soil. If sufficient current
is impressed on the entire surface of the
steel it can be seen that the net current
flow becomes unidirectional i.e., from an
external ground bed through the
surrounding soil to the surfaces of the
steel. This is the principle basis of
cathodic protection.
Polarization
In any given corrosion cell as soon as the
current begins to flow it manifests itself
by shift in potential of either the cathode
or the anode or both from their natural
potential state (Figure 8-1). This shift in
potentials is called “polarization”. The
potential of cathode shifts in the
direction of the open circuit potential of
42
the anode. Similarly, the potential shift
of anode is in the direction of the open
circuit potential of the cathode. This is
illustrated in the diagram 6-1. When the
anode is connected to the cathode by a
metallic conductor the cathodic potential
“EC” and the potential of anode “EA”
begins to approach each other until the
theoretical net difference of potential
between the two equals zero as shown at
point “O”.
Ec
E(CORR) O
Ea M
I(CORR) I (APPLIED)
Diagram 8-1
The rate of polarization of the anode and
the cathode as depicted in the above
diagram is equal. This is true only when
the current densities on the surface of the
anode and the cathode are equal. If any
one of the two electrodes has a smaller
surface area than the other it can be seen
that for any given corrosion cell current,
the current density would be much
higher on the surface of the smaller
electrode, hence, the polarization of that
electrode will be much rapid than the
other.
The zero potential difference is only
theoretical. IR drop in the circuit causes
equilibrium to reach with a slight
potential difference remaining between
the two electrodes and a small amount of
current continues to flow in order to
maintain that equilibrium.
I (corr) on the X-axis designate the cell
corrosion current. I (applied) designate
the cathodic protection current. By
providing additional current from an
external source, all areas on the metal
surface can be placed under cathodic
protection as illustrated at point “M” in
the above diagram. At this stage, the
potential of entire surface of the cathode
has shifted to equal the open circuit
potential of anode.
Cathodic Protection Systems
There are two distinct methods by which
cathodic protection can be applied to
metallic structures. These are:
1. Sacrificial (galvanic) protection
system.
2. Impressed current system.
Sacrificial System
Sacrificial system is the most ideal
protection system. The principle
advantage of such a system, as compared
to the impressed current system, is that
the current is distributed much more
uniformly along a pipeline in small units.
The structure, even at the drain points, is
seldom overprotected. So there is hardly
any wasted current. Furthermore, it is
possible to distribute the current over the
entire structure evenly and most
effectively. Although it is true that
sacrificial system uses less current for
protection of a given pipeline it does not
necessarily mean that it is the cheapest
system. In fact a sacrificial system can
cost much more per mile of pipeline than
an impressed current system over a
period of time.
Sacrificial systems are not economical
when protection current demands are
43
high. Also, soil resistivities over 2000
ohm-cm often precludes its use except in
exceptional cases where the structure
coating is extremely good and the
current requirement is very small. In
such cases, anodes can be installed in
soil resistivities as high as 5000 ohm-cm
and provide adequate protection up to 10
kilometer of an average diameter line
such as 14” or 16”from a single drain
point.
Impressed current system
Impressed current systems are much
more versatile in comparison with
sacrificial systems. Soil resistivities and
driving voltages are not restrictive. The
cost per pipeline mile is less as
compared to a galvanic system over a
period of time. Impressed current ground
beds can be conveniently designed and
installed in soil resistivities as high as
10,000 ohm-cm. In areas of extremely
high surface soil resistivities the option
of a deep well anode is always available.
These types of systems are particularly
suited when the current demand is high
and the life expectancy of the system is
over ten years. Unlike sacrificial system,
the impressed current system can cause
harmful interference on foreign
underground metallic structures, which
may come close or cross the protected
structures.
Environment
Atmosphere
Atmospheric corrosion causes far more
failures on both the cost basis and
tonnage basis than any other type of
corrosion as a result of the environment
surrounding metallic structures. Huge
amount amounts of steel in buildings,
bridges, automobiles etc., are exposed to
the atmosphere and attacked by oxygen
and moisture. The severity of corrosion
is increased when salt, sulfur compounds
and other atmospheric contaminants are
present.
Atmospheric environments can be
classified as:
 Marine
 Rural
 Industrial
 Indoor
The major corrosive constituents of the
atmospheres are the humidity oxygen,
and the industrial gases. The highest
humidity is found in the coastal areas.
Wind in the marine atmosphere carries
salt particles, which settles on the
exposed surfaces of metal. The salt
contamination decreases with increasing
distance from the coastal areas.
Acid film formation on metallic
structures results from atmospheres
contaminated with sulfur compounds,
which usually is the case in industrial
areas when moisture is present. Other
pollutants such as chlorides are much
more severe than the acid sulfates
Moisture with some electrical
conductivity when present in air allows
corrosion of metallic structures and
alloys to occur even when pollution is
absent. The corrosion mechanism is
similar to metal immersed in large
quantity of electrolyte. Most atmospheric
corrosion is highly localized and
measurement of polarization
characteristics is not possible.
Some metals and alloys are very
effective in resisting atmospheric
44
corrosion by formation of impervious
thin oxide films, which stifles further
corrosion. Some examples are copper,
zinc, aluminum and stainless steel.
Natural Waters
Water is often called the universal
solvent because it has the power to
dissolve virtually all-inorganic
substances to some extent.
Most water handling problems in the oil
field arise from the fact that water is
such a superb solvent. Both produced
and surface waters contain considerable
quantities of impurities. In addition to
numerous dissolved compounds it
usually contains some suspended solids
and dissolved gases.
Metals being thermodynamically
unstable undergo corrosion when
immersed. Sometimes suspended and
colloidal matter alters the corrosion
mechanism by forming protective films
on the surface of metals. The
corrosiveness of the water is dependent
on whether or not the dissolved materials
assist in the maintenance of self-healing
film.
Iron and steel are the two most common
materials that are used in the water
systems. Protective coatings or
galvanizing is used for the corrosion
prevention. Coatings isolate the metal
surface from the surrounding water
while galvanizing is a layer of zinc,
which provides an anodic surface which
in turn self-sacrifices and prevents
corrosion of steel.
Various others alloys and metals such as
stainless steels, brasses, bronzes, lead
and copper are used. Before selecting
any one of these metals and alloys, the
constituents of water must be
considered.
Sea Water
Seawater contains almost all of the
natural elements and salts in the
dissolved state. It is the only electrolyte
containing high concentration of salts
that occur naturally.
Seawater has a very high electrical
conductivity. Ocean seawater is roughly
equivalent in strength to 3.5 per cent
solution of sodium chloride but it has
much more complex composition.
In terms of corrosiveness it is not more
severe than the fresh water. The initial
rate of corrosion of Iron for instance
could be quite high but due to marine
growth it becomes steady at about 5
mpy. It would be expected that
temperature variations would cause
major difference, but great deal of
experimental evidence suggest that this
is not so and that remarkably uniform
corrosion rates are found in temperate
and tropical waters.
Under the influence of cathodic
protection, calcareous deposits are
formed on the cathodic metal. The
reaction at the cathode produces
alkalinity, which precipitates calcium
carbonate from the seawater. This forms
a resistant film on the metal surface,
which can greatly reduce the current
requirement.
Soils
Soil, as a corrosive environment is by far
the most important of all mediums to
which the industrial equipment is
exposed. The corrosivity of soil and, to a
45
lesser extent, of water is most commonly
determined by electrical resistivity tests.
Often the critical factor is the change of
electrical resistivity. Knowledge of
electrical resistivity values throughout an
area under investigation is necessary for
the design of cathodic protection systems
and as an aid in locating ground beds as
providing information on current
distribution. Such tests are also
important when designing electrical
grounding systems. The most accurate
available method of predicting the
corrosivity is a combination of resistivity
test with knowledge of the texture,
aeration, and alkalinity or acidity of the
types of soil in the area.
The high conductivity (low resistivity)
soils provide an easy path for the flow of
current from the anodic areas to the
cathodic areas of structures and such
soils are therefore corrosive. Although
low resistivity areas are more corrosive
than high resistivity areas, the design of
ground beds for cathodic protection is
economically possible only in low
resistivity areas. Alkaline soils are
usually low in resistivity because of their
large content of soluble salts and low
resistivities coupled with an alkaline pH
are indicative of a high corrosive soil. In
such soil there is a direct relationship
between the resistivity and corrosivity.
At one time, medium and high resistivity
soils were considered as not particularly
corrosive but much corrosion has been
found in high resistivity soil areas.
Consequently, change in resistivity
between different soils in contact with
different parts of a structure is a much
more accurate indication of corrosivity
in medium and high resistivity soils than
an absolute resistivity value.

Soils are classified as to their texture.
Soils made up of fine particle size are
classed as sands while medium range of
particle size are known as silt and coarse
particle size are commonly accepted as
clays. The particle size alone does not
determine the relative corrosiveness. Soil
constituents such as various organic
matter, moisture, gases and living
organisms as well as mineral particles
alter the chemical nature of any given
soil. Moisture holding capacity of clay
type soils is much greater than the sandy
soils.
The soil moisture acts as a solvent for
soil salts and results in the salt solution
of varying degree of concentrations. In
temperate climates and moderate rainfall
areas, the salt solution is relatively dilute
with total dissolved salts ranging from
80 to 1500 ppm. Regions of extensive
rainfall show lower concentrations of
soluble salts as the result of leaching
action. Conversely, soil in arid regions is
usually quite high in salts as these salts
are carried to the surface layers of the
soil by water movement due to surface
evaporation.
Oxygen diffuses easily in sandy soils
because of pore spaces. On the other
hand, closely packed structure of clays is
least permeable to gaseous diffusion.
Oxygen content of soil is of special
interest in corrosion.
Biological activity decreases the oxygen
content as other gases such as carbon
dioxide replaces it. This leads to
formation of carbonic acid thus
increasing the acidity of the soil. Factors,
which tend to increase microbial
respiration, such as the addition of large
46
amounts of readily, decomposed organic
matter, or factors, which decrease
diffusion rates, will lead to development
of anaerobic conditions within the soil.
Corrosion cannot occur in completely
dry soils. Without water the oxidized
state of the metal surface cannot be
ionized. Water is also required to ionize
the soil electrolytes thus completing the
circuit for flow of corrosion current.
Water is always present at depths from
few feet to hundreds of feet. Capillary
action is responsible for bringing up
moisture in the upper layers. Continual
variation is expected to occur due to
climatic influences such as rainfall and
flooding which increases the moisture
content. Water losses occur due to
gravitational downward movement and
surface evaporation. These changes in
soil moisture content results in wet-dry
or anaerobic-aerobic alternations, either
short-lived or sustained, and leads to
higher corrosion rates than would be
obtained within a constant environment.
This fluctuation in water and air
relations promotes oxygen-
concentration-cell formation and leads to
greater variation in biological activity
within the soil.
Soils encountered along the pipeline
route are generally neutral (pH 7). There
may be locations where soils could be
either alkaline or acidic.
Alkaline conditions, if moderate, are not
serious to steel. On the contrary, this
condition prevents corrosion of steel and
is the side effect of the application of
cathodic protection.
Acid soil conditions are aggressive in
corrosiveness and acts as depolarizing
agents when cathodic protection is
applied. This increases current
requirement in such areas.
Sulfate reducing bacteria in soils, which
can exist in anaerobic conditions
(absence of oxygen) at the pipeline
surface, are generally known as
“anaerobic bacteria”. The action of this
type bacterium is consumption of
hydrogen, which leads to cathodic
depolarization at the surface of the pipe.
Unless the protection current is
increased, rapid corrosion can result. The
bacterium does not directly attack the
pipe but provide conditions conducive to
more rapid attack by the existing
corrosion cells.
Anaerobic corrosion is suspected in
areas where the soil at pipeline depth is
saturated with water. This can be coarse
soils in close proximity to rivers or
canals or can be heavy soils at any
location where drainage is poor,
resulting in stagnant water logged
conditions.
The practical effect of anaerobic
bacterial activity on the application of
cathodic protection is an increase in the
amount of current required to maintain
cathodic protection. Higher-than-normal
protective potentials are recommended
in areas where anaerobic bacteria are
active because the open circuit potentials
of anodic areas are higher. An additional
100mV protective potential is suggested
(-0.95 volts to copper sulfate electrode
instead of the usual –0.85 volts).
In the case of a pipeline route, variations
in soil resistivity may stimulate localized
corrosion and can also cause long line
currents.
47
The area in the soil of lower resistivity is
usually anodic (more negative)
compared to that in the soil of higher
resistivity.
In spite of the numerous reservations
mentioned above, the simplest and most
popular criterion for estimating the
corrosivity of a soil remains its
resistivity, which depends largely upon
the nature and the amount of dissolved
salts in the soil and is also affected by
temperature, moisture content,
compactness of the soil, and the presence
of inert materials such as stones and
gravel.
The assessment of corrosivity of soil
according to the British Standard Code
of Practice CP1021 (1973) is stated to be
on the following “approximate basis”.
Up to 10-Ohm meters:
Severely corrosive
10 Ohm-meter to 100 Ohm-meters:
Moderately corrosive
100-Ohm-meter and above:
Slightly corrosive
Corrosion engineers all over the world
have long worked with different figures
and as their experience stretches back
over decades we prefer to continue with
the old gradation: -
Up to 5000 Ohm-cm:
Extremely corrosive
5000 to 10,000 Ohm-cm:
Mildly corrosive
10,000 Ohm-cm and above:
Progressively less corrosive

Soil Variables
Several variables have been identified to
have an influence on corrosion rates in
soil. Some of these are: -
 Water
 Degree of Aeration
 Effect of pH
 Effect of Resistivity
 Redox Potential
 Effect of Chloride Level
 Effect of Sulfate Level
Water
Water, in liquid form, represents the
essential electrolyte required for
electrochemical corrosion reactions. A
distinction is made between saturated
and unsaturated water flow in soils. The
latter represents movement of water
from wet areas towards dry soil areas.
Saturated water flow is dependent on
pore size and distribution, texture,
structure, and organic matter.
Degree of Aeration
The oxygen concentration decreases with
increasing depth of soil. In neutral or
alkaline soils, the oxygen concentration
has an important effect on corrosion rate
due to its participation in the cathodic
reaction. However, in the presence of
certain microbes (such as sulfate
reducing bacteria) corrosion rates can be
very high, even under anaerobic
conditions. Excavation can obviously
increase the degree of aeration in soil,
compared with the undisturbed state.
Effect of pH
Soils usually have a pH range of 5-8. In
this range, pH is generally not
considered to be the dominant variable
48
affecting corrosion rates. More acidic
soils obviously represent a serious
corrosion risk to common construction
materials such as steel, cast iron and zinc
coatings. Soil acidity is produced by
mineral leaching, decomposition of
acidic plants (for example coniferous
tree needles), industrial wastes, acid rain
and certain forms of microbiological
activity. Alkaline soils tend to have high
sodium, potassium, magnesium and
calcium contents. The latter two
elements tend to form calcareous
deposits on buried structures with
protective properties against corrosion.
The pH level can affect the solubility of
corrosion products and also the nature of
microbiological activity.
Effect of Resistivity
Resistivity has historically been used as
a broad indicator of soil corrosivity.
Since ionic current flow is associated
with soil corrosion reactions, high soil
resistivity will slow down corrosion
reactions. Soil resistivity generally
decreases with increasing water content
and the concentration of ionic species.
Soil resistivity is by no means the only
parameter affecting the risk of corrosion
damage. A high soil resistivity alone will
not guarantee absence of serious
corrosion.
Redox Potential
The redox potential essentially is a
measure of the degree of aeration in a
soil. A high redox potential indicates a
high oxygen level. Low redox values
may provide an indication that
conditions are conducive to anaerobic
microbiological activity. Sampling of
soil will obviously lead to oxygen
exposure and unstable redox potentials
are thus likely to be measured in
disturbed soil.
Effect of Chloride Level
Chloride ions are generally harmful, as
they participate directly in anodic
dissolution reactions of metals and their
presence tends to decrease the soil
resistivity. They may be found naturally
in soils as a result of brackish
groundwater and historical geological
sea beds (some waters encountered in
drilling mine shafts have chloride ion
levels comparable to sea water). The
chloride ion concentration in the
corrosive aqueous soil electrolyte will
vary, as soil conditions alternate between
wet and dry cycles.
Effect of Sulfate Level
Compared to the corrosive effect of
chloride ion levels, sulfates are generally
considered to be more benign in their
corrosive action towards metallic
materials. However, concrete may be
attacked as a result of high sulfate levels.
The presence of sulfates does pose a
major risk for metallic materials in the
sense that sulfates can be converted to
MIC can be detected by various
methods. Although soils samples can be
taken to laboratories and cultured but for
proper assessment it is advisable to
perform the investigation at the actual
site where the bacterial activity is
suspected. Valuable information can be
gained by chemical analysis and
determination of pH of the corrosion
product.
Remedial action for the prevention of
MIC is accomplished by increasing the
49
highly corrosive sulfides by anaerobic
sulfate reducing bacteria.
Microbiologically influenced
corrosion (MIC)
Microbiologically influenced corrosion
(MIC) is that form of corrosion, which is
influenced by the presence of
microorganisms and their products,
which are produced in their metabolism.
Fungi, bacteria and other
microorganisms can greatly promote soil
corrosion.
Pipeline systems provide favorable
conditions in which microbiological
bacteria can thrive. MIC in combination
of other forms of corrosion such as
crevice corrosion, corrosion under
disbanded coatings, in the presence of
H2S and CO2 can accelerate the
corrosion attack.
Rapid corrosion failures have known to
occur in soil because of microbial action
and most metallic alloys are prone to one
form or another type of corrosion, which
appears to be localized corrosion.
level of cathodic protection by raising
the minimum criterion of protection
from –0.085V to 0.095V. For problems
within the pipelines if the problem lies
within a pipeline that is not cathodically
protected (internal protection) the
remedy can be pigging which will
remove any standing water or debris
accumulated in the pipeline. The other
method could be the use of inhibitors
and biocides,
Chapter - 9
Soil Resistivity Soil Box Procedure
The soil box is a rectangular shaped
The units of resistivity most commonly container normally made of Plexiglas
used are ohm-centimeter (ohm-cm) and (Figure 7-1a). Inside dimensions are 4 x
ohm–meter (ohm-m). The resistivity of a 22 x 3 cm. This container is filled with
unit cube volume of soil or any other samples of soil or water. Brass or
substance is equal to the resistance stainless steel plates (current plates) are
measured across the opposite faces of located at the longitudinal ends of the
that cube. The resistivity () of a box, which serve to pass current through
rectangular volume other than a cube is the specimen. Two pins are provided
given by which are approximately 7 cm apart and
are located in the middle of the box
 = RWD/L longitudinally for measuring voltage
drop. These pins are uniformly spaced
Where: such that the resistance R of the soil
W = width sample equals resistivity in ohm-cm.
D = depth
L = length The soil sample for the soil box tests are
R = measured resistance value taken by digging down to the depth of
interest, usually 5 feet or so. The
The methods used for measurements of samples are then carefully packed and
soil resistivity are as follows: - sealed in plastic bags to prevent
evaporation of soil moisture. If
1. Soil box procedure evaporation does occur, the soil samples
2. AC Soil Rod procedure may be wet down using distilled water.
3. Werner 4-pin procedure.
4. Geonics Following instruments may be used for
performing the soil resistivity test in
Methods 1 & 2 provide soil resistivity combination with the soil box: -
measurements, which are limited to the
surface layers only where as method 3 Two separate multimeters and a 12-volt
can determine resistivities at automotive battery are used. One of the
intermediate depths (from 2.5 feet to 20 multimeters is inserted in series to read
feet). Method 4 can measure resistivity current and the other multimeter is set to
down to 60 meters and by extrapolation read potentials. The schematic hook-up
can provide resistivity profile to a depth is shown in Figure 9-1a.
of 100 meters.
A combination meter such as MCM
Model B3A2 and a 12-volt battery may
be used. The left side meter of this

50
instrument can be set to read amperes
while the right side meter may be used to
measure voltage between the potential
pins. Schematic hook-up is shown in COMBINATION METER
(MCM B3A2)

Figure-9-1b.
- + - +

A soil resistivity meter such as Nilsson - POTNTIAL

Model 400 may be used. The use of this +

EXTERNAL
BATTERY
PINS

meter is very popular, as no external

battery is needed. The instrument CURRENT PLATE
CURRENT PLATE

directly reads resistivity in ohm-cm.

Schematic hook-up is shown in Figure 9- Figure 9-1b
1c. Resistivity in ohm-cm = E/I

When using multimeters, be sure

readings on both meters are obtained
P1 P2
simultaneously. Potential must be in
C1 C2
volts and current must be in amperes to
obtain results in ohm-cm. Calculate SOIL RESISTIVITY
METER
resistance following the ohms law.

When using earth resistivity meter the

polarity as stated above must be strictly
observed. No calculations are necessary
since the dial reading in ohm equal
resistivity in ohm-cm. SOIL BOX

SOIL BOX

Figure 9-1c

- Meter reading equals resistivity in

+ ohm-cm.
VOLTMETER
AMMETER

Wenner 4-Pin Method

Figure 9-1a Wenner 4-pin method (Figure 9-3) is
universally used by corrosion engineers
Resistivity in ohm-cm = E/I for either profiling the resistivity of the
soil through which a pipeline traverses
or for the purpose of designing a ground
bed for a cathodic protection system. In
this method 4 metal pins usually carbon
steel or stainless are driven in a straight
line.

52
The pins are equally spaced. The If pin spacing S is standardized,
penetration (d) of pins is restricted to not calculations in field can be simplified.
more than 2% of the spacing “S”. Before For instance 1000/191.5 = 5.22 feet (5’ –
application of D.C. current across the 2.5”) Therefore if pin spacing 5.22 is
outer pins, potential difference between used the resistivity will be R x 1000.
the inner pins (P1 & P2) is recorded as
E1. Current of value typically ranging The most commonly used pin spacing
between 5 to 10 amperes is applied to are: -
the outer pins (C1 & C2). Exact value of
current “I” is recorded. The potential Spacing Multiplier
difference between the inner pins is 5’-2. 5” 1000
again measured as E2. The resistance is 7’-10” 1500
equated as follows: - 10’-5” 2000
15’-8”
E 2 - E1
3000
R= 20’-11” 4000
I
Commercially available instruments
Ammeter such as “Vibroground” or a 4-terminal
“Megger” are specially designed for
earth resistivity measurement. These
instruments have terminals marked
BATTERY P1.P2.C1 &C2. Figure 9-4 illustrates the
Variable Resistor use of such a meters.
Voltmeter
VIBROGROUND

C-1 C-2

P-1 P-2
C1 P1 P2 C2
Steel Probes
Grade Level
s s s
Steel Probes

C1 P1 P2 C2 GRADE
Figure 9-3
S S S
After determining the resistance “R” the
resistivity of the soil  is calculated by
using the following equation: - Figure 9-4
 = 191.5 x S x R Earth resistivity meters are usually
powered by DC batteries (Vibroground
Where: being an exception). A galvanometer is
 = Resistivity in ohm-cm used which when balanced to null
R = Ohms as read on the meter position reads R directly on the
S = Pin Spacing in feet graduated balancing knob. The 4-
terminal Megger is powered by a hand-
crank generator and supplies power to

53
the current pins. The rest of the model EM-34 developed by Geonics
operation is identical to the Limited (Canada).
Vibroground.
The resistivity value represents an This instrument consists of a radio
average resistivity of the earth to a depth frequency (RF) transmitter and a receiver
equal to the pin spacing. The layer with transmitting and receiving coils or
resistivity at any given depth can vary antennae. An RF signal is broadcasted
greatly from the average resistivity downwards into the soil by the
measured to that depth. It is important to transmitter coil. This induces circular
understand that if ground bed design eddy current loops to flow in the soil.
calculations are based on an average soil The circular eddy current in turn
resistivity to a certain depth without generates a secondary magnetic field,
consideration of the layer resistivity at which can be measured by the receiver
that depth, the error introduced in the coil. The ratio of this secondary
calculations can result in magnetic field is directly proportional to
disappointment. the soil conductivity permitting a direct
read-out by the instrument of the
The layer resistivity can be determined at conductivity value (mmoh). The
any specific depth using the Barns layer transmitting coil (Tx) and the receiver
method. Table 9-1, which is based on coil (Rx) are each (separately) carried by
actual survey in the Zamzama region in two operators and are linked by a
Sindh, illustrates the extent of variations. reference cable. The spacing used
between the coils is 10, 20 and 40
Table 9-1 meters. The coils are placed on the
ground in two modes 1) coil axis
Depth R 1/R 1/R 1/(1/ FACTOR Layer Avera horizontal to ground and 2) coil axis
R) Ave Layer  ge  vertical to ground. The effective depth
2'-7" 1.4 0.71 . . 500 500 700 700
4 for each coil mode and separation is as
5'-2" 0.3 2.85 2.14 0.467 1000 500 233.5 350 follows: -
5 7 3 Coil Mode Coil Effective Plot Symbol
7'-9" 0.2 3.70 0.84 1.181 1500 500 590.5 405 Spacing K to Position
7 4 7 (Meters) Depth (Meters)
10'-6" 0.2 4.34 0.64 1.553 2000 500 776.5 460 (Meters)
3 8 4 Horizontal 10 7.5 3.75 A
20 15 7.50 B
The factor used for any specific depth is 40 30 15.00 C
Vertical 10 15 7.50 AA
the product of 191.5 times that depth in 20 30 15.00 BB
feet while the factor used for layer 40 60 30.00 CC
resistivity calculations is 191.5 times the The conductivity readings obtained at
layer thickness in feet. various coil spacing and mode are
Geonics Method plotted against depth as shown in Table-
9-2.
Geonics is an electromagnetic technique
by which the earth conductivity can be
measured using an instrument
specifically designed for this purpose.
The instrument most commonly used is

54
 Table 9-2 anomalies, which may render the 4-pin
(*Measured Values) method non-interpretable. The
limitations are interference effects
resulting from the presence of buried
Horizontal Mode Vertical Mode
Plot Symbol Value Symbol Value conductors, overhead power lines,
Depth surface structures and nearby cathodic
3.75 A* A DD 2*AA-EE
7.5 B* B AA* AA protection systems. To avoid these
11.25 D 2B-A EE (AA+BB)/2 interference effects, test location can be
15 C* C BB* BB
18.75 E (4*c-a)/3 FF (GG+BB)/2
moved away to the nearest point where
22.5 F 2C-B GG 2BB-AA interference is no longer detectable. In
26.25 G 2F-E HH (CC+GG)/2 some cases where the interference is
30 H 2G-F CC* CC
33.75 (etc) II (KK+CC)/2 only from an existing cathodic protection
37.5 KK (4*II-AA)/3 system, that system can be shut down to
41.25 LL (MM+KK)/2
45 MM 2CC-BB permit operation of the Geonics
48.75 NN 2MM-LL instruments. Good correlation has been
52.5 OO 2NN-MM achieved between the calculated
56.25 (etc) resistances and the actual ground bed
The table also shows formula for resistances of vertical ground beds up to
extrapolating the conductivity values at a depth of 90 meters. The field survey
other plot depths, which are not directly technique should be such that a point on
measured. the earth is pre-selected and each
Cable connections of coils, transmitter measurement is then made keeping that
and receiver are shown in Figure 9-5. point in the center of the two coils at any
coil spacing that is used (see fig.9-6)
With this method reliable results can be
obtained irrespective of surface
REFERENCE CABLE

Rx
Tx

Rx SHORT CABLE
Tx SHORT CABLE

RX COIL TX COIL

10m.20,40m

Figure 9-5

55
 CENTER

NORMAL GRADE

10M

20M

40M
COIL SPACINGS
Figure 9-6

56
Chapter - 10
Anodes
Anodes Classification
Anodes are classified in two general
types.
1. Galvanic or Sacrificial Anodes
2. Impressed Current Anodes
Galvanic Anodes
Galvanic anodes for cathodic protection
makes use of materials, which are more
reactive than steel and act as an anode
when electrically connected to steel (in
electrolytes) and thus provide the
required current needed for protection.
Three metals have the required electro-
chemical and physical properties to offer
a suitable basis for sacrificial anode
alloys. These are magnesium, zinc and
aluminum.
Anodes of alloys based on magnesium
are used extensively on land. The higher
driving potential makes them more
suitable for comparatively high
resistivity soils, and in some situations
where dilution of seawater with river
water gives higher resistivity and
consequentially lower output from
aluminum or zinc based alloys.
Zinc is the traditional sacrificial anode
alloy and was first used over 150 years
ago by Sir Humphrey Davy for
protection of warships. The most widely
used alloy is a zinc-aluminum-cadmium
composition with limitations on the
levels of lead, iron and copper.
57
Zinc and aluminum are commonly used
for submarine pipeline protection where
bracelet anodes are fitted around the pipe
either cast as half or quarter shell or
fabricated from anode alloy segments.
Magnesium anodes are most effectively
used on electrically isolated and coated
structures, which have low current
demand. The current output of these
anode installations is typically much less
than that which is obtained from
impressed current cathodic protection
systems. Their use is limited in low
resistivity soils only. As a general
guideline, one may assume magnesium
anodes to be suitable where soil
resistivity is between 1000 to 5000 ohm-
cm. Zinc anodes are preferred where soil
resistivity is less than 1000 ohm-cm.
Aluminum anodes are mostly used in
aqueous environment particularly
seawater.
Commercially available magnesium and
zinc anodes for soil environment are
packaged in cotton bags containing
specially prepared low resistivity back
fill. The packaged zinc anodes are
identical to magnesium anodes.
The composition of specially prepared
backfill for both magnesium and zinc
anodes is: -
 Gypsum (CaSO4) 75%
 Granular Bentonite 20%
 Sodium Sulfate 5%
The backfill resistivity is 50 ohm-cm.
The function of bentonite is to absorb
water and in so doing it expands, thus
ensuring good contact between anode
and soil which in turn contributes in
lowering anode to earth contact
resistance. The chemical composition in
packaging of magnesium anodes is listed
in Table 10-1A and that of zinc in Table
10-1B
Table 10-1A Table 10-2
% Chemical Composition (H-1 Alloy) Cast Magnesium Anodes
Element Grade A Grade B Grade C Nominal Nominal Weight
Al 5.3-6.7 5.3-6.7 5.0-7.0 Dimensions (Lb.)
Mn 0.15 min 0.15 min 0.15 min (Inches
Zn 2.5-3.5 2.5-3.5 2.0-4.0 Including
Si 2.5-3.5 2.5-3.5 2.0-4.0
Backfill)
Cu 0.10 max 0.13 max 0.13 max
Length Dia Bare Packaged
Ni 0.002 max 0.003max 0.003max
Fe 0.003 max 0.003max 0.003max 6 6 1 3.5
Others 0.30 max 0.30max 0.30max 6.5 6 3 9
Magnesium Remainder 13.5 6 5 14
High Potential Alloy
17 6 9 24
Element Content %
Al 0.010 19 6.5 17 42
Mn 0.50 to 1.30 30 8 32 70
Cu 0.02 max 18 10 50 110
Ni 0.001 max
Fe 0.03 max
Table 10-3
Other 0.05 each or 0.3 max
Magnesium Remainder
Cast Zinc Anodes
For aqueous environment, H-1 alloy, Nominal Nominal Weight
grade C bare metal anode is Dimensions (Lb.)
recommended. (Inches
Including
Backfill)
Table 10-1B
Content %
Length Dia Bare Packaged
Element MIL-A- ASTM B-418 15 5 5 24
18001 TYPE-II 30 5 12 48
ASTM B-418 42 5 18 70
TYPE-I
66 5 30 95
Al 0.1 – 5.5 0.005 max
36 5 30 70
Cd 0.02 – 0.003 max
51 5 45 110
0.007
66 5 60 130
Fe 0.005 max 0.0014 max
Pb 0.006 max 0.003 max
The open circuit potential of high
Cu 0.005 max 0.002 max
potential magnesium anode ranges
Zinc Remainder Remainder
between 1.75 and 1.77 volts and H-1
alloy has an open circuit potential
The most common types and sizes are between 1.53 and 1.55 volts. These
listed in table 10-2 for cast magnesium potentials are with reference to
anodes and 10-3, for cast zinc anodes. copper/copper-sulfate half-cell (CSE).

58
The current capacity of these anodes is
500 amp-hrs/lb at 50% efficiency. The
theoretical rate of metal consumption is
8.8 lbs/amp-yr while the practical rate of
consumption with 50% efficiency is 17
lbs/amp-yr.
The zinc anodes are cast from 99.99%
purity high-grade zinc. The open circuit
potential with reference to CSE is 1.1
volts. The current capacity is 335 amp-
hrs/lb. The theoretical rate of metal
consumption is approximately 26
lbs/amp-yr. The practical rate of
consumption at 90% efficiency is 23.4
lbs/amp-yr.
Extruded Galvanic Ribbon
The ribbon anodes (Figure 10-1) have a
small cross sectional area and are
available in coils of any desired length.
The anode material (magnesium or zinc)
is extruded over 1/8-inch steel core.
Figure 10-1
On a pound per pound basis the extruded
ribbon shape anodes provide much larger
surface area, which reduces its resistance
to earth when buried. This allows these
shapes to deliver a greater amount of
current per weight than their cast
magnesium or zinc counterparts thus
enabling their use in relatively higher
soil resistivities.
Zinc ribbon has been used successfully
to protect some flow lines in interior
59
Sindh where soil resistivity ranged
between 4000 to 6000 ohm-cm.
Rod Shape Anode
Galvanic rods are usually 1” in diameter
in any specified length. These anodes are
also extruded over 1/8-inch steel core.
Similar to galvanic ribbon anode these
also provide lower resistance to earth as
compared to cast metal counterparts.
The most common size is 0.84” in
diameter, 24 feet long extruded over 1/8”
steel core.
Impressed Current Anodes
An impressed current anode can be any
metal or alloy buried in the ground and
connected to the positive terminal of a
DC current source. The current
generated by the DC power source is
discharged by the anode into the earth
thus, dissolving the anode material.
Graphite Anode
Graphite anodes (Figure 10-2) are
manufactured from particles of
petroleum coke.
Figure 10-2
Process from coke to an almost pure
99.9% graphitic carbon anode involves
many steps and can take as long as 16
weeks. Graphite anodes are available in
two types; the regular anode and the NA
type anode. The NA type anode receives
an overall impregnation of hot linseed
oil in a vacuum chamber. This special
treatment makes it exceptionally
resistant to oxygen attack and water
absorption. It is well suited for use in
severe environments, including
saltwater. These anodes were widely
used in the Gulf States and the USA in
the 1950s and 1960s. By 1970s,
however, their use began to decline
because of increasing cost and also
because of the development of more
economical and durable materials.
To assure high percentage of carbon, the
rods are repeatedly heated at
о
temperatures in excess of 2600 C and
then cooled. This reduces anodic
consumption rate. In buried soil, the
consumption rate varies between 0.4 and
2.0 lb./amp-yr depending upon exposure
and operating conditions.
Typical specifications for a 3” x 60 long
graphite anode are given below:
 The anodes are to be made of
finely ground-impregnated
graphite – National Carbon or
A.G.R. equivalent.
 The anode shall be 3 inch in
diameter by 60 inches long.
 The standard anode to be
furnished with a 5-foot No. 8
A.W.G. 7 stranded 7/64-inch high
molecular weight polyethylene
 (HMWPE) insulated copper wire
attached.
 Lead wire electrical connection
anode shall be anchored in a
cavity no less than 4 inches in
depth and no more than ¼ inches
off center. A minimum of 1 inch
of exposed wire shall be covered
60
with hot lead. The remainder of
the wire is to be surrounded with
an insulating compound of either
“Ozite B” or “No Void C” and
retained in place with a 1 inch
threaded plastic plug.
 The anode shall be treated with
linseed oil in its entirety and be
classified as a Type NA Graphite
Anode by National Carbon.
 Anode lead wire shall be able to
withstand a pull test of 400
pounds for 5 minutes. Either an
epoxy or a heat shrinkable cap
shall be used as an additional
moisture seal.
High Silicon Chromium Cast
Iron
These anodes contain 14.75 percent
silicon and 3.25 to 5% chromium. They
are available in two shapes; solid and
tubular rods. The tubular shape has the
advantage of providing greater surface
area thus permitting any generated gases
to be distributed over a larger area. In
the tubular design the wire connection is
made in the center of the anode, thus
eliminating the problem of end-effect
consumption.
These anodes gained worldwide
acceptance in the 1970s and are still
popular in the industry. .
Size and design feature varies for the
particular job, but primarily, the standard
anodes are 60 inches long and from 1
inch to 3 inch in diameter. The standard
anodes are supplied with a 5 feet No. 8
A.W.G. 7-strand 7/64-inch high
molecular weight polyethylene
(HMWPE) insulated copper wire
attached. Anodes to lead wire
connections are sealed with sealing
compound, epoxy caps, epoxy
encapsulation or heat shrink sleeves.
Anode specifications
Size and design feature varies for the
particular job, but primarily, the standard
anodes are 60 inches long and from 1
inch to 3 inch in diameter.
Typical specifications for the High
Silicon Cast Iron solid rod type anodes
are given below:
 The standard anode to be
furnished with a 5 feet No. 8
A.W.G. 7-strand 7/64-inch high
molecular weight polyethylene
(HMWPE) insulated copper wire
attached.
 The anode is to be cast with a
cored hole that has an inverse
taper at the bottom.
 Cored hole is to be ¾ inches in
diameter by 3 inches long for
connections under 2 inches, and
1 ¼ inches in diameter by 3
inches long for connections over
2 inches. The cored hole will be
thoroughly cleaned before wire is
inserted.
 Cable insulation is to be removed
for a minimum of 1 inch.
 Pour molten 14% tellurium-
antimonial lead around the pre-
tinned cable, previously inserted
in the cored opening.
 The bottom of the hole is to be
filled 1 inch deep with molten
lead and caulked lightly. The
61
annular space above the lead is
to be filled with “Ozite B” or No
Void and retained in place with
two polyethylene compression
washers.
 Either an epoxy or a heat
shrinkable cap must be used as
an additional moisture seal.
Scrap Steel Anode
Perhaps the earliest impressed current
cathodic protection systems used only
scrap steel as the anode material. This
kind of anode can be fabricated from any
scrap metal shapes such as drill pipe,
scrap pipe, H-beams etc. Pieces of scrap
steel are usually welded together in
lengths of several hundred feet and
buried with or without carbonaceous
backfill.
Without carbonaceous backfill, the
service life of the anode will be
dependant on the total steel weight used.
Consumption rate of steel is 20lbs per
amp per year. However, with
carbonaceous backfill the service life can
be extended considerably since current
will be discharged through the coke
breeze backfill, which has a
consumption rate of 1 lb per amp per
year.
Except for temporary or experimental
anodes, scrap steel is not commonly used
today essentially because of its high rate
of consumption (without coke backfill)
and due to the availability of other
longer life and more economical
materials.
Nonetheless, when properly designed
and used in combination with
carbonaceous backfill the life of the
scrap steel anode can be extended
reasonably long to justify its use
particularly when a company using it has
a stockpile of scrap available.
Figure 10-3A below shows a typical
fabrication of a scrap steel anode, which
has been successfully used in an oil
facility in Northern Pakistan. This anode
was designed for Orient Petroleum Inc.
and was fabricated from 6” diameter
scrap pipe welded together to give 175
feet length. The pipe was slotted at
bottom every 25 feet and water filling
risers were installed at both ends. This
allowed watering the ground bed during
dry seasons when the grounded
resistance tends to increase.

To Suit
2" DIA. PIPE
FOR WATERING
GROUNDBED

To Requirement

1/2" WIDE ASPHALT PAINT

SCRAP PIPE 8" 25 Ft.

PIPE CAP
PIPE CAP
1" DIA PERFORATION
175 FEET

Figure 10-3A

Figure 10-3B

62
To assure steel continuity during the
design life, half-inch wide asphalt strip
was painted along its entire length.
Although, this reduced the active surface
area to some extent, it nevertheless,
assured electrical continuity by
preventing corrosion under the painted
surface.
Another scrap steel anode configuration
is shown in figure 8-3 B (above). This
shape resembles a standard cast iron or
graphite anode with center tap
connection. It can be successfully used in
boreholes surrounded by coke breeze
Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO) Anode
The MMO anodes are titanium tubes
titanium solid rods or copper clad
titanium rods with mixed metal oxide
coating applied over it. The mixed metal
oxide is a crystalline, electrically
conductive coating that activates the
titanium and enables it to function as an
anode.
When applied on titanium, the coating
has an extremely low consumption rate,
measured in terms of milligrams per
year. As a result of this low consumption
rate, the substrate metal dimensions
remain nearly constant during the life of
the anode.
Despite a thin mixed metal oxide
coating, lifetimes from 15 to 20 years
can be obtained. This is possible due to
the low consumption rate of the mixed
metal oxide coating at the recommended
operating current densities. By varying
the current output of the anode, longer or
shorter lifetimes of the anode result. The
limiting factor is the DC voltage at the
63
anode to electrolyte interface, which
must not exceed 12 volts else rapid
failure of anode will result.
These anodes are available in various
shapes, sizes and configurations. Two
are shown below (Figure 10-4)
.
HIGH PURITY
TITANIUM
CLADDING
SOLID COPPER
ROD ACTIVATION
HIGH PURITY COATING
TITANIUM
SOLID ROD
Figure 10-4
Solid Rod Anodes
These are solid rod titanium substrate
coated with mixed metal oxide. These
anodes are small, light weight and can
operate at current densities much higher
than conventional anodes (10 amp/sft2)
Although various sizes are available, the
most commonly used size is 0.125” x
96” with a 14 amp current rating.
Tubular Anodes
These are tubular rods of titanium
substrate, which are coated with mixed
metal oxide catalyst. Basically, these are
similar to solid rod anodes with the
exception that by hollow configuration a
much greater surface area results. The
most commonly used size is 0.75”x48”
with a 45 amp current rating.
Expanded Mesh Anode
These anodes are suitable for protection
of reinforced concrete. The anodes are
composed of expanded titanium mesh
strips, which are coated with mixed
metal oxide catalyst.
The mixed metal oxide catalyst makes
the anode extremely conductive and is
the means for transferring electrical
current from titanium to the surrounding
electrolyte. The anode can be operated at
a maximum current density of 20
mA/ft2-..
Ribbon Anodes
Ribbon anodes are composed of titanium
ribbon substrate coated with mixed
metal oxide (Figure 10-5).
2.5"
.625"
FABRICATED
FROM HIGH PURITY
TITANIUM SHEET
SPOT WELDED
TYP 4 PER STRIP
12"
BARE TITANIUM
CROSS PIECE
0.04" X 0.5"
Figure 10-5
Because an oxidizing film naturally
activates the titanium substrate, the
ribbon anode remains dimensionally
stable over a long period of time. These
anodes are particularly suited for the
protection of soil side of storage tank
bottoms. Multi lengths of ribbon are
installed in parallel underneath the tank
64
bottom with up to 1 meter spacing.
Conductor bars establish electrical
continuity between all ribbons and the
power feed cable provides connection to
the positive terminal of the power source
(rectifier).
CONDUCTOR
BAR
POWER
ANODE RIBBON
FEED
0.025"THICK
0.25" WIDE
FIGURE 10-6
Platinized Anode
Under anodic condition platinum is an
excellent corrosion resistant material that
can pass current in all electrolytes
without forming an insulating film. A
very thin film of platinum is clad over
either titanium or niobium, which in turn
is clad over copper rod as the substrate
because of its high electrical
conductivity.
Platinum is the ideal permanent
impressed current anode material. It is
one of the most noble metals and in
practically all environments forms a thin
invisible film, which is electrically very
conductive. In addition, the exchange
current densities of most anodic
reactions on the Pt surface are greater
than on other anode materials. Due to its
high cost, platinum is applied as a thin
coating (1-5 mm) on metallic substrates
such as titanium, niobium and tantalum.
Platinized titanium is often used in
marine environments. To avoid the
dissolution of titanium at unplatinized
locations on the surface, the operating
voltage of the anode is limited by the
anodic breakdown potential of titanium,
which is in the range of 9 to 12 V in the
presence of chlorides. Hence the safe
maximum recommended operating
voltage of platinized titanium anodes is 8
volts in seawater. For cathodic
protection systems where operating
voltages are expected to be relatively
high, niobium and tantalum based
anodes are generally selected. This is
because these two substrates have anodic
breakdown potentials greater than 100V
in chloride containing electrolytes. The
consumption rate of platinized anodes is
approximately 8 mg per amp-yr.
The rate of platinum consumption has
been found to accelerate in the presence
of AC current ripples. Most wastage was
observed to occur with AC frequencies
of less than 50 Hz. The repeated
oxidation/reduction processes result in
the formation of a brownish layer of
platinum oxide. To avoid the occurrence
of this phenomenon, a three phase full-
wave rectification is recommended. The
consumption rate of platinized anodes is
also adversely affected by the presence
of organic impurities such as sugar and
diesel fuel.
Platinized titanium anodes are ideally
used in the salt water or seawater
environment where the CP system can
operate at low voltages.
Magnetite Anode
Magnetite is a cheap and naturally
occurring material. It is a nontoxic
oxide. Due to its brittleness, the anode is
65
cast as a hollow cylinder and closed at
one end.
The inner surface is then copper plated
and the cylinder is filled with
polystyrene. Epoxy resin is used to fill
any remaining space. The anode cable is
soldered to the copper plate. Magnetite
anodes have been successfully used in
the cathodic protection of buried
structures and those immersed in
seawater. The maximum operating
current density is 11.5 A/m2 and the
anode consumption rate is approximately
from 1 to 4 gm per amp-yr depending
upon the environmental and operating
conditions.
Anodeflex
Anodeflex cables have been used
successfully as long continuous anode to
extend the effective lives of pipeline
coating systems. Some pipeline
operators have used Anodeflex systems
to provide a cost-effective alternative to
recoating, while staying in compliance
with CP regulations.
The Anodeflex system has five basic
components as shown in Figure 10-6A.
Figure 10-6A
The basic system components as shown
in the above figure are: -
 A copper conductor, which
serves as a low-resistance bus bar
that delivers the required current
over considerable distance
 without substantial longitudinal
voltage drop.
 Special conductive polymer that
seals the conductor from
chemical attack, yet allows
current to flow from the
conductor to the environment all
along its length.
 High-performance coke breeze,
which serves as the active matrix
for the anodic reactions.
 A fabric jacket that holds the
coke breeze in place around the
anode cable. This jacket is
designed to resist electrochemical
attack, yet allow current from the
anode to flow to the surrounding
soil.
 A tough, porous, nonconductive
braided jacket, which enhances
resistance to abrasion and
prevents the fabric from being
damaged.
Anodeflex has a current discharge
capacity of 16 milliamperes per linear
foot.
The two primary applications for
Anodeflex are the protection of buried
metal structures such as pipelines and
tanks by continuous impressed current
anode. This system is particularly suited
for poorly coated pipelines and is
perhaps a much cheaper alternative to
refurbishing extended length of pipeline
coating.
Conventional ground beds have
performed very well on pipelines with
effective coatings. However, as coatings
66
deteriorate the effective protection
distance of these discrete anodes rapidly
decreases, and on poorly coated
pipelines the effective protection
distance may only be as long as 100m.
Most current under such circumstances
is directed to the part of the pipe nearest
the ground bed resulting in over-
protection and subsequent accelerated
localized coating disbondment.
Anodeflex being a continuous anode, all
the way along the pipeline, is able to
provide a much better current
distribution along the entire length of the
pipeline. It is therefore an ideal coating
rehabilitation method, which can be
installed at a fraction of the cost of
recoating, and allows for the pipeline to
remain in full operation.
Carbonaceous Backfill
Types of materials for backfill use
include coke breeze, calcined petroleum
coke and natural graphite. When
compacted around an impressed current
anode, it serves triple purpose a) It
increases the effective size of the anode
b) reduces the anode to earth resistance
and c) it becomes the outer surface of the
anode on which oxidation reaction
occurs, thus preserving the actual anode
consumption.
Particle size and shape are very
important when specifying a backfill
material. Both parameters determine the
contact area between anode and earth
whilst influencing the porosity of the
column, which is important for gas
ventilation. A general-purpose coke
breeze for use in shallow horizontal and
vertical ground beds has a resistivity
ranging between 35 and 50 ohm-cm. For
deep well applications a special calcined
petroleum coke breeze is available which
has a resistivity of 15 ohm-cm or less.
Some of the most commonly used
backfill materials manufactured by
“Loresco” are described below.
Loresco Type SW
This type of coke breeze is suitable for
impressed current surface ground beds. It
is also suitable for canisterized anodes
and semi deep impressed current
systems. It can be poured dry. Because
of its round particle shape it does not
require tamping because of its ability to
go to full density with simple pouring.
The bulk density of type SW is 54
pounds per cubic foot with porosity of
56.7%. The particle size ranges from
1mm to 12mm. Because of its wettable
surface characteristics, it can be freely
poured directly into water or light mud
without sacrificing system integrity due
to poorly compacted carbon. Settling
time is almost instantaneous.
Loresco Type SWK
It is specifically designed for impressed
current surface and containerized
anodes. It has particle sizes ranging from
0.004 to 0.5 inch. SWK is heavy and
sinks readily in water or light mud. It can
be installed by pouring around the
anodes and tamping is not necessary.
The particles exhibit a hard round shape
and are composed of almost solid
carbon. The bulk density is 70 pounds
per cubic foot and the porosity is 44%.
Its low resistivity enables intimate anode
contact and assures that most electrolytic
discharge will occur at the backfill
periphery.
67
Loresco Type DW-1
This is a carbon backfill with particles
ranging between 0.004 inch to 0.25 inch.
Its bulk density is 74 pounds per cubic
foot and sinks readily in water and light
mud. The fixed carbon content of DW-1
is over 90%. Being a sized and
predominantly round material, it may be
installed by either pumping or pouring.
Approximately seven gallons of water
per one hundred pounds of backfill
should be utilized when pumping.
D.C. Power Sources
Conventional
Transformer/Rectifier
The cathodic protection rectifier is a
device that converts, or rectifies
alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC). Unless filtering is used to smooth
out the rate of flow, the DC that results
from a single phase rectified will
actually be a series of pulses, each
starting from zero, rising to a peak, and
dropping again to zero. DC meters read
the average value rather than the Peak or
RMS value.
A standard cathodic protection rectifier
is basically a simple device, although,
upon first glance at its schematic or the
rectifier itself, it may appear quite
complicated. However, if the
components that make up the rectifier
are individually examined, and an
understanding is gained of these, the unit
as a whole will likewise be simplified.
The main “power train” of a rectifier is
the transformer and the rectifier stacks.
These two components alone could
provide the DC power for the cathodic
protection system, but the other
components found within the cabinet
perform useful function also.
Lightning arresters are used on the input
and output to protect the rectifier from
component failure due to surges caused
by high-tension transient voltages.
Circuit breakers are provided at the AC
input turn the rectifier on and off, and to
provide overload protection. The
transformer changes the input line
voltage to a usable level. The stack
converts AC to DC. The meters and
shunt provide output voltage and current
readouts.
The configuration of diodes in the
single-phase bridge circuit is said to
have 4 legs (Figure 10-7).
Figure 10-7
The current must pass through two legs
of the circuit in series. First it goes out to
the load through one leg, and then it
returns through another. Thus at a given
instant the losses in the bridge are twice
those of each conducting legs.
The three-phase bridge having 6 legs
instead of 4 is the most common circuit,
68
for rectifiers operated from three phase
AC power lines (Figure 10-8).
Figure 10-8
Its functions are much like the three
single-phase bridges except that each
bridge shares a pair of diodes with the
other bridges.
The three-phase bridge has only 4.5%
AC ripple in its output. Thus it is a very
efficient rectifying circuit.
The transformer rectifiers are available
with various AC inputs (110 to 440 V)
and DC output (5 A to 400 A). These
units are either air-cooled or oil cooled.
Pulse Rectifier
Unlike conventional cathodic protection
rectifiers which provide current which is
often filtered for smooth waveform,
pulsed current cathodic protection
rectifiers deliver pulsed current which
consists of square pulses of high
voltages (typically 300 to 320 volts DC)
at high frequency ranging from 1 kHz to
5 kHz.
The continuous current out put of
conventional rectifiers is usually
accompanied with very low voltages.
Because of the low voltage the distance
of current through along the line is
limited unless a pipeline is very well
coated. In contrast, the high output
voltage of pulse rectifier is able to spread
its current too much greater distance
along a pipeline or too much deeper
depth along a well casing. This
advantage makes them particularly
suitable for protection of poorly coated
pipelines and deep well casing.
Theory behind the pulsed
systems
Cathodic Protection has been used to
mitigate corrosion for many years.
Sufficient direct electrical current (DC)
is caused to flow from the soil to the
surface of the structure.
The DC current mitigates corrosion by
electrochemically reducing any corrosive
oxygen molecules as well as by reducing
hydrogen ions that may be adsorbed on
the surface of the structure in contact
with the soil. As additional molecules
and ions diffuse from the soil and
become adsorbed onto the steel surface,
they are also reduced by the continuously
flowing direct current. However, there
are certain drawbacks to conventional
cathodic protection. Current flows in the
ground continuously in a relatively large
three-dimensional envelope. If there are
other foreign metallic structures buried
in the soil within the current envelope,
damage in terms of metal loss will very
likely occur to the foreign structures.
Also, the "throw", or distance down the
pipeline or a well casing, that can be
protected, is limited by the driving force
(voltage) of the rectifier.
69
The corrosive oxygen molecules and
hydrogen ions, adsorbed on the surface
of the buried structure, are
electrochemically reduced within
microseconds after the application of
cathodic current. Before the corrosion
reactions can begin again, additional
molecules and ions must diffuse to the
surface of the structure from the
surrounding soil and become adsorbed.
The destructive diffusion and adsorption
processes are orders of magnitude slower
than the protective reduction process,
particularly when a high pulsating
voltages applied cathodic protection is
driving the ions.
With Pulse Cathodic Protection the
corrosive molecules and ions are
electrochemically reduced with very
short duration but very high current
pulses. Since throw is a function of
current magnitude, the very high pulsed
currents result in greatly improved throw
down the length of the structure.
Because of the natural electrical
characteristics of the structure/anode
system, the greatly improved high
current throw is further enhanced by the
inductive and capacitive redistribution of
that current.
Also, the very short duration pulses are
separated by relatively long "off"
intervals.
The pulse voltage is applied for less than
20% of the total time. Thus, the
continuous current envelope and the
resulting interference on foreign
structures are greatly reduced.
Solar Power Unit sunlight so that temperature extremes are
avoided. Maintaining constant battery
Solar power system converts some of the
temperature reduces the electrolyte
sunlight energy striking on the
consumption and enhances the battery
photovoltaic cells directly into DC
service life. It is recommended that the
current.
batteries be installed either in a
ventilated brick house or a suitable
These cells are primarily made of
battery box.
silicon, which is the second most
abundant element found on earth. Silicon
in combination with some other
elements exhibits electrical properties in
the presence of sunlight. Direct current
results when electrons are set in motion
by the sunlight as a result of the
photovoltaic effect. Since there are no
moving parts in the system the unit can
provide life expectancy of 25 to 30 years
with minimal maintenance.

The main components of the unit are: -

Figure 10-9
 Solar Panels Battery charge regulator, as the name
 Battery Bank implies, is an electronic device, which
 Battery Charge Regulator maintains the battery voltage while
 Output Control Unit charging from the solar array.

An assembled solar unit is shown in Output control unit provides the

Figure 10-9
The solar array is mounted on structure
hardware provided by the vendor. The
structure must be designed for wind
loading in excess of 125 mph. The
orientation of the solar array is
determined by the long-term historical
weather data, seasonal orientation of the
sun, as well as the degree of sunshine so
that maximum exposure to sunlight is
guaranteed. Battery bank size is designed
to meet the current requirement of the
output control unit and at the same time
provide minimum 5 days autonomy so
that batteries can continue furnishing
current even when there is no direct
sunlight. Batteries are shaded from direct
capability of manually or automatically
adjusting the battery output current to the
requirement imposed by the structure
being protected.
Thermoelectric Generator
(TEG)
Thomas Seebeck investigated the
thermoelectric principle over 135 year
ago. He found that by heating a junction
of two dissimilar metals, potential
difference is created across the terminals
and current begins to flow when these
terminals are connected together.

70
The use of the thermoelectric principle
became practical with the advent of
semiconductor technology in the late
1940’s. By 1950’s semiconductor
materials had been developed that
exhibited a good thermoelectric effect
and the first thermocouples were
produced.

Unlike solar units, TEGs do not require

batteries. They operate continuously and
are equipped to re-ignite automatically in
the event of fuel interruption. They are
most commonly used in remote areas
where the installation of AC power lines
or galvanic anode systems are
prohibitively expensive or otherwise
impractical.
Numerous models of TEGs are now
available which ranges from 15 watts to
550 watts with operating voltages
ranging from 2.5V to 48V. They are
ideally suited for remote areas and their
operation is unaffected by weather
conditions such as rains and storms,
Operating temperatures range from -65
C to + 65 C.
Fuel required for running these units
could either be the produced natural gas
or liquid fuels such as diesel, kerosene or
gasoline. These generators are more
efficiently used where gaseous fuels such
as propane or butane are available.
A typical TEG installation is shown in
Figure 10-10
Figure 10-10
Energy Converters (Ormat)
An Ormat unit consists of a combustion
system, a vapor generator, a turbo-
alternator an air-cooled condenser and a
rectifier.
The burner heats the organic liquid in the
vapor generator – some of it vaporizes
and expands through a turbine wheel
thus producing power to drive the
alternator. The vapor then passes into a
condenser where it is cooled and in so
doing, is condensed back into the liquid
state and then it is pumped back into the
vapor generator, cooling the alternator
on its way, and lubricating the bearings.
The cycle continues as long as heat is
applied to the vapor generator. Because
the liquid/vapor stainless steel envelope
is sealed, none of the organic fluid is lost
in the process. Furthermore, the working
fluid is totally immune to climatic
conditions outside the sealed envelope.

Chapter –11

71
 Where: Rg=Resistance-to-earth of a
Ground bed Resistance**** Single Vertical Anode (ohms)
The resistance of a ground bed
represents a major component of the Rgt=Resistance-to-earth of Multiple
total circuit resistance of a CP system. Anodes in parallel (ohms)
This resistance in turn depends largely
on the average resistivity of the earth at =Effective soil resistivity (ohm-cm)
the location where the ground bed
installation is considered. When d=Diameter of anode (cm)
selecting a location, a corrosion engineer
assures that the ground bed will be D=Depth of burial (cm)
electrically remote from the structure
being protected, particularly if the N=Number of anodes
structure is a long pipeline. He must also
assure that there are no foreign pipelines S=Inter anode spacing (cm)
or buried structures within the ground
bed gradient. The minimum distance to L=Length of anode (cm)
remote earth or the boundary of the
ground bed gradient can be calculated K=Depth constant (less than 5meter
when the average earth resistivity and =4: 5meters or more =8)
the total current discharge by the ground
bed are known. To demonstrate the use of above
equations for calculating ground bed
Some of the equations that can be used resistance we will consider an
to determine the final ground bed installation with following parameters: -
resistance of various configurations are
given below: - Soil Resistivity: 1000 ohm-cm
Depth of ground bed: 152.4 cm
Resistance to earth of a single horizontal Configuration: Vertical Anode
anode (Per Parker) Equation-1 Required Design life: 20 years
Current Requirement: 20 amperes
Anode Type: High Silicon Cast
Rg = p/2L * (Ln 4L/d + Ln L/D –2 + Iron, Solid, 3” x 60”
2D/L) Canister: Packaged in coke
breeze; canister size 20cm x 213.36cm
Resistance to Earth of a single Vertical Single Anode Weight: 110 lbs. (without
Anode (Per Dwight) Equation-2 coke breeze)
Consumption rate: 2Lb.per Amp/year
Rg = ( .159p/)(ln kL/d -1)
Determination of the minimum anode
Correction for Multiple Anodes (Per material (total weight) needed is as
Peabody) Equation-3 follows: -
Total Weight= 20 amps x 20 years x 2
Rgt = (Rg/N)+p/(πN S)(ln 0.656 N) lb./amp/year= 800 lb.

73
Therefore, the minimum number of
anodes = 800 lb / 110 lb = 7.27 say 8
anodes. Having determined the
minimum number of anodes comprising
the ground bed, we can now establish its
resistance to earth, which can be done as
follows:
Ground bed resistance of a single
vertical anode (using Equation-2),
which, taking into consideration the
depth factor becomes;
Rg = (0.159p/L)(Ln8L/d -1)
The Step-by-step calculations are as
follows:
0.159p/L = 0.159*1000/213.36
= 0.745
Ln8L/d-1= (Ln (8*213.36/20)) -1
= 3.447
R = .745*3.447 = 2.569
Note that the above-equated resistance is
of the anode canister to its surrounding
soil. The internal resistance of the anode
rod to coke breeze column must also be
equated and added to the above-equated
resistance. Assuming that the coke
breeze resistivity is 50 ohm-cm., the
internal resistance can be equated in the
same manner as has been done for the
anode canister to its surrounding. For a
3” x 60” anode rod in 50 ohm-cm coke
breeze amounts to 0.21 ohms. The total
resistance of a single anode to earth is
therefore, 2.569+0.21=2.78 ohms.
Ground bed resistance of 8 anodes in
parallel spaced 152.4 cm apart can now
be equated using Equation-3 as follows:
.Rgt= (Rg / N)+p/(πN S)(Ln 0.656 N)
=2.78/8 + [1000/(3.14*8*154.2) (ln
(.656*8))]
74
= 0.35 + (0.26 x 1.66)
= 0.78 ohms
For sizing the rectifier, total circuit
resistance needs to be determined. This
can be done as follows:
Total circuit resistance (Rt)
Rt = Rgt + Rc + Rs
Where:
Rgt=ground bed resistance
(0.78, as calculated above)
Rc = cable resistance (0.13, from cable
data tables)
Rs = structure (pipeline) resistance to
ground =0.08Ω (assumed)
Substituting the values: -
Rt = 0.78 + .13 + .08 = 0.99ohms say 1
ohm
Rectifier voltage (V) = Rt x I + back
EMF of anode
Substituting the values we get: -
V = 1 x 20 + 2 = 22 volts minimum.
A standard rectifier rated at 25 V – 25
Amperes may be specified in this case.
It can be seen that the major component
of the total circuit resistance is the
ground bed resistance. By decreasing
this resistance, the total circuit resistance
can be considerably reduced thus
resulting in lower energy cost of the
system. Now suppose that a rectifier is
available and it is rated at 10 volts, 25
amperes. In order to use this rectifier one
will need to run through the calculations
on trial and error basis several times by
either increase the number of anodes or
increase the inter-anode spacing or both
until the total circuit resistance is equal
to or less than the target resistance of the
available rectifier which is 10/25 = 0.4
ohms. Several trial and error calculations
produced the following results:
 Keeping the inter anode spacing
unchanged 20 anodes will be
required to attain the target
resistance.
 Keeping the number of anodes
unchanged and increasing inter
anode spacing 6 times that of
originally used will result in
attaining the circuit resistance
which will meet the target
resistance.
 Both of the above cases are
extremes. Increasing the number
of anodes will increase the cost
of anode material as well as cost
of installation. The benefit would
be that the system life would
become two and a half times that
of the requirement. On the other
hand, increasing the inter anode
spacing will increase the cost of
cable as well as the cost of
installation without any
additional advantage other than
savings in energy cost.
 A happy medium would then be
to double the inter anode spacing
and increase the number of
75
anodes from 8 to 12. Calculations
will show that this configuration
results in the final target
resistance, which is, less than 0.4
ohms.
Deep-well Anode Vs Shallow Ground
Bed
A corrosion engineer can choose
between either a surface type or a deep
well type ground bed. Economic factors
and environmental conditions will most
likely govern his decision. The deep well
type ground beds are much more
expensive and less reliable as compared
to the surface type ground beds. If area
restriction is not a factor and a surface
ground bed can be located electrically
remote from the protected structure, this
would obviously be the preferred choice.
On the other hand, a deep well type
ground bed may become the only
alternative when either the surface soil
resistivity is very high precluding
installation of a surface ground bed or
the area is so congested that a shallow
ground bed cannot be effectively made
electrically remote.
The surface type ground bed is
economically cheaper to construct and is
more manageable if premature failure of
some ground rods do occurs. The failed
anode can be conveniently located and
replaced. Such a replacement is not
possible with a deep well type ground
bed.
 SEE ENLARGED DETAIL BELOW

ANODE CABLE J.BOX

J.BOX SUPPORT

GRADE

MAIN ANODE CABLE

5FT
ANODE TAILS
ANODES
10FT
ENLARGED DETAIL
Figure 11-1
CAST IRON J.BOX COPPER BUS

TERMINALS (TYP.11)
SHUNT
With the shallow ground bed operating INSULATING SHEET

at low current discharge per anode rod,

gas blocking is not a problem. A typical
surface ground is shown in Figure 11-1. CABLE TO T/R POS.

ANODE TAILS
The ground bed shown is composed of
30 canisterized anodes installed in a row
with 17 feet end-to-end separation Figure 11-2
between anodes. Each anode canister is 8
inch in diameter and 84 inch long. The Deep Well Ground Bed
ground bed is further divided in three
sections; each section contains 10 anode
The advantage of a deep well anode is
canisters.
that being in the low resistivity
formation it can be electrically remote at
Anode lead from each individual anode
a much less vertical depth than a surface
is brought into a terminating junction
ground bed would be in high surface
box called AJB (Anode cable Junction
resistivity soil at a lateral distance.
Box). Each anode lead is connected to
the main bus bar via current measuring
A string of vertical anodes is installed in
shunts. These shunts are usually rated
a deep vertical hole to a depth of 100
50mV-5A.
meters or more. To determine the depth
of the well, earth formation data is often
A typical AJB is shown in Figure 11-2.
referred to establish static water level as
well as the properties of water. String of
anodes is suspended in water and coke
breeze backfill is used to pack the
anodes in the deep well. A basic design

76
of a deep well anode is shown in Figure 11-3.

12" X 12" X 6" JUNCTION BOX

10 IN DIA SURFACE CASING

2" CONDUIT 1" PLASTIC

VENT PIPE
GRADE LEVEL

36"MINIMUM
END OF SURFACE CASING

WAER LINE
NOTES 5' 1" PLASTIC
TOP ANODE VENT PIPE
STEEL SURFACE CASING SHALL
BE EITER PLASTIC OR STEEL
OPEN HOLE ANODE CABLES
TOP ANODE SHALL BE
MINIMUM 5 FEET BELOW
THE WATER LINE
5'
OPEN HOLE SHALL BE FILLED
WITH COKE BREEZ AFTER OPEN HOLE
ANODE STRING HAS BEEN ANODE CENTERILIZER
INSTALLED

PERFORATE 1" PLASTIC

VENT PIPE AT EVERY
5 FEET

SEE DETAIL "A"

ANODE CENTERILIZER

ANODE CABLES
ANODE

BOTTO ANODE

1'

DETAIL - A

Figure 11-3

77
The basic design incorporates the use of
surface steel casing to a depth of
approximately 3 feet. Beyond this, the
open hole is drilled to the required depth,
which depends on the size of the ground
bed and the static water level in the hole.
Anode string is usually lowered in the
hole as a “stiff-hookup”. That is, the
anodes are strapped to a vent pipe with
centralizers to keep the string in the
center of the hole. After the entire
assembly is lowered, the remaining
space is then filled with carbonaceous
material. The vent pipe fitted with the
anode assembly allows gases to escape.
Deep well anodes have been installed in
dry formations where resistivity is
comparatively higher than those
locations where formation water is
accessible. In such a case, it is essential
that the formation resistivity be profiled
using soil conductivity measuring
instruments, which have the capability of
measuring earth conductivity down to
100 meters or more. Once the formation
resistivity has been determined, a
78
column of relatively lower resistivity can
be identified for placement of anodes.
When backfilling the hole, coke breeze
must never be dumped in dry. To prevent
bridging, it must always be pumped in
mixed with sufficient water to form
slurry. The pumping operation utilizes a
long hose, which allows start of pumping
from bottom. The hose is continually
pulled upward as the hole is filled with
slurry. A word of caution is that once the
pumping starts it must not be stopped for
any reason until the backfilling operation
has been completed. The disadvantages
of a deep well ground bed are its high
installation cost and lower reliability.
Premature failures are more likely to
occur. For instance, if a string of several
anodes is suspended, early failure of a
single rod can have a cascading effect on
the remainder of the anodes. This would
not be the case with a surface type
ground bed where a failed anode rod can
be conveniently located and replaced.
Chapter – 12****
CP Design Considerations
An appropriate cathodic protection
design is that in which the protection
current is uniformly distributed over the
entire structure being protected and that
both, the minimum and maximum
protection criteria, are satisfied. A
corrosion engineer has to make a
decision between the types of systems
most suited for his needs. For instance, if
the structure is a short pipeline and AC
power is not available and a long life
system is not the prime consideration
then a galvanic (sacrificial) protection
system might be the most ideal and
economical selection. On the other hand,
for a long pipeline with high current
demand it might be cost effective to
install an impressed current system.
Both, the impressed current system
(ICCP) and the sacrificial system (SCP)
have certain advantages and
disadvantages. These are listed below: -
SCP advantages
 Low initial cost
 Provides uniform current
 Virtually maintenance free
 Over protection is minimized
 Interference is negligible
 No extra land procurement
necessary
SCP disadvantages
 High cost per ampere basis
 Not adjustable to compensate for
increase in the current demand
 Not cost effective where current
demand is high
79
 Short life expectancy
 Cannot be used effectively in soil
resistivities over 5000 ohm-cm
ICCP advantages
 Can be designed for 20 or more
years of service life
 Have no soil resistivity
restrictions
 Current demands are not
restrictive
 Cheaper in cost per ampere basis
 Adjustable to meet increased
current requirement
ICCP disadvantages
 High initial cost
 High maintenance cost
 High operational cost
 Can interfere with foreign
pipelines
 Requires land procurement
Another major consideration when
designing an ICCP system is the
selection between a remote and a
distributed ground bed system. For long
cross-country pipelines where reasonable
spread of protection must be achieved
the ground bed location has to be
electrically remote from the pipeline
otherwise the desired spread of
protection will not be obtained. On the
other hand, closely spaced pipelines
within a plant are difficult to protect by
remote ground beds because of the
shielding effects. This is because the
pipelines located on the outer periphery
of the plant can pick up most of the
current discharged by the remote ground
bed and very little will be permitted to
reach the inner pipelines. This
phenomenon is known as “mutual
shielding”. To overcome such a
shielding effect distributed ground bed
systems, also known as close anode
systems, is utilized. Single anode rods
are usually installed either staggered
along or running parallel to the pipeline.
The pipe-to anode separation as well as
the inter-anode spacing depends on the
prevailing soil resistivity and the
anticipated current discharge per anode.
A single such ground bed (ground rod)
has a very limited area of influence,
usually 40 to 80 feet.
The basic principle of protection is that
the earth potential is shifted to a more
positive value thus making the structure
more negative with respect to its
surrounding. This is in contrast to a
remote ground bed whose mechanism of
protection is shifting the potential of the
structure by polarization.
Electrically Remote Structures
To understand the principle of the
remote earth consider that a “point”
anode is discharging “x” amount of
current into the earth and a pipeline is
picking up this current as shown in
Figure 10-1 below.
GROUND BED
VOLTAGE GRADIENT
CURRENT
Figure 10-1
The current flowing through the resistive
earth creates a voltage gradient in the
soil surrounding the ground bed. It can
be seen that the highest current density is
in the immediate vicinity of the anode.
The lines of current moving away from
the ground bed disperse in a much
greater volume of earth in all direction
thus current per unit volume of earth
becomes less and less dense with
progressive distance from the point
anode. At a certain distance depending
on the value of current “x” and the soil
resistivity, a point is reached where the
current density is so negligible that no
measurable voltage drop in the soil
occurs. A similar reaction takes place at
the pipe surface. The current flowing to
the pipeline at any given location is a
very small fraction of the total current
discharged by the ground bed.
Nevertheless, with the current diverging
in the vicinity of the pipeline some
voltage gradient develops in the
immediate vicinity of the pipeline. If this
voltage gradient around the surface of
the pipe does not overlap the voltage
gradient around the ground bed it is said
that the ground bed and the pipeline are
electrically remote from each other.
Since the mass of earth between these
two gradients has no voltage drop and to
satisfy the ohms law i.e. E=IR, R has to
be zero for E to be zero. It can be
reasonably stated that this region of earth
is a resistance-less conductor in the
PIPE
system described above.
Now consider that a zero resistance
conductor exists between the ground bed
and the pipeline, the current supplied by
the ground bed has the ability to reach
any point on the surface of the entire
length of the pipeline Irrespective of its
total length. The voltage drop in the
return path of the current will limit the
spread of protection along the pipeline
length from a drain point, which is a
function of the total return current and
80
the linear resistance of pipeline. The
total current of course depends on the
quality of pipeline coating. With all
conditions equal it can be said that:
 Greater spread of protection can
be achieved on a bigger diameter
line than a smaller diameter line.
 Greater spread of protection can
be achieved on a better quality-
coated line than a poorly coated
line.
Cathodic Protection Design
Parameters
When designing an ICCP or SCP system
a corrosion engineer must seek the
following information: -
 Total surface area to protect
 Coating conductance value
 Right of way conditions
 Foreign pipeline crossing that
may interfere
 HT power line crossings that may
induce AC on the pipeline
 Areas of susceptible
microbiological activity, which
may require additional protection
current
 Resistivity of soil along the
ROW
 Resistivity at prospective
locations for a remote ground
bed(s)
 Rivers-crossings, canal crossings,
road crossing etc.
Selection of System Types
With the above information on hand the
corrosion engineer is well equipped and
can make the preliminary choice of the
81
type of cathodic system that will be most
suitable and cost effective for his
company. For instance, if it is a long
cross country pipeline it is obvious that
the current demand for such a pipeline
will be significantly higher and it might
be cheaper in the long run to choose an
impressed current system rather than a
galvanic system. AC power is usually
available at terminal facilities and
intermediate pumping stations and
therefore, transformer-rectifiers are the
best choice as the CP current sources at
these locations. If the pipeline coating is
reasonably good, locating CP systems at
the terminal facilities and/or pumping
stations, which are usually at 50-
kilometer intervals, can protect the entire
pipeline and additional systems at
intermediate locations are seldom if ever
needed. However, if a CP system
requirement becomes a necessity at
locations where either AC power is non-
existent or its reliability is questionable
as would be the case with the WAPADA
system having frequent AC power
outages, other D.C. power sources such
as thermoelectric generators, “Ormat”
energy converters, wind generators or
solar power units my be considered.
Some pipeline operators in Pakistan
have converted their systems from the
traditional transformer-rectifiers to other
D.C. sources mentioned above for
reasons of unreliable AC power.
The size of the cathodic protection
system depends on the total current
requirement. For any given pipeline, the
most reliable method of determining
current requirement is the use of current
drain test, which can be performed if the
pipeline already exists. Alternatively, the
current requirement can be determined
by calculating the surface area to be
protected. For this, it is essential that
coating conductance be known.
If foreign pipeline crossings are
anticipated bonding arrangements need
to be provided in the CP design.
If the pipeline right of way is shared by
high-tension power transmission lines or
the power lines crossings exists than
interference by induced AC needs to be
mitigated. This is usually achieved by
installation of magnesium or zinc ribbon
at locations where this type interference
is suspected.
Current Drain Test
Such a test requires the simulation of a
working cathodic protection installation
on a small scale. A suitable DC power
source and a temporary ground bed are
the pre-requisite for such a test.
The power source for this test can be a
battery charger, a DC generator, a
welding machine or even 12V
automotive batteries. If the CP system is
being planned will utilize transformer-
rectifier(s) it is best to use a portable
transformer-rectifier to carry out the
current drain test, as this will simulate
the actual system conditions. Use of
other pure DC power sources can lead to
under estimation. This is because the
converted DC is never pure and includes
AC ripples thus making this current less
efficient than the pure DC.
For the temporary ground bed, a number
of steel rods can be driven in the ground
to serve this purpose. It is necessary that
such a ground bed is located at sufficient
distance away from the pipeline as well
as any other buried metallic structure in
82
the vicinity. As a rule of thumb a
minimum distance of 300 feet must be
provided between the ground bed and
the pipeline. An existing steel structure,
which is isolated from the pipeline and is
electrically remote, can be used as a
temporary ground bed.
The negative terminal of the power
source is connected to the pipeline and
the positive terminal connection is made
to the ground bed thus a working
cathodic protection system is simulated.
If the section of pipe under test
originates at a terminal facility it is
important that the pipeline be electrically
isolated from the plant piping. The
applied current in this case will be
drained from only one direction of the
pipeline. On the other hand if the current
drain test setup is located somewhere
along the pipeline the current will be
drained from both sides of the line.
The test begins by draining an estimated
value of current followed by
measurement of resulting pipe-to-soil
potentials at the drain point. If this
potential is not in the range of –1.2V and
–1.5V, the applied current can be
adjusted until the potentials attain a
value between the aforesaid ranges of
potentials.
The pipeline is then surveyed along the
line in one direction and PSP recorded at
reasonable interval until the point of
minimum protection level is reached.
This then is the maximum distance of
pipeline that can be protected from a
single drain point in one direction. It is
always advisable to repeat the test at
several other locations along the
pipeline, particularly if the conditions
such as pipe size and soil resistivity in the same general area. Having done
change. this, the total surface area of the pipeline
can be calculated which then is
Examples of C.P. System multiplied by the predetermined current
Designs density value to obtain the total current
To design a cathodic protection system, requirement.
one has to determine the type and size of
the structure and whether or not the We will now examine various different
structure is coated and if coated, the type structures and go through step-by-step
and quality of coating. For instance, if a calculation procedures, which are the
coating is applied over the surface of a essential parts of a CP system design.
poorly cleaned and primed structure then
Example-1:
it is obvious that the resultant quality of
coating will be substandard. The current Impressed Current System for a Cross
required to protect a given coated Country Pipeline
structure depends largely on the quality
of its coating. Consider now an example of the
cathodic protection design for a cross-
If the structure is an existing one, the country pipeline, which is yet to be built
current requirement may be determined and the parameters are:
by current drain test as described in the
previous section  Diameter 8” (0.203 m)
 Length of pipeline 50 Km
For a pipeline, which is yet to be built,
 Natural Potential =0.6V
the current requirement can be
 Maximum Drain Point =1.1V
calculated. For this purposes, one has to
pre-assume the current density value. His  Minimum change in potential at
presumption will be based upon his past far end to be not less than 250
experience with similar coatings. As a mV
rule of thumb this value may be chosen  Coating resistance = 10,000
from Table 10-1 ohm/Ft2
Table 10-1
From Table 10-1 the appropriate current
Coating Resistance mA/ m2
density is 0.25 mA/m2.
Ohms/Ft2
Bare steel 10
10,000 0.25 We can now proceed with the
50,000 0.05 calculations as follows: -
100,000 0.025
250,000 0.010 Total surface area of the pipeline
500,000 0.005 =L=3.14 x .203 x 50000 = 31400 m2.
1,000,000 0.0025
Total current required=31400 * 0.25
5,000,000 0.0005
10,000.000 0.00025 = 7850 mA
50,000,000 0.00005
or using a value, which has successfully The above-calculated current value is an
been applied on other similar pipelines estimated minimum requirement, which

83
is based on an assumed current density
value. It is advisable to make some
allowances for aging of coating and
future expansions.
Although, the future expansion as well
as the coating degradation over a period
of time is unpredictable, the calculated
current requirement is often increased by
some factor, which is usually based on
our experience under similar
circumstances. A suggested value over a
period of 20 years is 3 times the initial
calculated current. Therefore, we should
design the system for a capacity not less
than 7850 x 3 = 23550 mA or 24
amperes.
Now that the total system design current
has been established, we need to
determine whether or not the entire line
can be protected from a single drain
point located at the beginning of line
where AC power is available. This can
be done using the voltage attenuation
equation given below:
Attenuation Equation:
Exo/Cosh ( x L) Volts
Where:
Ex = potential of pipeline at far end
Eo = maximum potential at the drain
point
attenuation constant = Rs/RL) 0.5
Rs = unit pipe linear resistance (ohm/m)
RL = Coating leakage resistivity (ohm/m)
L= length of pipeline in meters
x = distance of line to be protected in
meters
Running through the attenuation
calculations the results will show that the
potential achieved at the far end of the
line (50 Km from drain point) is 0.699
84
volts, which does not satisfy the
minimum criterion of protection.
Subsequent trial and error calculations
determine that the maximum spread of
protection achievable is only 25 Km
where the potential achieved is 0.888 V,
which satisfy the protection criterion.
From the above exercise of trial and
error calculations we now know that two
options are available. Option one is to
install two CP stations; one at the
beginning of the line and the other at the
far end of the line. Option two is to
locate the CP system in the middle of the
pipeline if AC power is conveniently
available.
Assuming that either there is no AC
power available or an un attended CP
station is not desired at the mid-point,
we will go through the exercise of
designing CP stations at each end of the
line having current capacity of 12
amperes per station.
Next come the selection and the type of
anodes for the ground bed. This is an
engineering decision based on several
factors such as material availability, past
experience with certain materials etc.
For these installations we will choose
high-silicon-cast Iron, which will be 2”
diameter and 60 inch long and is
packaged in 8” x 84” coke breeze filled
sheet metal canisters.
For maximum operating efficiency of the
chosen anode the current discharge has
to be limited to 1 amp/ft2 of the anode
surface area. Thus, current from each
anode in the example we are considering
will be limited to 2.5 amperes.

Since we are designing a system to
produce maximum 24 amperes, the total
minimum number of anodes required
will be 24/2.5 = 9.23 or say 10 anodes.
Each anode weighs 44 pounds. The total
anode material then is 44 x 10 = 440
pounds. The anode consumption rate
usually varies between 0.25 to 2
lbs./amp/year. Considering worst case
scenario the life in years of 440 pound of
anode material at 24 amperes output will
be 440/(24*2) = 9.17 years. Since our
system has to be designed for 20 years,
the minimum number of anodes will
then become (9.17/10) x 20 = 18.34 say
18 anodes.
On the basis of two CP stations as was
ascertained earlier, two ground beds of 9
anodes each will have to be designed.
Using Dwight’s equations (Chapter-9)
the resistance of each of the two ground
beds in 5000 ohm-cm soil is calculated
to be 0.70 ohms. If we add to this the
various cable resistances the circuit
resistance will approximately be 0.80
ohms.
Although each CP station will be
required to provide 12 amperes, we will
choose 15 amperes unit at each of the
two locations. The minimum driving
voltage will be E=IR or 15 x 0.80 = 12
volts. To overcome the back EMF of the
anode, we will increase the driving
voltage by adding 2 volts resulting in a
minimum 12-volt unit. 15 V - 15 A is a
standard equipment and this should be
selected as our power source.
85
Example-2:
Plant Piping ICCP System
Let us now consider a piping systems
within a plant which comprises of multi-
lines running in complex configurations,
such as, lines in parallel which often
crisscross each other. Some paralleling
lines may be spaced very close together
resulting in mutual shielding from the
protective current. These lines are
seldom if ever electrically insulated from
other metallic structures such as bare or
poorly coated foundation steel structures,
buried vessels, storage tank bottoms and,
most importantly, copper grounding
system which is often used for electrical
equipment. Under these circumstances,
unless the potential of all these poorly
coated and bare structures are shifted to
meet the minimum criterion of
protection, the coated pipelines cannot
be protected.
For all the structures other than the
coated pipelines it could require
thousands of times more current needed
for depressing their potentials in
comparison with the well-coated
pipelines. As can be seen in Table 10-1
(above), bare copper would require 10 to
15 thousand times more current than a
well-coated pipeline. Almost all of the
current discharged from a remote ground
bed would therefore, tend to be taken up
by the poorly coated foundation steel and
copper grounding system. Thus, fraction
of the total current reaching the piping
system may not be enough for its
protection. One might argue in favor of
increasing the size of the cathodic
protection system in order to protect all
structures simultaneously. This can
result in a huge system that would not be
a practical solution to the problem. The
distance to remote earth increases with
increased current discharge by the
ground bed and the space limitation
within a plant facility may become a
limiting factor. Although a deep well
ground bed installed deep enough in low
resistivity formation may over come this
problem and result in a truly remote
ground bed the problem of mutual
shielding will remain which may restrict
protection current to reach all surfaces of
the pipelines.
A distributed ground bed, when properly
designed and installed, can protect an
entire piping network within a plant
facility most effectively without undue
wastage of energy. The word
“distributed ground bed” refers to
ground rods installed in close proximity
of the pipelines.
As stated previously, a remote ground
bed protects a steel structure by shifting
its native (corrosion) potential more
negative in relation to its environment
while a close ground bed shifts the
potential of the surrounding environment
in the positive direction with respect to
the steel structure.
For the design of a distributed ground
bed cathodic protection system, the most
vital information that a corrosion
engineer requires is the average
resistivity and piping layout information.
Determination of the size of system
requirement is based on equating the
influence area of each ground rod in its
surrounding soil, the allowable current
discharge limit of the type of selected
anode and the total footage of piping
network. Most commonly used anodes
86
such as 2” x 60” high-silicon-cast-iron
have a limit of 2.5 amperes per anode.
For example let’s assume that a total
length of the piping network is 5000
meters and the average soil resistivity at
pipeline depth is 2000 ohm-cm. The
selected anode is high silicon cast Iron
2” x 60” long. The anode in question has
a total surface equal to 2.6 ft2 so current
per anode will be limited to
approximately 2.5 amperes.
The next step is to determine, by voltage
gradient calculations, the influence area
of a single anode operating at 2.5
amperes. The equation to do this is the
Rudenburg equation, which is as
follows:
( y + y 2+ x 2 )
Vx = 0.038 Ip log10
Pi y x
Where:
VX = Voltage change in soil at distance
“x”
I = Current discharge per anode = 2.5
 = Soil resistivity = 2000
x = Distance in feet from the anode
y = Length of anode in feet
Assuming that the natural potential of
the pipe is 500mV, by using the above
equation under the given parameters, a
specific distance from the ground rod to
the pipeline can be calculated where the
earth potential change will be +700 mV.
By repeating the calculations distance
“C” can also be determined where the
earth potential changes will be +350 mV
(Figure 10-2)
These distances are: -

Distance O to A = 22 feet
Distance O to C = 87 feet.
L
A
22FT
ANODE LOCATION
O circuit resistance times current plus back
2 2
L= 2 87 - 22
Figure 10-2
If we select a point, which is 22 feet
lateral to the pipeline and using this
point draw a circle with radium of 87
feet, the circle will enclose the section
(L) of the pipeline falling within the
influence area of the anode rod.
By using simple geometric calculations,
the length of the section “L” can be
calculated to be 168 feet.
Natural potential of pipe being 600 mV
the potential of pipe at point “C” will
shift to 600 + 1200 = 1800 mV and that
at the extreme ends of the pipeline
enclosed by the circle will shift to 600 +
300 = 900 mV.
Therefore, using anode spacing equal to
168 feet the total number of anodes
required for 5000 feet of pipe length =
5000/168 = 29.76 or 30 anodes. The
total current will be 30 x 2.5 = 75
amperes.
To determine the driving voltage of the
power source the resistance of 30 anodes
spaced 168 feet apart can be calculated
using equations (1) and (3) given in
chapter –9, as was done in the previous
example. 30 anodes under the above
C circumstances will have a net resistance
equal to 0.18 ohms. Adding cable
resistance the total circuit resistance will
87FT be approximately 0.2 ohms. Minimum
driving voltage required will be total
EMF of the anodes which is calculated
as; 0.2 x 75 +2 =17volts. A standard
transformer/rectifier rated at 25v-75A
=168ft
can be effectively used in this instance.
A section of a typical design of oil
processing plant piping is shown in
Figure 10-3. Anode cable junction boxes
are provided in this design so that 5 to
10 anodes may be grouped together for
monitoring purposes. These individual
groups can then be interlinked via a main
header cable connected to the positive
terminal of the power source
R O A D
SKIM POND
COMPRESSOR
V612
16MM PVC/PVC
V605
DISTRIBUTED
ANODE GROUND BED
ANODE CABLE
JUNCTION BOX
Figure 10-3
There are cases where the above grade
junction boxes are not practical. In such
cases, a main header cable is ploughed
parallel to the various lines and the
87
anodes are directly connected to this Example-3a:
header cable.
Sacrificial System for a Pipeline using
The anodes may be installed vertically or magnesium anodes
horizontally. Typical details of such Assume that a well-coated pipeline,
anode installations are shown in Figure which is electrically isolated from all
10-4 and 10-5 other steel structures, needs to be
cathodically protected using a sacrificial
GRADE LEVEL system. The given parameters are as
GRAVEL, OR TEMPED
POSITIVE DC EARTH BACKFILL follows:
HEADER CABLE ANODE LEAD WIRE
SPLIECD TO HEADER
CABLE Pipeline Length = 12000 meters
1'-6" 12' Pipeline Diameter= 8”
2" X 60" HIGH
SILICON CAST 5' Coating Resistance = 10000 ohm/m2
IRON ANODE CARBONACEOUS BACKFILL
Average soil resistivity = 1000 ohm-cm
1'-6"
1' Following are the design calculations:
Figure 10-4 Surface area = 3.14 x 8/39.6 x 12000 =
GRADE LEVEL
7612.12 m2
GRAVEL, OR TEMPED
POSITIVE DC EARTH BACKFILL
HEADER CABLE ANODE LEAD WIRE Using current density 0.25 mA/m2 the
SPLIECD TO HEADER required current = 0.25*3172=1903 mA
CABLE
1'-6" 12'
or say 2 amperes.
2" X 60" HIGH
SILICON CAST 5'
IRON ANODE CARBONACEOUS BACKFILL The life of a single 17 lbs. Magnesium
Anode operating at 2 ampere @ 50%
1'-6" efficiency (Eff) and a utilization factor
1'
(uf) of 85% can be calculated using the
following equation:
Figure 10-5

Both horizontal and vertical anodes are 0.116*Eff*uf x Anode Weight / Current
shown imbedded in coke breeze backfill. in amperes
Canisterized anodes are available pre-
packed in specified coke breeze backfill. The life of a single magnesium anode
Using these anodes can eliminate the will therefore be:
need for coke imbedding at the
installation site. .116*0.5*0.85 * 17/2 =0.419 years

The number of anodes required for 10

years service life will then be 10/0.419
=23.866 or say 24 anodes.

88
System configuration can be two groups
of 12 anodes per group. First group may
be located at km2.5 and the second
group at km 7.5.
Since the total current is 2 amperes,
current output per ground bed will be 1
ampere. The driving potential of the
anode is the open circuit potential of
anode minus polarized potential of
pipeline, i.e., 1.75-.0.85 = 0.9volts.
Therefore, each ground bed’s maximum
target resistance shall not exceed 0.9/1 =
0.9 ohms.
Using equations (1) and (2) of chapter-9
the resistance of group of 12 anodes
spaced 5 feet apart is 0.87 ohms which is
below the maximum target resistance.
Example-3b:
Sacrificial System for a Pipeline using
zinc anodes
For the same pipeline under similar
conditions as discussed in example 3a
and for the purpose of running a cost
comparison between magnesium and
zinc, we will go through the design
calculations using zinc packaged anode.
The surface area to protect is 7612.12 m2
and the required current is 2 amperes.
Using zinc anode weighing 30 lb the life
of a single anode will be: -
0.0424 * anode weight * eff * uf/current
or
0.0424*30*.9*.85/2 = 0.49 years.
The number of anodes required for 10
years life will be 10/0.49 = 20.41 say 20
anodes.
89
If we adopt the same design
configuration as was done in example
3a, that is, 2 groups of anodes (each
group consisting of 10 anodes); one
group installed km 2.5 and the other at
km 7.5.
The resistance of a single ground bed (10
anodes spaced 10 feet apart in 1000
ohm-cm soil) = 0.48 ohm.
The open circuit potential of zinc anode
which 1.1 V therefore, the driving
potential will be 1.1 – 0.85 = 0.25.
Current deliverable by one ground bed is
E/R =I = 0.25/0.48 = 0.52 amps.
Since the required current from each
group is 1 amp it is obvious that the
number of anodes need to be increased
so that the ground bed resistance is
lowered enough to provide the desired
current. By trial and error calculations it
is determined that a minimum number of
anodes per group will have to be 22 in
order to satisfy the design current
requirement.
Cost Comparison zinc vs. magnesium
Assuming that the cost of zinc anode
(30lb bare metal weight) is Rs.10, 000
per anode and the cost of magnesium
anode (17lb bare metal weight) is Rs.
7000 per anode; the total cost of 44 zinc
anodes is Rs. 440,000 and the cost of 24
magnesium anodes is 168000.
The above cost analysis is based on a
design life of 10 years. Since the number
of zinc anodes had to be increased in
order to lower the ground bed resistance
the design life of zinc will be 26 years.
Let us now assume that the required
design life is 25 years. The cost of
magnesium anode system will be 2.5
times the cost calculated for 10 year
design i.e., it will be Rs. 168000 x 2.5
=420000 while the cost of zinc remains
the same i.e. 440000. In both cases it can
be seen that using magnesium system is
economical than using zinc system.
Example-4:
Internal Protection of Water Storage
As an example assume that a water
storage tank, which is 30 feet in diameter
and is 20 feet high, requires a cathodic
protection system to protect the inner
shell and bottom plate.
If the tank shell internal and bottom
internal surfaces are bare or poorly
coated the current required for cathodic
protection will range between 1 mA to 2
mA per square foot. With good quality
coating the current requirement may
range between 0.5 mA/ft2 down to 0.1
mA/ft2.
For this example let’s assume that the
internal surfaces are epoxy coated and it
is estimated that the current requirement
will be 0.5mA/ft2.
The surfaces that are to be protected are:
 2
Bottom:(/4)*Dia = (3.14/4) x
302 = 706.5 ft2
 Shell *Dia*height = 3.14 x 30
x 20 = 1884 ft2
 Total surface area to protect =
706.5 + 1884 = 2590.5 say 2590
ft2
 Current required to protect
= 0.5 x 2590 = 1295 mA
90
For this low current requirement,
magnesium anodes are considered the
most economical choice. Similar to the
calculations shown in example-3, the
calculated weight of magnesium material
required in this case for 10 years of
service life will be 260 kg. Suppose that
we use anodes weighing 40kg each the
total number of anodes required will be
6.5 or say 6 anodes
For optimum steel-to-water potential
profile and best possible current
distribution and the recommended
distance from anode or anode strings to
shell is one-half the distance between
two adjacent anode strings. This is
shown diagrammatically in Figure 10-6.
ANODE STRING
R
1/2
2D
1/2
R
-D
D
ANODE STRING
TANK SHELL
 R= Tank Radius
 D= Distance, Anode String to Tank
Shell
 2D = Distance between anode strings
  = Angle subtended by two anode
strings
Figure 10-6
Table 10-2 lists computed factors which
when multiplied by the tank radius
determine the distances from tank shell
to the anode strings for any given
number of strings from 2 to 18.
 Table 10-2 Assuming required current density to be
N D N D 1 mA/ft2, the required current for the
2 .500 R 11 .229 R tank bottom will be 1.3 amperes.
3 .464 R 12 .206 R
4 .414 R 13 .193 R Assuming 20mA/ft2 as the required
5 .371 R 14 .182 R current density for copper, the current
6 .333 R 15 .172 R
requirement for the grounding system
7 .304 R 16 .163 R
8 .277 R 17 .155 R will be 0.2 x 50 = 10 amperes.
9 .255 R 18 .148 R
10 .236 R Total design current for 6 tank bottoms
N= Number of Anode Strings is 6 x (1.3+10) = 61.3 say 60 amperes. If
D= Distance Tank Shell to Anode String we choose 3” x 60” silicon anodes with
maximum current limit of 2 amperes per
In our example the total number of anode, the minimum number of anodes
strings are 3 (two anodes per string). The required will be 60/2 or 30 anodes, that
distance from shell to each string is is, 5 anodes per tank.
0.464 x 15 = 6.96 feet. The angle
between strings will be 120. The total weight of anodes (110 lb per
anodes) is 3300. The life expectancy at a
consumption rate of 2 lb per amp/yr will
Example 5: be 3300/(2 * 60) = 27 years.
External Tank Bottom ICCP
The system can be configured in such a
In this example, let us consider a way that 5 anodes per tank are evenly
terminal facility having 6 storage tanks. distributed around the periphery of each
Each of these tanks is 40 feet in diameter tank. A header cable can be used for
and there is no PVC containment sheet each tank to which all 5 anodes are
underneath. Furthermore, extensive connected. Finally, the 5 header cables
copper grounding system for each tank (one from each tank) may be routed into
exists, which is typical of installations a main anode cable junction box located
throughout Pakistan. It is also estimated outside the tank farm in a non-hazardous
that 50 square feet of copper grounding area.
is associated with each tank.
The suggested vertical depth of each
With the above assumptions, we can anode is 10 feet from top of the anode to
proceed with the design calculations as tank bottom level.
follows:
For potential monitoring a permanent
The surface Area of a single tank to be reference electrode can be installed 2
protected is: feet below and in the center of each tank
bottom (see figure 10-7)
Bottom: (/4) D2 = 3.14/4 x 402
= 1256 ft2

91
 4"X6" UTILITY BOX
TERMINAL POST
PHENOLIC SHEET
TANK
TEST STATION
GRADE LEVEL TANK FOUNDATION
TEST LEAD
REFERENCE ELECTRODE
.
Figure 10-7
Assuming 1000 ohm-cm soil, the
resistance of 30 vertical anodes as per
equations given in chapter-9 will be
approximating 0.2 ohms. A standard T/R
with a rating of 50V-100A, which can
tolerate 0.5 ohms external resistance can
be safely specified in this example.
Impressed Current System using grid
anode
In this example, we will consider a
single storage tank being built over a
PVC containment sheet. It is obvious
that in this case the anode has to be
located very close to the bottom and over
the containment sheet. The state-of-the-
art technology is the use of mixed metal
oxide ribbon anode in a grid shape so
that even current distribution is
achieved.
Once again we will consider a tank with
diameter 12.19 meters (40 feet). The
PVC containment sheet is usually
provided 0.8 meters below the bottom of
the tank. The assumed design current
density in this case is 20 milliamperes
per square meter. At this current density
92
the required current can be determined
by multiplying the total surface area of
the tank bottom by the assumed current
density. In our example, the total design
current is:
r2 x 20/1000= 3.14 x 6.1852 x .20/1000
= 2.402 amperes.
If we use the anode ribbon with
dimensions 6.35mm wide 0.63mm thick
then as per the anode vendor the current
discharge per linear meter must be
limited to 30 mA/m to realize 20 years
of service.
At the aforesaid current density value the
minimum length of anode ribbon that
will be required to satisfy the design
current will be 2.4 x 1000/30 = 80
meters.
Allowing for the anode cord end spacing
(Ce) from the tank periphery to be 0.5
meters. The length of the center cord
(Cc) then become 11.19 meters.
Having determined the length of the
center cord, the total number of cords at
inter-cord spacing (Cs) equal to 1 meter
on either side of tank can be calculated
as follows: -
Adjacent Cord length on both sides of
the center cord
= 4 x [{((Tank Dia/2 - Ce)) 2 } - Cs
2
]
2
= 4 x [{((12.19/2 -0.5)) } -12]
= 22.02
The above-equated length is the total
length of two cords adjacent to the center
cord length. In other words the
individual length of each of the two TANK BOTTOM
cords will be11.01 meters.
ANODE CORD

Remaining cord lengths can be

determined repeating the above
calculation steps. Remember that for
each consecutive cord, the value of (Cs)
will be increased by 1 as this will be the
distance of that cord from the center
cord.

In our example, the total number of

cords and the length of each individual
cord are shown in Table 10-3
POSITIVE CABLE TO T/R

From this table it can be seen that the CONDUCTOR BARS

total number of cords amount to 11 and

the total length is 98.72 meters. Figure 10-8
Cord No Both halves of the Assuming that the backfill sand has a
tank (meters) resistivity of 100,000 ohm-cm the total
1 (center cord) 11.19 combined resistance or all cords in our
’
2+2 22.02 case will be 18.69 ohms.
3 + 3’ 20.91
’
4+4 18.90 For inter-linking all anode lengths in a
’
5+5 15.65 sort of mesh shape, titanium conductor
6 + 6’ 10.05 bars are recommended, Usual
Total Length 98.72 dimensions of such bars are 12.7mm x
TABLE 10-3 0.9mm. The number of such bars used
may be from 3 to 5.
Installation of these cords under the tank
bottom is illustrated in Figure 10-8. Transformer/rectifier can be sized taking
into consideration the current
To determine the total resistance of the requirement and the overall resistance of
ground bed in our example, it can be the ground bed as has been demonstrated
estimated by calculating the resistance of earlier in other cases earlier.
each individual anode length as per
Dwight’s modified equation and then
Example 6:
equating the overall resistance in a
similar manner as you would for a Well Casing Cathodic Protection
number of resistors in parallel as was
The current requirement for cathodic
discussed in chapter-1.
protection of a well casing is usually
determined by E-log-I method. It is
essential that a person whose experience

93
and qualifications are such that enable
him to analyze and interpret data
accurately when this test is conducted.
This test requires simulation of a
prototype cathodic protection system
comprising of a DC power source and a
temporary ground bed. For the DC
power source a portable rectifier,
welding machine or automotive 12-volt
VARIABLE RESISTOR
VOLTMETER
SHUNT
WIRE
GROUND BED
Having completed the test setup, natural
potential of the well casing is measured
and recorded against the half-cell
(CuCuSO4). It is important that the
location of the half-cell is electrically
remote from the well casing, the
temporary ground bed and any other
buried metallic structure in the vicinity.
Impressing incremental small amount of
current over incremental time period
begins the test. Casing-to-remote
electrode readings are recorded
immediately after interrupting the
batteries can be used. Few steel rods
driven in the ground can be used as a
temporary ground bed. The location of
the temporary ground bed must be such
that it is electrically remote from the
well casing preferably at the anticipated
permanent ground bed location. Figure
10-9 describes the layout of the test
setup.
ON-OFF SWITCH
+ -
BATTERY
VOLTMETER
REMOTE
HALF-CELL
Figure 10-9
CASING
applied current (instant off potentials)
after the end of each time increment.
Current is then increased by one
increment and test repeated until
conclusive results are obtained.
If a well casing under test has a flow line
tied into it, it must be assured that it is
electrically isolated from the wellhead. If
a partial short is suspected the current
drained from the flow line side must be
monitored and compensated by
increasing the test current so that the net
94
incremental current drain from the well
casing is maintained.
Current and time increment suggested by
NACE (RP0186) is 0.1A for 2 to 3
minutes.
For deeper wells, which may require
exceptionally high current for protection,
CHART NO.1 (E-log-I: RATANA WELL #3)
865
860
855
850
845
840
835
830
825
820
815
810
1 10
The person conducting the test
continually plots the data on a semi
logarithmic paper at the end of each time
interval. It will be observed that at the
beginning of the test, plot continues
almost in straight line and then a point is
reached where the plot begins to curve
upward for some time after which it
begins to continue in a straight-line
segment called the “Tafel segment”. Test
must continue until a well-defined Tafel
segment is attained. The interpretation of
the curve is dependant on the person
95
the incremental current may be increased
to .2 amps maintaining the 2-minute
incremental time cycle. The data is
plotted simultaneously on a semi
logarithmic chart. Figure 10-10 is an
example of an actual current drain test
data plot of a test carried out on a well
casing in Northern Pakistan.
Feb.26,2001
23 ampers
17 amperes
100
conducting the test. The minimum
required current is usually taken as that
current value which lies at the
intersection point of the two extrapolated
straight lines as shown in the above
figure. This current in our example is 17
amperes. A more reliable value is that
which lies at the base of the Tafel
segment (23 amperes in this case). The
E-log-I also establishes criteria of
protection for the specific well tested. In
our example, 0.825 (casing potential at
the end of the test) is the minimum
criterion of protection when the half-cell
is located at the exact point where it was
placed during the test. The other
criterion is the minimum current drain
established by the test, which in this case
is 23 amperes. The later criterion may be
relied upon only during the first 3 to 5
years.
Once the design current requirement has
been established, the next step is to
96
design the ground bed and select the
permanent DC power source. As shown
in earlier examples, the ground bed
design can be achieved by using the
equations given in chapter-9. If AC
power is available, the best power source
is the transformer rectifier. The
alternative power sources are
thermoelectric generators or solar power
units.
Chapter - 15
Criteria of Protection
Laboratory tests had shown that cathodic
protection becomes effective when the
cathodes are polarized electro-negatively
to the open-circuit potential of the
anodes. The most negative potential ever
reported by anyone did not exceed more
negative than –800mV with reference to
Cu/CuSO4 electrode. Based on this
value and adding a safety margin,
Corrosion engineer throughout the world
adopted –850mV as the minimum
negative potential to achieve effective
Cathodic protection. The selection of
this potential has understandably been
open to conjecture and speculation, as
has the manner in which the potential is
measured. Because of these criteria
issues, it took years to revise NACE
Standard RP0169 “Control of External
Corrosion on Under-ground or
Submerged Metallic Piping System”.
When a steel structure is placed under
cathodic protection there must be some
means to verify the adequacy of
protection afforded. Use of any one or
more of the criteria given in the NACE
standard RP0169 may be used. These
criteria are as follows: -
Instant-off 100mV Shift
When the potential of a structure shifts
100mV in the negative direction
adequate protection has been achieved.
This criterion requires that the cathodic
protection current is interrupted and
potentials measured instantaneously.
Also, the true natural potentials of the
structure under investigation must be
known. Often, within a plant facility, the
97
buried piping cannot be isolated from the
electrical copper grounding systems.
Under this condition a corrosion cell is
set up in which the steel becomes the
anode and current begins to flow from
steel to copper. Consequently the
potential of steel begins to shift towards
positive direction (anodic polarization)
and does not represent the true natural
potential and hence the 100-mV shift
criterion cannot be applied in such cases.
However, the 100mV shift criterion can
be applied to cross-country pipelines
where the true natural potential (baseline
data) is on records and CP current can be
interrupted under conditions that there
are no stray currents affecting the
measured potentials. Furthermore, it
needs to be assured that any or all
metallic bonds to other lines, grounding
cells and galvanic anodes are
disconnected when instant off potential
survey is conducted.
Minimum –850mV with
Cathodic Protection Applied
Minimum potential of -0.85 volts
measured with reference to CSE when
cathodic protection is applied may be
taken as effective protection.
However, it is cautioned that IR drops
other than those across the pipe-to-soil
interface and the coating must be
considered. The IR drop results from the
flow of the cathodic protection current
through the soil resistance and
introduces error in the measured values
of potentials. Such an error is highly
unpredictable and varies from
environment to environment.
Furthermore, when near a ground bed
the anode gradient effect adds to the
error. Such errors may not be significant
when surveys are done on cross-country
lines protected by remote ground beds
but can be grave when readings are taken
within a plant with numerous buried
pipelines. This is because the current
density in such areas is much higher than
the current density along a well-coated
cross-country pipeline. Higher soil
resistivities further aggravate this
situation. A corrosion engineer must
evaluate the magnitude of IR drop and
establish his own criteria of protection in
such cases.
Minimum –850mV with CP
Current interrupted.
Minimum polarization of –0.850mV
(reference to CSE) when current flowing
in earth surrounding the pipe is zero
indicates effective CP.
Although the applicability of this
criterion in the case of cross-country
pipelines is satisfactory it may not be
applicable to plant piping. The reason
being that the current flowing in the
earth does not become zero. As soon as
the CP current source is turned off, a
reverse current begins to flow from the
buried pipelines to the electrical
grounding system (copper).
To summarize the above, it can be stated
that IR drop through soil is perhaps the
single most important factor when
current is flowing, which must be
considered when applying any one of the
criteria mentioned above. As already
mentioned, it introduces significant error
in the measurements. On a structure with
its cathodic protection energized the
98
polarity of IR drop is such that it adds to
the negative potentials thus the structure
appears to be better protected than it
really is. Conversely, when the current
direction reverses i.e. away from the
structure, as might be the case with a
structure coupled with copper grounding
system, the IR drop at current
interruption will have its polarity
reversed and it will subtract from the
negative potential reading and makes the
structure appear poorly protected than it
really is. This problem magnifies in high
soil resistivities.
It is difficult if not impossible to
interrupt cathodic protection current on
structures protected with sacrificial
anodes. Also, in cases where current
interruption is possible, there may be
other sources of current at that location
such as those from nearby cathodic
protection systems, stray currents or
telluric currents.
Cathodic Protection Coupons
Cathodic protection coupons, sometimes
called instant off sensors, have been
developed and are gaining wide spread
acceptance, as a means to make instant
off potential measurements under
virtually all conditions provided that
such sensors are not affected by the
anode gradients of nearby ground beds.
Maximum Allowable Potentials
Different operators use various upper
limits such as 1.15, 1.17, 1.2 and 2.5
volts etc. The upper limit cannot be a
single value standardized under all
environments when current is flowing.
Only when an instant-off potential is
measurable with absolute certainty that
no stray currents are present, an upper
limit of 1.2 volts may be set as a valid
limit.
Monitoring Techniques
The importance of proper monitoring
techniques can never be over
emphasized. Often, once a cathodic
protection system has been designed and
constructed, operators begin to believe
that their troubles are over. System
designer usually provides an operating
manual giving certain guidelines for
monitoring and unless the persons
responsible for monitoring are not
sufficiently trained, the results can be
drastic. An oil producing company in
Northern Pakistan began experiencing
corrosion problems on a facility only 5
years old. Potentials had routinely been
monitored by in-house electricians and
reported each month to the engineering
manager who felt relieved by simply
viewing the results, which seemingly had
always met the minimum criterion of
protection. It was only after leaks had
begun to spring that the company called
in a CP consultant who found that 90%
of the buried pipelines were inadequately
protected. Excessive soil IR drops and
the influence of ground bed gradients
had mostly been responsible for
producing erroneous data indicative of
adequate protection while the structures
were not actually protected.
It is highly imperative that a suitable
monitoring and maintenance program
must exist and that the persons
responsible must be provided sufficient
training so that accurate data can be
collected without which early signs of
emerging problems cannot be recognized
and rectified. It must be understood that
99
corrosion is never reversible and proper
corrosion prevention is of utmost
importance. For proper operation of a
system it is most essential that a trained
corrosion technician should assume the
responsibility of routine monitoring and
a qualified corrosion engineer be
responsible for analyzing the results of
the monitored data, diagnose system
deficiencies if any and determine
corrective course of action on a regular
basis.
In the Oil and Gas industry, owners of
huge installations can and often establish
in-house Corrosion Control departments
headed by qualified corrosion engineers.
This, however, is not feasible when the
size of the installation is such that a full
time Corrosion Department cannot be
justified. In such cases it is advisable to
engage consulting firms who specialize
in monitoring, data analysis, and
recognition of system deficiencies
needed to prevent impending failures.
Basic Instruments Used in
Monitoring
The basic essential equipment needed for
routine potential monitoring is a DC
voltmeter; digital or analog, which is
used in combination with and a standard
half-cell, usually a copper/copper sulfate
electrode.
Voltmeter
The voltmeter has a terminal marked “-”
or “COM” for connection to pipeline test
lead and a terminal marked “+” for
connection to reference electrode.
Figure 11-1 shows a digital meter, which
is most commonly used for structure to
soil potential measurements.
 FUNCTION correctly indicates the potential
L.C. DISPLAY BUTTONS
0.005 difference across its terminals, the
current that flows through the
SELECTOR instruments (a voltmeter is essentially an
ammeter) introduces an IR drop in the
20A TERM rest of the circuit, which is not included
A mA - +
POS. TERM
400mA TERM in the reading.
COMMON TERM

Figure 11-1 For example, if the resistance of the

Some instruments are auto ranging and
the most appropriate scale is
automatically selected. Those, which
have manual voltage-range selectors,
require that the voltage range chosen
must be such that the voltage being
measured lies on the upper half of the
scale. For example, 800mV
measurement will be more accurate on
the one-volt full-scale range than it
would be on the 10-volt range.
An instrument, whether digital or analog,
draws some current when connected
between a half-cell and the pipeline. The
direction of this current is from the
positive half-cell through the instrument
to the pipeline as shown in Figure 11-2.
INSTRUMENT
- +
TEST LEADS
POS. HALF-CELL
+ circuit resistance is high (such as when
- the half-cell is placed over dry soil). To
CURRENT FLOW
NEG. PIPE
Figure 11-2
The resulting current flow introduces
two possible sources of error in the
reading. First, while a voltmeter
external circuit (pipe, lead wires, soil
and electrode) is one-fourth the
resistance of the meter, then the meter
will read only four-fifths of the total
potential; the error will be 20%. A
second source of error is that the passage
of current through the circuit may
polarize the reference electrode. It is
highly important that any current flow
through the instrument be kept at
minimum possible value other wise an
error in reading cannot be avoided. For
this reason, the instruments used must
have high input impedance in a digital
meter or high input resistance in a
moving coil analog instrument. The
minimum value recommended is 1 Meg-
ohms. Precision analog instruments are
often provided with variable input
resistance (impedance) selectable by a
selector switch ranging from 1 Meg-ohm
per volt to 200 Meg-ohm per volt. The
benefit of high input impedance (or
resistance) is minimization of error in
the measurements when the external
illustrate, assume that at a location where
PSP is being measured, the external
resistance is 5 ohms for example. If an
instrument with 100-ohms/per volt input
impedance is used and the measured
value is 800mV, it will have to be
corrected by multiplying with the
correction factor given below:

100
=( + R)/ 
Where:
 = Correction factor
 = Input impedance
R = External circuit resistance.
In the case of the above example, the
correction factor  is 100+5/100 = 1.05
and the measured value after correction
is 1.05 * 800 = 840 mV.
Those instruments, which have the
provision of input impedance range
selection such as mentioned earlier, can
improve the measurement accuracy. To
do this, measurements are made starting
with the lowest impedance range
selection and then the range is gradually
increased until two consecutive readings
show no change.
By constant use in field or rugged
handling, the instrument’s accuracy can
be impaired. It is a good practice to
calibrate the instrument against a known
good instrument at least once every 6
months.
Reference Electrodes
A reference electrode is a stable half-
cell, which is used to measure the
potential of other electrodes (a buried
pipeline for instance). The desirable
properties of a standard reference
electrode are: -
 Easily maintainable
 Easy to use in field work and/or
laboratory work
 Does not polarize when
measuring potential of another
electrode
 Resists contamination or
contaminate what’s being
measured
 Portability
101
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)
The SHE is the universal reference for
reporting relative half-cell potentials. It
is a type of gas electrode and was widely
used in early studies as a reference
electrode, and as an indicator electrode
for the determination of pH values. The
SHE could be used as either an anode or
cathode depending upon the nature of
the half-cell it is used with. The SHE
consists of a platinum electrode
immersed in a solution with a hydrogen
ion concentration of 1.00M. The
platinum electrode is made of a small
square of platinum foil, which is
platinized (known as platinum black).
Hydrogen gas, at a pressure of 1
atmosphere, is bubbled around the
platinum electrode. The platinum black
serves as a large surface area for the
reaction to take place, and the stream of
hydrogen keeps the solution saturated at
the electrode site with respect to the gas.
Silver/Silver Chloride Electrode
This is by far the most common
reference type used in aqueous
environment today because it is simple,
inexpensive, very stable and non-toxic. It
is mainly used with saturated potassium
chloride electrolyte, but can be used with
lower concentrations such as 1 M
potassium chloride. Note that changing
the electrolyte concentration changes the
potential. Silver chloride is slightly
soluble in strong potassium chloride
solutions, so it is sometimes
recommended that potassium chloride be
saturated with silver chloride to avoid
stripping the silver chloride off the silver
wire.
The silver-silver chloride electrode’s
simplicity of fabrication and
fundamental ruggedness makes it a good
candidate for many industrial
applications where the electrochemical
potential has to be measured or
controlled. It is widely used in aqueous
medium for potential measurements of
submerged structures or water storage
tank internals.
Copper Sulfate Electrode (CSE)
The most commonly used reference
electrode for on-shore (land) buried
structures is the copper/copper sulfate
(CuCuSO4) that is also known as copper
sulfate electrode (CSE). Such electrodes
are available in various sizes. The one
shown below in Figure 11-3 is a 6” long
standard half-cell. It comprises of a
plastic tube with a top cap through which
the copper rod of high purity is
immersed in saturated copper sulfate
solution. The porous plug at the bottom
is made of treated wood, which remains
moist and provides low resistance
contact to the soil.
PLASTIC
PLUG
COPPER
ROD
CuSO4
SOLUTION
PLASTIC
TUBE
EXCESS
CRYSTALS
POROUS
PLUG
Figure 11-3
102
Care of CSE Electrode
The validity of pipe-to-soil potential
measurements are always linked to the
integrity or validity of the reference half-
cell such as the copper/copper sulfate
electrode. It is therefore imperative that
the half-cell being used is maintained in
good condition by frequent calibration
against a known accurate half-cell. To do
this, it is a good practice to keep an
unused half-cell called “Shop half-cell”
in the office or laboratory for calibrating
purposes. The field half-cell should be
checked or calibrated against the “shop
half-cell” at a regular frequency that
depends on the frequency of the usage of
the field half-cell itself. The calibration
setup is diagrammatically shown in
Figure 11-4.
As shown in this figure, both, the shop
half-cell and the field half-cell are
contacted with each other back-to-back
with their bottom wooden plugs
reasonably moistened.
- +
MASTER CELL FIELD CELL
Figure 11-4
The negative lead of the voltmeter is
connected to the shop half-cell (master)
and the positive lead of the meter is
connected to the field cell. Change in
potential 5mV or less, as read on the
voltmeter, is considered permissible.
Any change greater than 5mV (plus or
minus) requires that the field half-cell be
rectified. To do this, remove the copper
rod by unscrewing the top cap and clean
the rod with sandpaper. Never use emery
paper for this purpose as the metal
particles can imbed on the copper rod
and change its solution potential. Next,
dump all of the copper sulfate solution
and fill the tube with freshly prepared
solution using distilled water and high
purity copper sulfate crystal.
To assure that the solution is saturated,
enough crystals are used so that there
always remain excess crystals at the
bottom of the tube. Having done this,
recheck the field cell against the shop
cell. If the change in potential still
remains high, the porous plug may have
been contaminated during field usage
and therefore, must be replaced.
Cathodic protection
Monitoring
Cathodic protection monitoring is
divided in two different categories.
1. Long Term Monitoring
2. Routine Monitoring
.
Long Term Monitoring
The most conclusive method of
monitoring the performance of a
corrosion control system is to:
103
1. Examine and keep accurate
records of corrosion failures and
leaks.
2. Use of corrosion coupons as a
means of determining the
effectiveness of cathodic
protection
Leak Records
The leak frequency is plotted on a semi-
log graph sheet as cumulative leaks vs.
time in years. If a plot of cumulative
leaks vs. time in years shows an
exponential rise, this then is an indicator
that the mitigation system installed is not
providing protection. On the other hand
if the plotted curve becomes parallel to
the X-axis this then is an indicator that
the mitigation system has provide
hundred percent protections. A plot in
between these two curves represents
partial protection.
Figure 11-5 shows typical cumulative
leaks vs. years.
 Cumulative Leak Chart

1000

Number of Cumulative Leaks

No CP Applied Partial Protection

100

Adequate Protection
Achieved

10

1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Years

Figure 11-5
Their position must be clearly marked,
Corrosion Coupons as the operative who is required to
recover the coupon may not be the same
Corrosion coupons are another long term as the operative who installed it.
monitoring technique by which the
adequacy of the installed CP system can The site must be chosen carefully and
be determined. must have good access and secure from
third party interference.
The sites for installation of the coupons
should include each of the known Twice as many coupons should be
conditions found on the subject placed as are expected to be recovered,
structure. In the case of such subjects as as there will be considerable wastage
tank bottoms etc. this is relatively easy to during the period of the test, which can
establish, but with pipelines this may not last for many years. During recovery the
be so simple. Soil samples should be whole coupon and its backfill should be
taken, as the pipeline is constructed, and taken to the laboratory in a sealed plastic
analyzed to determine their container. If this is recovered in a
aggressiveness. Coupons should be stagnant area under water, then the
placed at locations of most, least and whole coupon and surrounding backfill
average corrosion activity. should be recovered anaerobically.
Submerging a plastic bag in the
surrounding water, transferring the

104
coupon in a handful of its surrounding uninterrupted. It can only be possible if
electrolyte, and sealing the bag while these units are inspected routinely by CP
still submerged can achieve this. The bag inspectors.
should be labeled to this effect so that it
can be examined anaerobically in the When each rectifier site is visited, the
laboratory to determine the presence of inspector is provided with a checklist of
anaerobic bacteria and weight loss if any items that needs to be checked and
of the coupon. No or insignificant weight recorded. A suggested format of the
loss of the coupon will confirm that the checklist is:
cathodic protection has been effective in
preventing corrosion.  Date Visited:
 Equipment Number:
Routine Monitoring  Location:
 Structure Protected:
The frequency of monitoring differs with  DC output (volts & amps) as read
each pipeline or plant operator. It usually on Panel Meters:
ranges from monthly to annual basis.  DC output measured (volts &
Where large piping networks are amps) with portable meters:
involved and systems in general are
 AC input (volts & amps)
monitored on annual basis, it is always
 Case temperature (Normal,
advisable to short list critical areas for
Warm or Hot)
keeping under surveillance on quarterly
 Tap settings
or bi-annual basis. The monitoring
procedure should be tailored to fit the  Oil level
needs of individual operators but must  Tightness of electrical
include as minimum the following items: connections.
 General condition of equipment.
1. DC Power Sources
2. Ground beds A typical rectifier unit is shown in
3. Multiple drain points. Figure 11-6.
4. Effectiveness of insulating
T/R
flanges
5. Structure-to-soil potentials. CCB
6. Magnesium anode installations,
if any, along the pipeline.
7. Bonding stations at foreign SHUNT
pipeline crossing. + - PAVEMENT
8. Storage tank bottoms
DC AC DC
Transformer/Rectifier Monitoring TRANSFORMER/RECTIFIER
Transformer/rectifiers are the DC power
sources, which provide the required DC Figure 11-6
current for cathodic protection of
structures being protected. It is essential The above monitoring data should be
that these units continue to operate compared with the previous monitored

105
data. Significant changes in the DC
current and voltage values can be helpful
in predicting impending failure of the
system.
The efficiency of a transformer/rectifier
can be approximated by the ratio of the
DC output wattage to the AC input
wattage. A good transformer/rectifier
operating at near capacity should show
an efficiency of 75% or better. The
method of equating this is: -
DC Current * DC Volts
Eff. % = -------------------------------------------
AC Current * AC Volts * 1.3
Solar Power Unit Monitoring
During monitoring of solar power units,
check and record DC output voltage and
current, voltages of all batteries in he
battery bank, gravity and level of
electrolyte in the batteries, dirty or clean
solar panels, charge controller input to
battery bank (volts and amps).
Ground beds Monitoring
If a ground bed is of the type using
multiple ground rods installed in such a
manner that each lead from each
individual ground rod is terminated in an
anode cable junction box, the monitoring
personnel must check and record
millivolts drop across each shunt. Figure
11-7 is a typical format for recording the
data.
Anode Shunt Rating mV
No
1 50mV – 10A 25
2 50mV – 10A 22
3 50mV – 10A 23
4 50mV – 10A 21
5 50mV – 10A 19
Figure 11-7
In addition, determine the ground bed
resistance and record. This can be done
by dividing the rectifier voltage by the
rectifier current and then subtracting
from it the estimated cable resistance. A
second and more appropriate method of
doing this is by measuring the ground
bed on potential E1 and ground bed off
potential E2 with reference to a remote
half-cell. The resistance of ground bed in
this case will be E1 – E2 ÷ ground bed
current.
Multi Drain Point Junction Box
Monitoring
If a power source of the cathodic
protection is draining current from more
than one structure then a current control
device is usually used to distribute the
total source current to various structures.
The current control device is simply a
junction box with several current
measuring shunts and current control
variable resistors. A typical 3-circuit
current control box is shown in Figure
11-8
VARIABLE RESISTGORS
COPPER BUS
SHUNT
CABLES
Amps
TO T/R NEG.
5 FROM STRUCTURE "A"
4.4 FROM STRUCTURE "B"
FROM STRUCTURE "C"
4.6
4.2
3.8 Figure 11-8
The current control junction box in this
example is splitting the main T/R current
to three (3) different structures. The
106
main terminal of the junction box is
connected to the negative terminal of the
power source. Individual drain leads
from each structure are connected to the
main terminal via variable resistors and
current measuring shunts in series.
Monitoring of this device shall include:
 Current flow through each circuit
 Tightness of terminals
 General condition of the box
Insulating Flange/Joint Monitoring
This item simply requires measuring
potentials on either side of the flanges
without shifting the location of the half-
cell. Alternatively, potential drop across
insulating flanges may be measured
using a voltmeter. The potential drop
across the flange faces will equal the
difference in potentials that are measured
on either side of the flange. A healthy
difference (say 50mV or more) is
indicative of satisfactory flange
insulation
Pipe-to-Soil Potentials (PSP)
Monitoring
Structure-to-Soil potential measurements
are made at all available test stations,
valve assemblies, foreign pipeline
crossing bonding stations, magnesium
installations and insulating flanges etc.
The negative terminal of the DC
voltmeter is connected to the structure
and the positive terminal of the meter is
connected to the half-cell. When
measuring potentials of a Cathodically
protected pipeline, care must be
exercised so that the placement of half-
cell is directly over the line. If the half-
cell is not placed directly over the
pipeline, reproducible results are not
107
possible particularly for those pipelines,
which have poor coatings, and the
current density is high.
For reproducible results it is a good
practice to mark the spot for half-cell
placement so that when ever readings are
repeated the electrode locations is not
changed. One way of achieving this is by
permanently driving 1” diameter and 12”
long PVC tubes in the ground near each
test post so that the top end of the tube
remains an inch or so above grade for
visibility.
It is very important that the half-cell
contact with earth is made in moist soil.
It will be frequently necessary to wet the
soil before a reading can be taken. Each
reading that is recorded must be a stable
reading on the voltmeter. If meter
fluctuates this is an indication of a high
resistance contact, which could either be
between the earth and the half-cell or
between the measuring instrument’s test
lead and the pipeline test lead. A high
resistance contact of the meter’s negative
lead to an above ground structure is not
uncommon. Unless the steel surface is
thoroughly cleaned a good contact is not
possible.
During routine monitoring the pipe-to-
soil potential measurements are made at
each test station from the beginning to
the end of the pipeline. A typical test
station with a PVC tube designating the
permanent location for the reference cell
placement is shown in Figure 11-9.
Positive of the meter is always connected
to the half-cell while the negative of the
meter is connected to the pipeline test
lead.
 CP TEST
STATION
12"
GRADE
Figure 11-9
If an analog meter is being used the
needle will move upscale which is an
indication that the measurement polarity
is correct. A downscale movement of the
needle will be an indication of reverse
polarity of the protection system, which
must be immediately rectified. If a
digital meter is being used instead of the
analog
and the leads are connected as described
above, no sign or “+” sign on the display
screen indicates that the reading has the
correct polarity. On the other hand, if a
“-“ sign precedes the readout it is an
indication of a reading which is
comparable to the downscale movement
of the needle of an analog meter.
Some corrosion engineers prefer to
reverse the instrument’s test leads when
using a digital multimeter (negative lead
connection to half-cell and positive lead
connection the structure). With this
arrangement, a negative sigh precedes
the measured value. This arrangement
cannot be used when readings are taken
with an analog meters.
Sometimes, pipe-to-soil potentials are
measured on the pipelines, which are not
106
TERMINAL POST
2" X 12" PVC
TUBE
6mm WIRE
BURIED PIPE
cathodically protected. Such surveys are
intended to locate hot spots; anodic areas
along a pipeline where local protection
could be provided by galvanic anodes.
Hot spot areas are those where the pipe-
to-soil potentials are more negative then
the other locations
Pipe-to-soil potentials are often
measured using remote electrodes. This
is particularly true when assessing
interference problems at pipeline
crossings or when it is desired to
determine the characteristic resistance of
the pipeline.
Care must be exercised to assure a good
electrical contact of the base of the half-
cell to the earth particularly when PVC
tubes are used as permanent markers for
electrode locations. It is a good practice
to sufficiently wet down the soil
underneath the half-cell to obtain low
resistance contact. The PSP data
measured at each test station should be
recorded on a standard format. A typical
data sheet is shown in Figure 11-10, and
the plotted data is shown in Figure
11-11.
 Pipe-to-Soil Potential
T/S No. Description (2002) (2003)
1 Line side of insulating flanges near pig receiver 1.105 1.127
2 Cultivated area 1.332 1.357
3 Asphalt road crossing 1.255 1.267
4 Line turns towards North 1.223 1.257
5 Near water canal 1.057 1.122
6 Foreign pipeline crossing (Bond current 75mA) 0.899 0.805
7 Dirt road crossing 0.977 1.11
8 Cultivated area 1.15 0.855
9 Cultivated area 1.155 0.85
10 Magnesium anode installation 1.32 0.8
11 Approach road to well site 1.199 0.799
12 Line side of insulating flanges near pig launcher 1.007 0.78

Figure 11-10
Pipe-to-soil Potential Profile

2
Magnesium
1.8 Pig Reciever at Bond to foreign P/L Anode
Near water cabal
Gas Plant Current 75mA
1.6
-Ve (wrt Cu/CuSO4)

1.4

1.2

1 February 2002

0.8

January 2001
0.6

0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Test Station Numbers

Figure 11-11

From the above graph one can observe cathodic protection with the previous
that the entire section of the pipeline year’s data.
meets the minimum criterion of
protection (-850mV). The effect on the Magnesium Anode Installation
pipeline by the crossing line bonding Monitoring
station at T/S-6 with a current drain of
75 mA and the effect of magnesium If magnesium anodes are completely
anode installation at T/S-10. The plot buried installations, then these can be
also shows a comparison of the status of omitted from the monitoring list. On the
other hand installations that have

109
potential and current measuring facilities
(shunts and test leads) then the potential
and current should be measured and
recorded.
Bonding station Monitoring
Bonding station is a device, which
connects the protected pipeline to a
crossing foreign pipeline through a
current measuring shunt and a variable
resistor, or rheostat, which permits
controlling the bond current. A typical
bonding station is shown in Figure 11-
12.
The bond current flowing through the
shunt is usually set to the minimum
value required for the prevention of
interference. This is done at the time of
initial system commissioning or when
changes in the system operation occur.
Otherwise, bond current once adjusted
seldom requires readjustment and should
not be changed during routine
monitoring unless there is an evidence of
interference being present.
BUS BAR
VARIABLE
SHUNT RESISTER
TEST LEAD
CURRENT LEAD
PROTECTED PIPELINE
FOREIGN PIPELINE
Figure 11-12
As shown in the above figure two leads
are routed into the bond box from each
110
pipeline and are connected together
through a current measuring shunt and a
variable resistor. Another set of two
leads, one from each pipeline, is
provided which facilitate connection to
both pipelines for potential
measurements.
The bond current is determined by
measuring the millivolts drop across the
shunt. Potentials of each line at the
crossing point are measured against a
reference cell placed directly over the
line being tested.
Storage Tanks Monitoring
Remote ground beds seldom protect soil
side of the storage tank bottoms. Either
anode grids underneath the bottoms or
rod type anodes installed vertically
around the peripheries of the tanks are
utilized for protection. Permanent
reference electrodes are often used
which are placed under and near the
center of the tank bottom. Tank to soil
potentials are measured by connecting
the positive lead of the meter to the
reference cell lead provided inside the
test station. The negative lead of the
meter is connected to the surface of the
tank shell. The reading thus obtained
reflects the level of protection at the
center of the tank bottom.
Additional readings are taken around the
tank by placing a portable reference cell
near the tank skirt. Usually four
locations (North, East, South and West)
are designated for the portable reference
cell by inserting PVC tubes in the
ground in the same manner as was
described in the pipeline monitoring
section above.
Chapter –16
Some Unusual Problems
Parallel Buried line
Two or more lines closely spaced and
paralleling each are difficult to monitor
individually. These lines are usually not
isolated from each other. When a
reference electrode is placed over such
lines it is almost impossible to determine
the protection level of each individual
line. This is because the reference
electrode is looking at several lines
simultaneously and the potential reading
on the meter is not the true potential of
the pipeline over which the electrode is
supposedly placed but rather the reading
is a mixed potential of two or more lines.
To overcome this problem, PVC tubes
have been used, one for each line, in
such a manner that the bottom of the
tube is an inch or two above each line.
The upper ends of the tubes are extended
two to three inches above the grade
level.
A typical example is shown in Figure
12-1
NORMAL GRADE
PVC TUBES
PIPES
Figure 12-1
The tubes may be left hollow or filled
with native soil. If the tube remains
hollow it will allow the half-cell to be
dropped down directly over the pipe
113
being monitored. A soil filled tube will
also produce the same result because the
column of soil in each tube is electrically
shielded from the surrounding soil and
since there will be virtually zero current
flowing in the column of soil enclosed
by the tube and if the soil is sufficiently
wet the reading obtained will be similar
to that of hollow tube.
Induced AC
When pipelines are located in ROW
(right-of-way) which is commonly
shared with high voltage AC
transmission line(s) interference on
pipelines because of induced AC voltage
is a real and serious one, which can place
both personnel safety and pipeline
integrity at risk. It can be potentially life
threatening for operations personnel to
touch the pipeline or appurtenances. In
addition, pipe corrosion also can result
from AC discharge. This type of
corrosion may not be serious where the
induced Ac voltages are low (such as at
locations where high voltage AC power
lines cross a buried pipeline) but can be
of concern with high AC current
discharge, which usually is the case
when pipelines and power lines parallel
for some distance. Corrosion due to AC
current is one hundred times less than
the equivalent DC current.
To lower the induced AC interference
effects on the pipelines, the primary
method is by reducing the pipeline
resistance to earth. This can be
accomplished by installing copper
ground grids in areas of peak induced
AC voltages. These grids when
connected to pipelines through DC
decoupling devices will provide low
resistance path to the discharge of AC
current and block the DC current thus
the cathodic protection remains un-
affected.
Alternatively, zinc ribbon anodes can be
installed paralleling the pipeline in the
regions of peak induced AC voltages.
DC Decoupling Devices
According to the pipeline safety code, an
insulating device may not be installed in
an area where combustible atmosphere is
anticipated unless precautions are taken
to prevent arching. Induced AC due to
high-tension power lines crossing the
pipeline or sharing the same right-of-way
represents safety hazards. Lightning due
to storm activity, fault currents and other
transients can develop very high voltages
across the insulating flanges, which can
spark and ignite the combustible
atmosphere. Installation of devices
across the insulating flanges, which
allow the AC current to flow in both
directions and stop or substantially
reduce the DC current, are specified in
NACE standard RP-0177-95. Such
devices are referred to as “DC
Decoupling device”.
These devices are also known as
cathodic protection isolators. Such
devices effectively blocks the protective
D.C. current needed for cathodic
protection while providing a grounding
path for; A.C. fault currents, lightning,
induced A.C., power switching surge
currents or any other electrical
disturbance. The result is Personnel and
114
Equipment is safely protected against
shock hazards.
Spark Gap
Spark gap is a decoupling device, which
is installed directly across the insulating
flanges using angle brackets as shown in
Figure 12-2
Figure 12-2
This device blocks DC current under low
DC voltages that are normally
encountered in cathodic protection
systems but permits AC current under
high AC voltages to pass across it to the
plant grounding system.
Zinc Ground Cell
Zinc grounding cell is another
decoupling device. It can transfer high
voltage AC charges from one side of the
flange to the other side while blocking
the DC current. In addition to this, it
provides some galvanic protection as
well. A typical installation of a zinc-
earthing cell is shown in Figure 12-3.
INSULATING JOINT
CADWELD
CONNECTION
GRADE LEVEL
CONNECTING LEADS
3FT MIN.
1.4"X1.4"X60 ZN.ROD
1" WIDE STRAP
1" SPACER
Figure 12-3
The zinc-earthing cell is made up of two
zinc anodes, which are separated by 1”
non-conducting spacers. These anodes
are 1.4” x 1.4” 60” long and are
packaged in cotton bag filled with low
resistivity backfill.
Polarization Cells.
The polarization cell also known as the
Kirk cell named after its inventor is
essentially an electro-chemical switch
that will block the low voltage DC
current but will safely bond a
cathodically protected structure to an
effective ground for induced AC,
lightning and fault currents.
A polarization cell consists of the
following components:
 Multiple pairs of 300 series
stainless steel plates.
 An electrolyte composed of 30
percent KOH and water.
 A thin layer of oil (approximately
½ inch deep on top of the
electrolyte to act as a seal for the
electrolyte.
 A “battery jar” with an open top
to contain the above referred cell
elements.
 A combination lid and terminal
board with positive venting
facilities. The lid and battery jar
do not lock in place but are held
down by the weight of the lid,
terminals, bus bars and plates.
 A bolted bus bar connecting each
plate of like polarity with its
common terminal affixed to the
terminal board by terminal nut.
Cathodic Protection Coupons
The use of CP coupons is gaining wide
spread acceptance abroad as well as in
Pakistan as a monitoring tool to correct
for the IR drop in the measured potential
when the interruption of CP power
115
sources is not practical. IR drop
component is a significant error factor,
which is the result of current flow
through resistive soil.
The earliest reference to the use of
coupons to monitor cathodic protection
systems appears to be a brief mention in
the famous 1967 book by Peabody.
Coupons had been used to monitor
cathodic protection systems in Europe
since 1960. Most of these coupons were
installed since about 1975. The increased
interest in buried coupons for cathodic
protection monitoring purposes seems to
have been stimulated by the 1992
revision of the criteria in NACE
Standard RP 0169-92 which emphasized
consideration of IR drop for valid
compliance with the –850 mV potential
criteria.
A cathodic protection coupon is a piece
of metal, which is electrically bonded to
the structure through an interruptible
connection in a test station. The coupon
is usually made of the same type of
metal as the structure but is located very
close to a permanent reference electrode.
The separation between the coupon and
the reference electrode must always be
kept at minimum or it may be directly
attached to the reference electrode with a
thin film insulator between the two. The
surface area of the coupon exposed to
soil must be kept to a minimum and
should never be more than 1 in2 so that it
attains same level of polarization as the
structure to which it is bonded with
minimal current wastage. Normal
measurements are made with the coupon
electrically bonded to the structure. For
an IR drop free measurements the
potential of the coupon is measured
instantaneously upon breaking the bond
connection.
When CP coupons are placed close the
pipe, that is, in the same environmental
conditions, their assessment of the
adequacy of cathodic protection
improves.
Several companies in the United States
have adopted the coupon technology as a
valid method of monitoring their
systems.
When electrically connected to the pipe,
the coupon becomes a part of the
cathodic protection circuit and requires
current to protect the surface area of the
coupon. If adequate current is available
to protect the coupon, which is sized to
represent a large pipe-coating defect, this
then verifies that sufficient current is
also available to protect the pipe at that
location.
Coupons are not a good choice for those
pipelines, which have superb coating,
and the cathodic protection current
density is in the order of microamperes.
Besides, the IR drop error in such cases
is insignificant because of very low
current density. A typical arrangement of
CP coupon installation is shown in
Figure 12-5.
"ON"/"OFF" SWITCH
#10 LEADS FROM COUPON
TEXT BOX
GRADE LEVEL
REFERENCE CELL
TEST LEAD
#10 LEADS FROM
PIPELINE
PIPE COUPON
PERMANENT
REFERENCE CELL
Figure 12-5
116
Advantages of Using Coupons
 IR free potentials are obtained
without interrupting multiple CP
power sources.
 IR free potentials are obtained on
buried structures protected by
galvanic anodes.
 Depolarization testing may be
performed without de-energizing
the CP system.
Sound Engineering Practices for the Use
of Coupons are: -
 Place the coupon in the same
environment as the pipeline
 Install a sufficient number of
coupons to adequately monitor
the cathodic protection system.
 Use older or aged steel of a grade
similar to the structure's steel.
 Coupons manufactured from new
steel should remain disconnected
from the structure and permitted
to corrode freely for a period of
one or two months.
 Install the coupon at the same
depth as the structure and about 1
foot from the structure.
 The coupon material, mill scale,
polished steel all determine the
coupon's potential and could
cause distortion in the readings.
Coupons must be placed outside
the gradient of any existing
ground beds.
Pipeline Casings there is no change in the on/off
potentials this confirms that there is no
Pipeline casings are installed under
contact between the casing and carrier
paved road crossings and railroad
pipe and the end seals are good. On the
crossings. Spacers fabricated from non-
other hand, if failure is indicated a
conductive materials are installed so that
corrosion engineer has to determine
carrier pipe remains in the center of the
whether the short is electrolytic or
casing as well as insulated from the
metallic. An electrolytic short is not as
casing. Sufficient number of spacers is
serious as the metallic short.
used to prevent sag. Both ends of the
casing are provided with seals so that
The carrier pipes are comparatively
water or earth material ingress within the
much better coated than the casings. In
casing/carrier annulus is prevented. Vent
the case of electrolytic short (current
pipes are usually provided at both ends
flowing through the internal electrolyte)
of the casing.
the current picked up by the casing is of
very small magnitude and the protection
Carrier pipe remains protected from
of pipe outside the casing on both ends is
corrosion as long as moisture or dirt
not affected. In the case of a direct
(electrolyte) does not get into the casing.
metallic short, the casing will behave
If end seals fail and moisture, dirt or
like a very big coating holiday thus
both enter the casing and carrier pipe
greatly affecting the protection of pipe
remains electrically insulated from the
on both sides of the casing length.
casing, it receives some degree of
cathodic protection. The mechanism of
If direct contact between the carrier pipe
protection is that casing picks up current
and casing is suspected, this can be
on its external surface and this current
verified by conducting close interval
then flow from the internal surface of the
on/off potentials with the cp source
casing through the electrolyte within the
interrupted. The point over the line
casing onto to the surface of carrier pipe.
where the change in potential is least is
The internal surface of the casing
usually the point where direct contact
becomes a secondary anode and begins
exists. If carrier pipe is poorly coated
to corrode.
and the soil resistivity is very low then
this method may not be successful in
Cases have been reported where not only
locating the short. The close interval
the end seals failed but also casing to
survey over a rail road crossing is
carrier pipe short developed. In such
relatively easy because half-cell contact
cases shielded corrosion of carrier pipes
to earth can be established with ease.
results because any current picked by the
Such a survey over paved road crossing
casing returns to the CP source via the
is difficult but can be done by placing
metallic contact between the casing and
jute bags over the entire length of the
carrier pipe.
crossing and then liberally wetting the
pavement
By measuring on/off potentials with the
half-cell placed very close to the casing
The second method, which requires
surface can determine if any one of the
excavating the entire length of the
two above-described problems exist. If

117
sleeved crossing, can locate the sleeve to
carrier pipe contact accurately. This
method requires setting up a test circuit
as shown in Figure 12-6
mV METER B
AMMETER
CURRENT
FLOW
B A
CARRIER PIPE
C B
CASING
Figure 12-6
Suppose the point of contact is at “B”.
The current flow in the sleeve will be
from point “A” to point “B”. It will then
transfer to carrier pipe and will flow
from “B” to “C. The point “B” can be
located by measuring IR drop in the
sleeve as follows: -
1. Connect battery positive terminal
at point “A”
2. Connect mV meter’s positive
lead at “A”
3. Move the lead from the negative
terminal of the meter along the
sleeve from “A” towards “B” by
measuring IR drop in the sleeve
at 1-foot interval.
The IR drop will keep increasing until
the point of contact is reached. Beyond
this point, there will be no further
increase in the total measured IR drop.
A third method by which the location of
short can be estimated requires
installation of two pairs of test leads on
118
the sleeve and one additional test lead on
the carrier pipe as shown in Figure 12-7
Figure 12.7
The procedure is as follows: -
1. Before connecting battery,
measure the mV across the span
of sleeve (E1) using the inner test
leads. Note polarity.
2. Connect 12V battery and an
ammeter in series to the outer test
leads. The positive terminal of
the battery should be connected
to the positive test lead. Flow a
measured value of current I.
3. Measure voltage drop (E2)
across the inner test lead of
sleeve.
****
4. Calculate resistance of sleeve
using ohms law: R = (E2-E1)/I.
5. Now connect the positive
terminal of the battery to the
casing and the negative terminal
of the battery to the pipe and
flow the same quantity of current
I that was used in setp-2 above
 6. Measure voltage drop across the FOREIGN LINE
inner test leads of the sleeve
(E3).
ACCELERATED CORROSION
TANK
7. The distance of the casing short ARROWS INDICATE BOTTOM
DIRECTION OF
from the positive end of the CURRENT FLOW

PROTECTED LINE
casing is E3/ (I *R).
GROUNDBED
- +
T/R
Example:
Casing length =100 ft
Casing Dia =20”
E1 =0.12mV
E2 =3.80mV Figure 12-7
E2 –E1 =3.68mV
Resistance/ft =3.68*10^-6 As shown in Figure 12-7, a storage tank
E3 =0.002V and a foreign pipeline, which are not part
of the CP system, are in the influence
E3/I*R = .002/10*0.00000368 area of the ground bed of the CP system.
=54 feet As a result, the tank bottom picks up part
of the current at a location close to the
Interference ground bed (South side of the tank in
this case). In order for this current to
Structures such as a pipelines or storage return to the source, the North side of the
tanks, which are not part of a cathodic tank discharges this current into the
protection system (foreign structures) but surrounding soil. Similarly the foreign
are located in close proximity of a pipeline picks up some of the CP current
ground bed protecting a given structure from its surrounding soil and discharges
(protected line) can be affected or it at a location where it crosses the
interfered by the cathodic protection protected pipeline. Accelerated corrosion
system and experience accelerated results at the surfaces of the structure
corrosion. where current discharge into the soil.
Serious corrosion damage can occur with
This is due to the fact that the ground currents in the order of milliamps if this
bed current flowing through the earth current is concentrated at a small spots
can be picked up by the foreign structure such as a coating defect.
at some point near or in the vicinity of
the ground bed. This current, in order to The interference testing is done by
return to the CP source, has to leave the measuring “on/off” potentials at
foreign structure at some point where the suspected locations. An increase in
resistance to flow of current is the least. potential in the negative direction when
the current is turned off indicates the
presence of interference effects.

A typical example of interference testing

is illustrated in Table 12-1.

119
 pipeline may change to more negative
value even when there actually is no
interference present. The remote
Table 12-1.
Ser Location Millivolts (Neg. Vs. Remarks
electrode will be free of such anomalies.
CSE)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Interference mitigation procedure is
T/R T/R Δ mV
‘off’ ‘on’ covered in Chapter –14.
1 South -650 -890 240 Protection
Side of (more
Tank neg)
2 North -650 -450 200 Corroding Insulating flanges
Side of (less
Tank neg) Insulating flanges are devices, which are
3 Foreign -700 -900 200 Protection installed in lines to provide electrical
Line (more
opposite neg) isolation. This is desirable when a long
Tank line is being protected by a system
4 Foreign -700 -500 200 Corroding
Line at (less
located inside a plant facility. Without
Pipe neg) adequate electrical isolation from the
Crossing
Point
plant structure the pipeline would be
shorted to the plant grounding system
Column 2 represents the locations shown and most of the protection current will
in Figure 12-6. Columns 3 & 4 are on/off be absorbed by the plant structure and
potentials while column 5 lists the protection of the long line will become
change in the on/off potentials. With the impossible. It is essential that insulating
CP current turned on, a more negative flanges be 100% effective for CP system
potential change corresponds to current to function properly.
pickup by the structure while a less
negative potential change represents When an insulating flange set is installed
current discharge. there always is an electrical shock hazard
associated with it. Lightning strikes
It is advisable to conduct interference during storm activities, pipelines
testing by using a close reference crossing high-tension power lines,
electrode as well as a remote electrode. pipelines sharing same right-of-way as
The use of remote electrode is the high-tension lines, are all sources of
particularly recommended in areas of induced AC voltages on the pipeline.
high soil resistivity. Readings recorded These voltages must be grounded
with a close electrode may not give a without affecting the cathodic protection
true indication of the presence or system.
severity of interference. For instance, if
the close reference electrode is affected The most common methods used for
by the negative gradient of the protected grounding the induced AC voltages
structure the pipe-to-soil potential include installation of zinc grounding
measured on the foreign structure may cells or the solid state decoupling
appear to be less negative than it really devices directly across the insulating
is. Therefore, when the current is joints. These devices were discussed
stopped and the negative earth gradient earlier in this chapter.
vanishes, the true potential of the foreign

120
Ways and means of such grounding will
be discussed later on in this chapter.

Monitoring of an insulating flange

requires that potentials be measured on
either side of the flanges. A reasonable
potential difference across the insulating
flanges is an indication of good electrical
isolation. If it is suspected that the
insulating flanges are not working
properly and it is either completely or
partially defective, test procedures
described in Chapter-14 can be used to
trouble shoot this.

121
Chapter – 17
Special Surveys
Coating Evaluation Surveys
Coatings are applied to buried metallic
structures as a first line of defense
against corrosion. Cathodic protection
(CP) is applied as a backup to
compensate for the coating defects.
Coating deterioration begins from the
time the pipelines are buried.
External corrosion is recognized as the
greatest single cause of pipeline failure.
It is a fact that a vast majority of pipeline
leaks occur as a result of external
corrosion, which is often due to
extensive damage to the pipeline
coatings leading to ineffective cathodic
protection at these defect areas. A
perfectly coated pipe will not corrode,
however a perfectly coated pipe is only a
myth. All buried coating systems
degrade with time and will have holes,
discontinuity or defects that will allow
corrosion to take place. True as it may be
that the cathodic protection is capable of
compensating for the coating
degradation but that too has a limit.
Excessive CP current can be detrimental
to the pipe. The corrosion engineer
responsible for the pipeline integrity
must therefore achieve a fine balance
between effective protection and
acceptable current consumption. If the
current becomes excessive or the
cathodic protection is ineffective, the
pipeline must be surveyed to search for
the major faults in order to refurbish
coating. Engaging in an extensive
coating re-conditioning program without
adequate methods of detecting the
coating faults (holidays) can be very
121
expensive. Several techniques are
available that can detect coating faults
and aid in evaluation of coating
condition. Some of these techniques are
as follows: -
 Close Interval Pipe-to-Soil
Potential Survey (CIPS)
 Pearson Holiday Survey
 C-Scan
 DCVG (Direct Current Voltage
Gradient)
 PCM (Pipe Current Mapping)
Close Interval Pipe-to-Soil Potential
Survey (CIPS)
CIPS technique has been in use for
decades. On most pipelines CP test
stations exist at each kilometer interval.
In CIPS the operator establishes an
electrical connection to the pipeline
through a CP test station by means of a
trailing wire. This coated copper wire
unwinds from a spool as the operator
walks the length of the pipeline. The
pipeline potentials are measured with
reference to a standard electrode at
ground level, positioned directly over the
pipeline. Although the interval between
measurements can be any distance the
most common and practical interval for
cross-country lines is 25 feet and for
those lines within a plant a 5 to 10 feet
interval is recommended.
The readings are recorded at each
interval against the distance traversed.
At the end of the day data is plotted as
PSP vs. distance. An actual data plot is that the most serious ones are
shown in Figure 13-1. reconditioned on a high priority basis.
The spikes or sudden drop in the Figure 13-2 is a tabulation of areas of
negative potentials identifies coating coating defects along with the assigned
defects. All defects found in this manner priorities.
needs to be prioritized in such a fashion

C IP S : F L O W L IN E D 6 -L S
SHEET 2 OF 2
SURVEY FROM W ELL HEAD TO FENCE VALVE
1250

1150

1050
M I LLI VO LTS

950

850

750

C O N T IN U A T IO N F R O M W E L L FENCE VALVE
HEAD
650
225

230

235

240

245

250

255

260

265

270

275

280

285

290

295

300

305

310

315

320

325

330

335

340

345

350

355

360

365

370

375

380

385

390

395

400
D IS T A N C E IN F E E T

Figure 13-1

SER. FEET POTENTIA PRIORITY REMARKS

NO FROM LCHANGE
START (mV)
1 235-240 41 I BELOW MINIMUM
2 270-300 149 I BELOW MINIMUM
3 315-330 153 I BELOW MINIMUM
4 335-360 70 III ABOVE MINIMUM
5 380-385 65 I BELOW MINIMUM
6 395 17 IV ABOVE MINIMUM

Figure 13-2

122
The basis of assigning priorities is as
follows: -
Priority – I: All coating defects, which
are in the sections of a pipeline not
receiving adequate protection
irrespective of the intensity of potential
change.
Priority-II: Coating defects with
potential change in excess of 100 mV.
Priority-III: Coating defects with
potential change ranging between 50mV
and 100mV.
Priority-IV: Coating defects with
potential change less than 50mV
The advantage of CIPS, in addition to
identifying coating faults, is its
usefulness of providing detailed status of
protection level along the pipeline that
no other coating survey technique has
the ability to do. The measured
potentials at permanent test stations
represents protection status of only a
small fraction of the total pipeline
length. One proposed rule of thumb
estimates that the measured potential is
associated with a relatively short length
of pipeline, which is about 4 times the
depth of pipeline burial. The Close
Interval Potential Survey (CIPS)
technique provides detailed assessment
of the CP effectiveness over the entire
length of the pipeline, in between the
permanent test stations.
It may be argued that the validity of the
CIPS data is questionable as IR drops in
the pipeline increases progressively with
length traversed. Considering that the
steps between readings are short
distances the change in the IR drop from
123
one step of the reading to the next will
be so insignificant that its effect on the
reading will be minimal. Besides, since
the line current is unidirectional, its
effect on the reading will be in a uniform
manner either subtractive or additive
depending on the direction of the line
current.
Pearson Holiday Survey
Dr. John M. Pearson developed the
instrument and the survey technique in
the1950’s.
The instrument comprises of two parts; a
signal receiver and an oscillator type
signal generator.
The signal generator is connected
between the pipeline and a temporary
ground placed about 100 to 200 feet
away from the pipeline. The output
signal voltage is variable from 2.5 volts
to 100 volts. The signal is injected
starting from the lowest voltage. It is
then gradually increased until sufficient
energy is transferred from the oscillator
to the pipeline
A team of two operators walks in tandem
over the pipeline separated by 20 feet
from each other. Both operators’ shoes
are equipped with steel cleats, which
serve as contact to the earth. The cleats
are terminated by cable connections to a
receiver. The potential difference picked
up by the cleats of both operators is
amplified in the receiver that is usually
carried by the trailing operator.
Signal strength increases as a holiday is
approached and reaches a peak level as
soon as the front operator is over it. At
this point the front operator marks the
location with a peg and continues
walking again. The signal receiver
registers another peak in the signal
strength when the trailing operator
reaches the pegged location. To confirm
that it is the trailing operator who is over
the coating defect and not the lead
operator who might be on another
coating defect, the trailing operator
moves away laterally. In so doing, if the
signal strength drops, the location of
coating defect is confirmed.
Although this technique cannot truly
quantify the severity of the defect it
however, is much faster than all other
techniques and chances of skipping a
holiday are much less.
C-Scan
C-Scan, a coating evaluation technique,
comprises of a signal generator and a
detector unit. The generator unit is
connected between the pipeline and a
temporary ground and produces a
constant AC signal, which passes along
the pipe (see Figure 13-3).
Figure 13-3
The applied Ac signal traversing through
the coated pipeline decreases gradually
with increasing distance from the signal
injection point.
If the wrapping has a uniform thickness
and has no holidays, the strength of the
124
AC signal current will decline
logarithmically. The rate of decline will
be dependant primarily on the electrical
resistivity of the coating. If there is a low
resistance electrical path from the pipe
direct to the soil there will be a
substantial increase in the rate of loss of
signal. Such a low resistance path could
arise from incorrectly applied coating,
mechanical damage to the wrap before
during or after application or decay of
the wrap due to soil stresses etc.
Because the resistance of such a path is
likely to be several orders of magnitude
less than the resistance of the
undamaged coating the resultant loss of
current even from a single small fault of
a few square millimeters can usually be
detected by a significant increase in the
apparent rate of current decline along the
length of the pipeline.
The detector unit measures the
electromagnetic field radiating from the
pipeline and uses this to locate the
pipeline, determine the depth of the pipe
and the residual strength of the signal
current at the observation point. This
data is stored in the memory of the
detector unit’s computer and is used to
compute and store attenuation rates
between any two given observation
points. At the end of the survey the
complete record of the survey (with time
and date) can be printed out to make
available a permanent record.
This technique being more cumbersome
than the other survey methods, has not
gained wide spread acceptance.
DCVG (Direct Current Voltage PROBE PLACEMENT

V5
Gradient) VOLTAGE GRADIENT OL/RE
Over the line to remote earth

V4
voltage drop =V1+V2+V3+V4+V5
This being among the most recent

V3
coating evaluation techniques is gaining

widespread acceptance in the industry. It
utilizes interrupted DC current signal.
The technique involves the interruption
of CP current source to apply an
identifiable signal to the pipeline. This is
normally at 1 Hz frequency (1/3rd second
“off” 2/3rd second “on”). Alternatively,
output current from galvanic anodes or a
temporary impressed current system may
be interrupted. Signal strengths
(difference between ‘on’ and ‘off
potentials) are measured at all test
points. Voltage gradients are set up in
the region of the defects due to current
flowing through resistive soil. An
operator traversing the pipeline with a
pair of probes and a highly sensitive
voltmeter detects these gradients.
A pulsing signal is indicated by the
voltmeter at a 1Hz frequency normally
when the operator is within 3 to 10
meters of the defect. The strongest signal
is noted when one probe is immediately
above the defect. Instrumentation
V1 V2
PIPE
Figure 13-5
This overline to remote earth voltage
drop is used to obtain a benchmark
factor (percentage IR) by equating as
follows: -
Overline to Remote Earth IR X 100
%IR = -------------------------------------------------
Signal Strength
The exact location of the defect can be
located by moving probes either along
the equi-potential lines or across the
gradient line. Null will be indicated on
the meter when the probes are parallel to
the equi-potential lines and maximum
voltage will be registered when across
the gradient line as shown in Figure 13-6
A Nul noted when probes placed
along equi-voltage gradient
Defects located at right
angles thru centre

polarity indicates the defect direction as A

V
m
it changes its polarity when the operator DEFECT
V
m

has walked past the epicenter. Once the

gradient epicenter proximity has been
B mV PIPE
determined, nulling along equi-potential
gradients will rapidly locate the defect VOLTAGE
A
GRADIENT
center, which can then be pegged. An
m
V

‘IR’ drop to remote earth is measured by

summing up a series of lateral voltage
B Probes crossing voltage gradient
drops (See Figure 13-5). lines at right angles will attain
maximum meter deflection
Defect lies along straight line
thru probes.

Figure 13-6

125
Miscellaneous other Surveys
Miscellaneous surveys, which are not the Current Interrupted Survey
part of either routine monitoring surveys In order to obtain a better indication of
or pipeline coating integrity surveys, are the "true" pipe-to-soil potential, the IR
often carried out. These, most error in the potential readings associated
commonly, involve interference with CP current flow through the soil
detection, line current measurements, has to be minimized. This is achieved by
structure-to-earth resistance tests and hot interrupting CP current flow for an
spot surveys instant-off potential measurement. In
practice, this means that all sources of
Interference Detection significant CP current need to be
interrupted synchronously. Typically, the
Interference is defined as an adverse
current output from several influencing
effect on a structure, which is not part of
rectifiers (and also foreign sources of
a cathodic protection system but is in the
current) needs to be interrupted
vicinity of structures cathodically
synchronously.
protected. The interfered structure picks
up current at some point and receives
The selection of a suitable interruption
protection at that location. In order that
time-cycle for the IR free potential
the circuit is completed, the current must
measurements is debatable. In practice,
return to the source. The interference
the current-off cycle is usually between
current is therefore, forced to leave that
two to three seconds while the current-
structure at some other point. Since there
on cycle can be 10 to 30 seconds. A
is no metallic contact between the
longer current-on cycle is desirable to
cathodically protected structure and the
prevent progressive decay of
interfered structure, the return current
polarization.
finds its way from the interfered
structure through the earth and back on
While monitoring pipe-to-soil potential
to the protected structure. The point
with the current cycling, it is important
where this current leaves the structure
to distinguish between the “off potential”
and enters the earth, accelerated
and “on potential”. It is not entirely true
corrosion occurs.
that the less negative potential is the
current off measurement because an
When interference is suspected on any
interfered structure will behave
structure, the detection method requires
differently. Therefore, the person
a current interrupted survey. Pipe-to-soil
conducting the survey pays particular
potential measurements are made both,
attention on the duration of cycles. A
with current on and current off
longer cycle is the “on potential” and the
(instantaneous off). When the potential
shorter cycle is the “off potential”.
becomes more negative with current off
then interference is confirmed. The
survey can be repeated on all suspected Line Current Measurement.
structures. Mitigation of interference is Method-1: Suppose a pipeline has a
discussed in detail in the “Trouble current drain point somewhere in the
Shooting” Chapter-14 middle of the line and it is required to

126
determine the current distribution in the
upstream and down stream sections of
the line. The facility required to do this
is a three-wire test station shown in
Figure 13-7
B
A C
GRADE LEVEL
TO T/R
PIPE
CURRENT
FLOW
AB BC
Figure 13-7
If two equal spans in a section of pipe
are selected on either side of a drain
point, the ratio of the millivolts drop
caused by the magnitude of the total
current drain will be related to the ratio
of the current flow in both sections.
Consider two equal spans ‘AB’ & “BC”
(usually 100 to 200 feet) as shown in the
diagram (figure 13-7) the total current
drain is say 30 amperes (I) and the
voltage drop in section “AB” is 5 mV
(mV1) and in section “BC” is 7 mV
(mV2) The split of current can be
calculated as follows: -
Current flowing in the left span ‘AB’
= mV1 * I / (mV1+mV2)
=5*30/(5+7) =12.5 amps
Current flowing in the right span ‘BC
= mV2 * I / (mV1+mV2)
=7*30/(5+7) =17.5 amps
Method-2: Now suppose that it is
required to determine the line current at
a point somewhere in the middle of the
line other than a drain point. Also,
suppose that the resistance of line per
foot is not known. The facility for line
127
current measurement in this case will be
as shown Figure 13-8.
TEST STATION
TEST LEADS
PIPE
Figure 13-8
By flowing a known amount of current
through terminals “A” and “B” the
resistance of the span across terminals
“C” and “D” can be determined. Once
this is done simple ohm’s law can
determine the line current.
To practically demonstrate this we can
proceed with the following steps of
measurements and calculations.
Connect negative of meter to terminal
“C” and positive of meter to terminal
“D” and measure voltage drop. Let’s
assume this voltage drop (mV1) is
+15mV. Positive sign indicates that the
direction of current flow is from terminal
“D” to terminal “C”.
Now connect the positive terminal of a
12V battery in series with a current
measuring shunt and a rheostat to
terminal “A” and connect the negative
of the battery to terminal “B”. Adjust
current to 10 amp and measure voltage
drop across terminals “C” and “D”. Let’s
assume that this drop (mV2) is +50mV.
Current flowing through the pipe span
can now be calculated as follows: -
The net change or Δ mV = mV2-mV1
 = 50-15
=35 mV
= 0.035V
Since the amount of current that caused
the above change was 10 amperes.
Therefore, the resistance of the pipe span
is E/I = 0.035/10 = 0.0035 ohms
Therefore,
R = 289.098  49.6
=5.8286 micro-ohm per liner foot.
Resistances per foot of various diameter
pipelines are shown in Table-13-2. This
table is based on steel resistivity of 18
micro-ohm.

Now that the pipe span resistance is

known, the current flowing through this
span is E/R =0.015/ 0.0035 = 4.3 amps.
Table 13-2
Method-3: If the weight per foot and Pipe Dia. (In) Pipe O.D. Wall Weight per Resistance
Thickness foot
steel density is known (which can be
(In) (Inches) (Pounds) Per foot
obtained from pipe data tables) then a
(Microhms)
span having a specific resistance value
such as 0.001 ohms can be determined. 2 2.375 0.154 3.65 79.205
Such a fixed resistance length of span 4 4.5 0.237 10.8 26.769
will simplify field calculations, because 6 6.625 0.28 19 15.216
the value of mV drop across the span 8 8.625 0.322 28.6 10.108
will equal the current in amperes through 10 10.75 0.365 50.5 5.725
that span. The test facility in this case 12 12.75 0.375 49.6 5.829
can then be a two-wire test station 14 14 0.375 54.6 5.295
installed across a specific length of the 16 16 0.375 62.6 4.618
pipeline, which will have a resistance 18 18 0.375 70.6 4.095
value equal to 0.001 ohm. 20 20 0.375 78.6 3.678
22 22 0.375 86.6 3.338
Assuming steel density of 489 pounds 24 24 0.375 94.6 3.056
per cubic foot and steel resistivity of 18 26 26 0.375 102.6 2.818
28 28 0.375 110.6 2.614
michrohm-cm the equation to determine
30 30 0.375 118.7 2.436
the pipe resistance in micro-ohms per
32 32 0.375 126.6 2.284
foot is: -
The required length in feet for a section
R = 289.1  weight per foot in lbs.
of pipe of any diameter is then
0.001/(value in column 5÷1000000) that
Now suppose that we have a buried
will produce resistance of that section
pipeline the diameter of which is 12”.
equal to 0.001 ohms.
From the pipe data table its weight per
linear foot is 49.6 pounds.

128
 Chapter – 18
Troubleshooting
Interference Mitigation
For mitigation of interference effects on
a structure, it is a simple mater of
providing a metallic path for the current
to return to the source. Installing a cable
bond between the structure being
interfered and the protected structure
accomplish this. This is called
interference bonding station. A typical
interference bonding station is shown in
Figure 14-4
COPPER LEADS
FOREIGN LINE
TANK
BOTTOM
interfered structure. For any given
magnitude of current, low resistivity soil
in combination with poorly coated
structure, may produce very little change
in potential as compared to high
resistivity soil in combination with good
coating.
In the event that the installation of a
resistance bond between the two lines is
not practical it may be possible to
alleviate the harmful effect of
interference by installing galvanic
anodes on the foreign structure at the
point of current discharge. This type of
remedial action, however, will require
frequent monitoring and replacement of
the mitigation system.

VARIABLE RESISTOR

Testing Effectiveness of Insulating

T/R Flanges
PROTECTED LINE When the measured potential across the
flange faces shows 300 mV or more, it
will indicate an effective isolation. A
Figure 14-4
zero potential difference means a
Having installed the resistance bonds as
completely shorted insulation. Any other
shown in the above diagram, the bond
potential value higher than zero but less
current is adjusted while constantly
than 300 mV requires testing for the
monitoring ‘on’ and ‘off’ potentials of
isolation efficiency of the insulating
the interfered structure with reference to
flanges. Any one of the following test
a remote half-cell (usually 10 to 20 feet
procedures may be used to test the
away from the protected pipeline or
flanges.
structure). The required value of bond
current is established at a point where
Procedure-1: This procedure is simple
the difference between the ‘on’ and the
to use and requires an instrument
‘off’ potential of the interfered structure
specifically designed for this purpose
is either zero or just few millivolts in the
known as the “Insulation Tester”
positive direction when current is
designed by Gas Electronics. The
stopped. Some might argue that 20mV
principle of this instrument is based on
change in either direction is acceptable.
the application of a radio signal, which
This would be a fallacy as it is not the
instead of being induced in the pipe
change in potential, alone which is
travels along its surface and permits
detrimental, but the magnitude of current
detection of even very low DC resistance
density at the coating holidays on the
129
levels. When performing an isolation
test, oscillators in the meter transmit the
radio frequency signals through the
metal probe placed on one side of the
flanges. If effective isolation is present,
the second metal probe contact on the
opposite side of the flanges will detect a
strong radio signal. A weak signal
indicates the presence of an electrical
short.
Procedure-2: This procedure requires an
ordinary magnetic compass, a 12-volt
auto battery, a variable resistor, a current
measuring shunt and a pair of connecting
leads. Figure 14-5 describes the
procedures.
BATTERY
TEST LEADS
SHUNT
PIPE
INS.FLANGE
COMPASS
Figure 14-5
Set up the battery, connecting leads,
variable resistor and shunt as shown in
the above figure. Before making
connection to the flange, place the
compass on the pipe and record its
deflection from magnetic North in
degrees. We will call this deflection
“D1” Now connect the battery between
the pipe section and the side of the
flange, which is towards compass.
Adjust current from 1 to 5 amperes
depending on the size of the pipe; larger
pipe diameter requiring higher current.
Make sure that there is no grounded
structure such as pipe supports or lateral
lines between the flange and the point on
130
the line where the current leads are
connected. Also, assure sufficient
distance between the compass and any
portion of current test leads so that the
magnetic flux around the current lead
will not affect the compass (10 to 15 feet
is sufficient). Now read the second
deflection D2 of the compass and note
the change in deflection between D1 and
D2 and call it ΔD1 in degrees. Now shift
the battery lead connection from the
previous flange face to opposite flange
face and read deflection D3. Call the
change between D1 and D3 as ΔD2.
If deflections D2 and D3 are in the same
direction from deflection D1 then a
dead-short insulation is indicated. A
good insulation will make the deflection
D3 equal to deflection D1 (or may
slightly reverse the direction). Also, if
ΔD1 is equal to ΔD2 then the insulation
is dead short. Percentage of partial
defect can be estimated as follows:
% Defect = (ΔD2/ ΔD1) * 100
Procedure – 3: This procedure is known
as “Swing Test”. It requires a 12-volt
battery, current measuring shunt, a
variable resistor and some test leads.
Using a temporary ground, a steel rod
driven not too far from the insulating
flanges, battery current is applied to one
side of the flanges and the potential shift
with reference to a remote half-cell is
measured and recorded on both sides as
P1 (the side on which the current is
applied) and P2 (the opposite side). The
applied current should be adjusted to
produce a minimum of 300-mV shift on
the side where the current is applied. If
P2 is zero or becomes less negative
(which usually happens if the reference
electrode is not remote), it indicates that
the insulation is 100% effective. If P2 is
20% of P1 (or less), the flange insulation
may be considered having slight leakage
but acceptable. In the event of P2 being
more than 20% of P1, the insulating kit
should be considered for replacement. If
P1 and P2 are equal then the insulating
flanges are completely shorted.
All three procedures described above
determine the overall efficiency of the
insulating flanges. One needs to identify
whether the defective component is bolt
insulation or the insulating gasket. It is
much easier to replace defective stud
bolt insulation. Replacement of gasket
requires line, plant or well shutdown.
The stud bolt insulation can be very
conveniently checked by a simple
ohmmeter connected between the stud
bolt and the body of the flange. Good
stud bolt insulation will show very high
or infinite resistance. If all stud bolts are
found good in an insulating flange,
which is known to be defective, it can be
assumed that the culprit component is
the insulating gasket.
Ground bed Performance
The total circuit resistance, which can be
determined by the DC power source
output, constitutes mostly of the
resistance of ground bed to earth plus the
net resistance of all cables in the circuit.
The major component of course is the
ground bed resistance. If a comparison
of the previous and present total circuit
resistance indicates an increasing trend it
may be viewed as an impending ground
bed failure. It is a good practice to
maintain a monthly record of ground bed
131
resistance. The ground bed resistance is
the total circuit resistance less cable
resistance or it may be determined by
electrical test method as described
below:
With a remote electrode, about 500 feet
from the ground bed, measure the
ground to soil voltage (V1) while the
ground bed is energized.
Without moving the electrode, measure
the instant off potential of the ground
bed (V2).
Measure the total current (I) discharged
by the ground bed.
The ground bed resistance (R) to earth
can now be calculated as follows: -
V1 – V2
R = ----------
I
If over a period of time, the resistance of
the ground bed to earth indicates
increasing trends, check the current
discharge of each ground rod comprising
the ground bed. This is usually done by
measuring the shunt current of individual
anode rods in the anode cable junction
box. The inoperative anode rods will
show zero current discharge.
If in the case that an anode cable
junction box does not exist then the
anode to soil potentials are measured at
each known anode rod location. The
potential data when plotted will show
potential spikes where anodes have
failed. A typical plot is Suppose that the power source indicate
ANODE GRADIENT PROFILE voltage is present and current has
7
dropped to zero. Evidently, one of the
6
circuit components is open. The
5 components of impressed current system
4
are: -
VOLTS

 Main Anode Cable


2

Main Cathode Cable


1

Anode Cable Junction Box


0
1 2 3 4 5 6

ANODE NUMBERS
7 8 9 10
Cathode Cable Junction Box
.
Figure 14-6 The schematic of the circuit is as shown
in Figure 14-7
The above potential profile has identified
anode rod number 4 as inoperative or T/R C AJB
discharging very little current.
- +
Impressed Current System Failure
When a CP system failure occurs, it A B
generally manifests it self in two
different ways, which are: - D
CJB
1. DC voltage and DC current are
zero E
2. There is DC voltage but no
current
PIPE
Before commencing the troubleshooting
procedure, make certain that the AC
input voltage is correct and that the panel
Figure 14-7
Next, visually check inside the AJB and
meters are functioning. This can be done
CJB for burnt or open connections.
by verification by a portable multimeter.
Having verified that all visible cable
In the case of zero DC voltage and
connections are satisfactory, identify
current, the problem lies within the
whether the problem is on the negative
transformer/rectifier unit, which a
side of the circuit or the positive side. To
corrosion technician is not capable of
do this, perform the following simple
diagnosing the fault, and repair it in the
steps.
field. Experienced electrical technicians
are required to troubleshoot and perform 1 Set DC power source output voltage
the necessary repairs. to minimum by changing transformer’s taps
settings.

132
2 Using a heavy jumper cable, ground
the positive terminal of the power source. If
current flow is indicated go to step-4,
otherwise go to step-3.
3 Using a heavy jumper cable, ground
the negative terminal of the power source. If
current flow is indicated go to step-5, else
go to step-7
4 Reset power source voltage to
normal. At anode cable junction box (AJB),
disconnect main anode cable at point “C”
and measure voltage to ground with the T/R
switched on. If nearly the same voltage
appears as shown on the panel voltmeter of
the T/R, go to setp-5, else go to step-6.
5 At the drain cable junction box
check cable to ground voltage. If voltage is
nearly equal to T/R voltage then the drain
cable connection to pipelines has failed
otherwise the there is a break in the
negative cable from the T/R to the junction
box. For cable break location go to step-8.
6 There is apparently a break in the
cable between points “B” & “C”. Follow
the cable break location procedure as per
step-8
7 Although highly improbable, both,
the negative and positive cables have failed.
Follow the cable break detection procedure
to detect cable breaks in both cables as per
step-8.
8 Disconnect the faulty cable at the
T/R terminal. Connect Pearson signal
generator between the cable and the
ground. Adjust signal strength to maximum
possible. Walk over the cable with Pearson
signal receiver. The break is indicated at
the location where the signal strength
suddenly drops.
Possibility often exists that even the best
equipment may fail to detect cable
133
breaks accurately. For instance, if a
buried cable runs parallel to a pipeline or
other buried cables for that matter, the
signal strength received will not drop
appreciably even when the operator
reaches the fault area. If this happens,
the location of cable break can only be
narrowed down by digging test holes as
shown in figure 14-8
VOLTMETER
AJB
CABLE ISOLATED
T.R AT AJB
A B C
HALF-CELL
Figure 14-8
A voltmeter reading between the cable at
the T/R terminal and a reference cell
placed over the grade at the T/R location
(Point A) will show a value very nearly
equal to T/R terminal voltage. By
moving the test equipment (voltmeter
and half-cell) at point B the voltage
between the cable at that point and a
half-cell over the grade is repeated. If the
reading at point B is equal or nearly
equal to that measured at point A, the
section of cable between point A & B is
good and fault lies somewhere between
point B & C.
By repeating the above test steps over
the section containing the fault, the
location of break can be narrowed down
to a reasonable distance, which can then
be conveniently excavated, and fault
repaired.
Short Circuit
Although it is highly improbable for a
short circuit in the DC cables to occur
but in the event it does happen it will
blow the DC fuse. The probable
locations where this can happen are: -

1. Negative cable(s) inside conduits

2. Positive cable at Pipeline
crossings

To locate the point of short a signal

receiver such as that used with the
Pearson Instrument is required. Simply
turn the DC power source on at low
setting where it will not blow the fuse.
Now trace the DC signal on negative and
positive cables. The point of short circuit
is indicated beyond which the signal
stops suddenly.

134
Glossary of Terms

Acid embrittlement:

hydrogen embrittlement induced in metals by acid.

Active metal

A metal being corroded

Active potential.

The potential of a corroding metal

Adsorption.

The surface retention by a solid or liquid of solid, liquid, or gas molecules

Aeration.

Exposure to the action of air.

Aeration Cell

oxygen concentration cell; created by differences in dissolved oxygen at two points different
points on the metal.

Alkaline.

Having pH greater than 7.

Ammeter.

An instrument which measures the magnitude of current flow.

Anaerobic

Absence of air.

135
Anion

An ion (or radical) having a negative charge

Anode

The electrode at which undergoes oxidation reaction or corrosion circuit.

Anode corrosion efficiency

Ratio of actual to theoretical corrosion based on the total current flow calculated by
Faraday’s law from the quantity of electricity that has passed.

Anodic polarization

Shift in potential of the anode towards noble end (more positive) as a result of current flow.

Anodic reaction.

oxidation process as given as shown by the example “Me -> Me(+n) + n(e-)”.

Anodizing.

Forming a coating on a metal surface by oxidation; often applied to aluminum.

Anolyte

electrolyte surrounding the anode in a electrolytic cell.

Aqueous.

A solution that is made by using water as a solvent.

Atmospheric corrosion.

Corrosion resulting by contact with the atmosphere containing water vapor, carbon dioxide,
sulfur, oxygen etc.

Bimetallic corrosion
136
 Corrosion resulting from dissimilar metal contact in an electrolyte.

Biological corrosion

Deterioration of metals due to the action of microorganisms activity.

Bituminous coating

Coal tar or asphalt-based coating.

Calcareous coating or deposit.

A layer formation of a mixture of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide on the metal
surface as result of cathodic protection

Cathode.

The electrode in an electrolyte cell where reduction reaction takes place.

Cathodic disbondment.

Detachment of coating from the metal surface as a result of application of cathodic

protection.

Cathodic inhibitor.

A chemical substance that reduces the rate of the cathodic reaction

Cathodic polarization.

Change in potential of the cathode in the negative direction as a result of current.

Cathodic protection.
An electrical method of preventing the corrosion rate of buried or submerged metallic structures
such. Electrical current is made to flow through the soil and onto the pipeline, causing chemical
changes to occur at the pipe/soil interface
.

Cathodic reaction.

A reduction reaction equivalent to a transfer of negative charge from the electronic to the
ionic conductor.

Catholyte.

137
 The electrolyte surrounding the cathode of an electrolytic cell

Cation.

Positively charged ions moving through the electrolyte towards the cathode.

Cavitation.

The formation and collapse of numerous voids/cavities in a liquid subjected to intense

pressure changes which produces pitting on a steel surface..

Cavitation damage.

Loss of metal as a result of the cavitation action

Corrosion Cell.

An anode and a cathode immersed in an electrolyte and having an external metallic circuit,
which permits the flow of current

Concentration cell.

An electrolytic cell in which the anode and cathode are electrodes of the same material or
two different areas of the same metal which are exposed different concentrations of the
electrolyte

Concentration polarization.

Polarization of a cell resulting from changes in the concentrations of electrolyte due to

passage of current.

Continuity bond.
A metallic connection establishing electrical continuity between two different metal
structires.

Corrosion.

electrochemical reaction between a metal and its environment which alters the property of
metal

Corrosion-erosion.

Corrosion resulting from the abrasive action of fast moving stream.

Corrosion potential (Ecorr)

138
 The natural potential of a metal is also called its corrosion potential

Corrosion product.

Chemical deposits resulting from corrosion.

Corrosion rate.

Corrosion loss of a metal per unit of time..

Corrosion resistance.

Metal’s ability to withstand corrosion

Corrosivity.

Tendency of an environment to cause corrosion

Couple.

Two dissimilar metals exposed to electrolyte

Crevice corrosion.

Corrosion of metal under conditions of oxygen starvation as a result of metal being covered
by non conducting material such as a flange face surface covered by a non metallic

Current.

Transfer of electric charge per unit time.

Current density.

Magnitude of current flow per unit area expressed as mA/sqft or mA/sq cm

Deep ground bed.

Anodes installed vertically in deep holes often filled by carbonaceous backfill materialS

Depolarization.

139
 Shift in potential in the positive direction resulting from physical or chemical means

Depolarizer.

A substance that produces depolarization.

Differential aeration cell.

A corrosion cell resulting from different concentrations of oxygen

Disbondment

Detachment of coating from the coated pipe surface

Drainage.

Return of the current picked up by the protected structure through a metallic conductor to the
current source.

Faraday's law.

(1) The quantity of any material liberated by the flow of current in electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity passed

(2) The materials librated at the electrodes by the same quantity of electricity are proportional
to the equivalent weights of the substances concerned.

Film.

A thin layer of material

Foreign structure.

Any metallic structure that is not part of the cathodic protection system

Free corrosion potential.

Natural potential of a metal in electrolyte

Galvanic Corrosion

140
 Corrosion resulting due to the coupling of dissimilar metals in an electrolyte

Galvanic anode.

Any metal having more negative electrode potential than the structure being

Galvanic cell.

A corrosion cell in which two dissimilar metals immersed in an electrolyte are in contact with
each

Galvanic corrosion.

Corrosion of the more electronegative metal in a galvanic cell

Galvanic couple.

See galvanic cell

Galvanic couple potential.

Average potential of both electrodes in a galvanic cell

Galvanic series.

Metals and alloys arranged in a list in accordance with their activity or natural state potentials

Galvanize.

A process of coating the metal surface with zinc

General corrosion.

Corrosion that is distributed uniformly over the surface of metal

Ground bed.

Buried metallic object which is connected to the positive terminal of a power source that is
used for cathodic protect of steel structures.

Half cell.

An electrode used for measuring the potential of a buried steel structures. It is usually a copper rod
immersed in a nonmetallic tub filled with copper/copper sulfate

141
Holidays.

Discontinuities in coating allowing base metal to come in contact with its surrounding

Hydrogen overvoltage.

Overvoltage that results with the liberation of hydrogen gas in a cathodic protection system.

Impingement corrosion.

Corrosion that results due to impingement of a high-velocity flow of gas or liquid

Impressed current.

Cathodic protection current supplied by a power source as opposed the galvanic anodes.

Industrial atmosphere.

An atmosphere contaminated with industrial gases, compounds fly ash and

Inert anode.

An anode that does not dissolver or dissolve insignificantly when subjected to electrolysis

Ion.

Electrically charged

Local cell.

Corrosion cells on a buried or immersed metal surface resulting from inhomogeneous conditions

Localized corrosion.

Corrosion that results due to formation of local cells

Long-line current.

Current flowing from the anodic area to cathodic area considerably separated on a long structures

Metal ion concentration cell

A corrosion cell formed because of difference in metal ion concentration

Mill scale.

The oxide layer formed during fabrication of metals.

Mixed potential.

142
 Potential of two or more different metals in contact with each other

Open-circuit potential.

The potential of metallic object when current flow is not involved

Oxidation.
A chemical reaction valance increased due to loss of electrons.
Oxidized steel surface.

Formation of thin layer of corrosion products on the surface of steel

Oxygen concentration cell.

A galvanic cell resulting from difference in oxygen concentration between two locations;

Passivation.

Change from more reactive state to less reactive state.

Passive-active cell.

A corrosion cell formation on the same surface of metal with one point on the surface is in active state
and the other point is in the passive state

Patina.

Green color corrosion product formed on the surface of copper and its alloys when exposed to the
environment.

pH.

acidity or alkalinity of a solution; Values below pH 7 indicates acidity and values above 7 indicates
basicity.

Pitting.

Localized corrosion confined to small surface area

Ratio of the depth of the deepest pit resulting from corrosion divided by the average penetration as
calculated from weight loss.

Polarization.

a) Formation of hydrogen film on the surface of metal under cathodic protection. b) Change in the
open circuit potential of a metal as a result of current flow.

Polarization curve.

A plot of current density versus electrode potential.

143
Protective potential.

Minimum potential at which the corrosion of metal is mitigated

Reduction.

A chemical reaction in which gain of electrons take place

Reference electrode.

A half-cell, which resists polarization

Rust.

Corrosion product adhering to the surface of steel

Sacrificial protection.

Cathodic protection which utilizes active metals as anode

Stray current.

Current coming on to a metallic structure from the surrounding electrolyte, which is not supplied by the
intended cathodic protection system

Stray-current corrosion.

Corrosion resulting due to stray current discharge from the metallic structure into the
surrounding electrolyte .

Uniform corrosion

Corrosion which is distributed evenly over the metallic surface on a long pipeline

144