Instrument Transformers

for revenue metering

(Training for metering school )

By
N.K. BHATI
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Course Introduction

• Objectives:
- what is your expectation? Please spell out.

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Course objectives
• Understand importance of instrument transformers in revenue
metering.
• Basics of design and construction of Voltage and Current
transformers.
• Issues arising in field and specification consideration .
• Standards applicable (though as old as 1992)
• Testing methods.

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Importance
• Metering system accuracy is governed by
instrument transformers, if used in LT CT or HT
CT/VT systems.( HT3 or HT 4)
• All errors add algebraically.

Meter errors

CT ERRORS
ENERGY METERING
System ACCURACY
VT ERRORS

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Current transformers in LT circuits

• Most common window type ( round or

rectangle)
• Ratios 100/5 or 100/1 to 25000/5 are
common

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Importance
• Meters may be of high accuracy, but are instruments
transformers too?,
generally not, may be one class lower.
Large old installed base, meters have been replaced but
CT/PT not changed.
• Accuracy of instrument transformers do change due to
• Aging,
• Environmental effects like ambient temperature,
temperature cycling , humidity etc
• line transients and surges leading to insulation leakage,
shorted turns ,
• fault currents leading to saturation of cores,
• Connected burden, lead length or drop across leads.

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Importance

• Ratio error of 0.5 % and phase error of 30 min contribute

1.2 % error at 0.8 pf. These are allowed errors as per
standards for CTs of Cl 0.5 at 100 % current
• Similarly for VT of Cl 0.5, as per standards, errors
allowed are 0.5 % and 20 min phase error, they may
contribute about 1 %.
™ ‘Combined effect may be up to 2.2 %’
• At lower loads, say 20 %, CT errors increase by 50 %,
( 1.8%) at 5 % load , increase to 3 times (3.6 %)
• If CT/VT are class 1, then this may be ….??
• Double of these figures.
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Importance
• Higher ratio CTs when used at lower loads,
may have large errors as they may operate at
lower % load.
• With static meters burden being low, if higher
burden CT/PT are used, their performance at
lower burden is questionable, as not even
specified by standards.
• Drop across leads in VTs, depending on burden
connected.
• If a PT or Ct is used for indication only, then
ratio errors are important, phase error doesn’t
matter.
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Instrument transformers

• Voltage transformers
• Current transformers
• Combined CT/PT units or metering Units

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Instrument transformers

• A transformer intended to supply input to measuring

instruments, meters, relays and other similar apparatus.
• These provide isolation and a measurable
(standardized) signal at safe voltage levels.
• Safety of persons and equipments which are interfaced

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Voltage Transformers

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Voltage transformer

• An instrument transformer in which, in normal

conditions of use and for an appropriate
direction of the connections.
– Secondary voltage, is substantially
proportional to the primary voltage.
– Differs in phase from it by an angle which is
approximately zero

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Electromagnetic voltage transformer

• A voltage transformer which transforms the

primary voltage to the secondary voltage
entirely by electromagnetic phenomena.

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Capacitor voltage transformer

• A voltage transformer comprising a capacitor

divider unit and an electromagnetic unit so
designed and interconnected that the
secondary voltage of the electromagnetic unit is
substantially proportional to and in phase with
the primary voltage applied to the capacitor
divider unit.

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Types of Voltage Transformers

• Earthed voltage transformer
A single phase voltage transformer which is intended to
have one end of its primary winding directly earthed or
a three phase voltage transformer which is intended to
have the star point of its primary winding directly
earthed.

• Un earthed voltage transformer

A voltage transformer which has all parts of its primary
winding, including terminals, insulated from earth to a
level corresponding to its insulation level.

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Definitions
• Rated Primary Voltage / Secondary Voltages
The rms values of the voltage upon which the
performance of the voltage transformer is
based.
• Rated Transformation Ratio
The ratio of the rated primary voltage to the
rated secondary voltage.
• Normal System Voltage
The rms line-to-line voltage by which the
system is designated.

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Errors in VTs, definitions

Voltage error (ratio error)
• Introduces into the measurement of a voltage and which arises
when the actual transformation ratio is not equal to the rated
transformation ratio.
• The voltage error, expressed in percent, is given by the formula :
kn. Us – Up
VOLTAGE ERROR = --------------- X 100%
Up
Where
kn = The rated transformation ratio,
Us = The actual secondary voltage, when Up
is applied under the conditions of measurement, and
Up = The actual primary voltage

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Errors in VTs, definitions
Phase errors
• The difference in phase between the primary voltage
and the secondary voltage vectors, the direction of the
vectors being so chosen that the angle is zero for a
perfect transformer.

• This phase displacement is said to be positive when the

secondary voltage vector leads the primary voltage
vector and negative when it lags. It is usually
expressed in minutes.
( definition is strictly correct for sinusoidal voltage only.)
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Rated insulation level

That combination of voltage values which characterized

the insulation of a transformer with regard to its
capability to withstand dielectric stresses .

• Eg.: 12 / 28 / 75 KVp

• Impulse withstand voltage

• power frequency withstand voltage
• Highest system voltage

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Voltage Transformer construction

• Basic elements of construction of voltage

transformer are
• Magnetic circuit (core)
• Electrical circuit i.e. Primary and secondary windings
• Insulation, basic and additional
• Housing and other mechanical details
• Terminals and mounting arrangements
• Earthing facility.

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Voltage Transformer construction

• Potential transformer consists of two separate windings
on a common magnetic steel core. One winding
consist of relatively large number of turns of fine wire,
called primary winding. The other winding consists of
fewer turns of heavier wire and is called secondary
winding.
• The core material used is generally, GOSS.
• Sec. winding is made of thicker wire, with tight coupling
between primary and secondary windings. These help
to keep resistances of coils as well as leakage
inductance low. Which in turn help to keep errors low.
• Suitable insulation between primary and secondary and
to the body is maintained.
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Voltage transformer design
• Working and design principles are similar to
conventional power transformers.
• In ideal transformer, voltage will be in proportional to
turns ratio and phase difference will be 180 deg.
• If suitably connected (secondary reversed) then phase
difference is zero.
• In practical transformer, due to magnetisation current
and watt loss due to cores will cause ratio and phase
errors.
• Drop across the primary and secondary winding’s
resistance and leakage inductance also adds to these
errors.

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Voltage transformer design

• The VT normally works on a constant magnetic flux

density.
• The power rating of a VT is low, thus the load current
and excitation currents are of similar order.

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Precautions in using VTs

• observe correct polarity marking.

• Never short circuit the secondary terminals of a
potential transformer. A secondary short circuit
will cause the unit to over heat and fail in a very
short period of time.
• For protection , there may be fuses in Primary
or secondary or both.
• For reasons of tamper, these days fuses are
not used.

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Testing a VT

• Many methods, like voltmeter, with standard PTs,

resistor or capacitor dividers with voltmeters.
• Comparision Method:: This is a modification of the basic
‘potentiometer’ method. Instead of reading the primary
and secondary voltages, the secondary voltage of a
calibrated ‘standard’ transformer and the transformer
undergoing test are compared with each other by nulling
method using a bridge , or direct error computation. The
comparision method , of course requires the use of a
‘Standard ‘ potential transformer with a rating which
corresponds to that of each potential transformer
involved in calibrating.
• Reference temp specified isYMPL
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LIMITS OF VOLTAGE ERRORS AND PHASE DISPLACEMENT

AS PER
IS 3156 / 1992 & IEC 60044-2 / 1997

PERCENTAGE VOLTAGE PHASE DISPLACEMENT

CLASS
(RATIO) ERROR (MINUTES)

0.1 +/-0.1% +/- 5

0.2 +/- 0.2% +/- 10
0.5 +/- 0.5% +/- 20
1.0 +/- 1.0% +/- 40

3.0 +/- 3.0% Not specified

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Instruments typical VA burden

• Volt meters 5 VA
• Voltage coils of watt meters and power factor
meters 5 VA
• Voltage coils of frequency meters 7.5 VA
• Voltage coils of kwh, kvar meters 7.5 VA
• Recording – voltmeters 5 VA
• Voltage coils of recording power factor meters
and watt meters 7.5 VA
• Voltage coils of synchroscope 15 VA
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Current Transformers

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Current transformer

• An instrument transformer in which the

secondary current, in normal conditions of use
is substantially proportional to the primary
current and differs in phase from it by an angle
which is approximately zero for an appropriate
direction of the connections.

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Types of CTs………… by application

• Measuring current transformer
A current transformer intended to supply indicating
instruments, integrating meters and similar apparatus.
• Protective current transformer
A current transformer intended to supply protective
relays and similar apparatus.
• Dual purpose current transformers
A current transformer intended to serve the dual purpose
of measuring and protection.

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Types of CTs.. …….by construction
• Window type or ring type current transformer
A current transformer having no primary winding as an integral part
of the structure. This current transformer has an opening in the
center to accommodate a primary conductor through it.
• Wound-primary current transformer
A current transformer in which the primary winding consists of a
single turn loop or multi-turn coil integral with the transformer.
• Bar-primary current transformer
A current transformer in which the primary winding consists of a
bar of suitable size and material forming an integral part of the
current transformer the primary conductor is the equivalent of a
single primary turn.
• Bushing type current transformer
A current transformer having neither primary winding nor insulation
for a primary winding. This type of current transformer is for use
with a fully-insulated conductor as the primary winding.

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Types of CTs.. …….by construction

• Multiple secondary current transformer
A current transformer having more than one secondary winding on
a common core. One secondary winding is closed, other unused
secondary should be left open circuit and not closed or short
circuited.
• Multiple-primary current transformer
A current transformer having more than one primary winding on a
common core.
• Multiple ratio current transformer
A current transformer from which more than one transformation
ratio can be obtained by the use of taps on the primary or
secondary windings or both, or by series / parallel connection of
separate primary or secondary windings on a common core, or by
other means.

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Types of CTs.. …….by insulation
• Tape wound CTs: these are ring type CTs, with
polyester or fiber glass tape .

• Resin cast CTs: these are ring type CTs, with polyester
or PVC tape and then cast into resin. Resin works as
insulation as well as provides environmental protection.
Terminals and supporting clamps are also cast in the
resin.

• Oil filled CTS: these are generally HT type of CTS. In

these, oil is used as insulation and provides cooling
also.
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Types of CTs………… by application

• Interposing current transformer
A current transformer which is intended to amend the
ratio of a main current transformer by having its primary
winding connected to secondary winding of the main
current transformer and its secondary winding
connections to the burden.

• Summation current transformer

A current transformer which is intended to summate the
currents in a number of feeders in association with the
feeder current transformer core balance current
transformers. The core balance current transformers
are intended for providing earth leakage protection on 3
phase electrical system.
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Some definitions
• Rated primary current:
The value of primary current which appear in the
designation or rating plate and on which CT
performance is based. The value of current which is to
be transformed to a lower value. In CT parlance, the
"load" of the CT refers to the primary current.
• Rated secondary current:
The current in the secondary circuit and on which the
performance of the CT is based. Typical values of
secondary current are 1 A or 5 A.
• Rated burden:
The apparent power of the secondary circuit in Volt-
amperes expressed at the rated secondary current and
at a specific power factor (0.8 for almost all standards)

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Some definitions …. Contd.

• Accuracy class:
In the case of metering CT s, accuracy
class is typically, 0.2, 0.5, 1 or 3. This
means that the errors have to be within
the limits specified in the standards for
that particular accuracy class. The
metering CT has to be accurate from 5%
to 120% of the rated primary current, at
25% and 100% of the rated burden at the
specified power factor.

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Some definitions …. Contd.

• Short time rating:

The value of primary current (in kA) that the CT should be able to
withstand both thermally and dynamically without damage to the
windings, with the secondary circuit being short-circuited. The time
specified is usually 1 or 3 seconds.
• Instrument security factor (factor of security):
This typically takes a value of less than 5 or less than 10 though it
could be much higher if the ratio is very low. If the factor of security
of the CT is 5, it means that the composite error of the metering CT
at 5 times the rated primary current is equal to or greater than
10%. This means that heavy currents on the primary are not
passed on to the secondary circuit and instruments are therefore
protected. In the case of double ratio CT's, FS is applicable for the
lowest ratio only.

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CT errors ( Ratio error )

• The error which a transformer introduces into the measurement of

a current and which arises from the fact that the actual
transformation ratio is not equal to the rated transformation ratio.

• The current ratio error expressed in percent is given by the

formula.
(KnIs – Ip) x 100
CURRENT ERROR % = -------------------
Ip
Where
Kn = the rated transformation ratio
ip = the actual primary current
is = the actual secondary current when

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Phase displacement or error

• The difference in phase between the

primary and secondary current vectors,
the direction of the vectors being so
chosen that the angle is zero for a perfect
transformer.
• The phase displacement is said to be
positive when the secondary current
vector leads the primary current vector.
(this definition is correct for sinusoidal currents)
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Design aspects….principle
With the secondary winding connected to the burden, and a
primary current (Ip) flowing, an alternating flux is induced in the
core.
This flux is of just sufficient value to induce in the secondary
winding an emf (Es), again of just sufficient magnitude to pass a
secondary current (Is), through the secondary circuit such that
there is absolute equality between the primary and secondary
ampere turns and precise phase opposition between them.

Np. Ip =Ns. Is

where
Np = No. of primary turns.
Ns = No. of secondary turns.

• Because of primary exciting current ampere-turns all primary

ampere-turns shall not be transferred to secondary ampere-turns
which results into ratio and phase angle error.
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Design aspects….principle

• Errors of a current transformer are directly

propotional to
1) mean length of magnetic core
2) sum of external and internal burden

and inversly propotional to

1) ampere turns
2) number of turns in secondary
3) effective area of magnetic core.
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Calculation of errors
RATIO ERROR.
(Im Sin δ + Iw Cos δ)
% R. E. = -
100----------------------------------------
Ip
PHASE ANGLE ERROR

Im Cos δ – Iw Sin δ
P. E. = 3438 ------------------------------------ minutes
Ip
WHERE,
δ = OVERALL SECONDARY POWER FACTOR ANGLE.
Im = MAGNETIZING COMPONENT OF EXCITING CURRENT.
Iw = WATT-LOSS COMPONENT OF EXCITING CURRENT .
Ip = ACTUAL PRIMARY CURRENT.

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Some facts about CTs…

• In CT , primary current is controlled by the load of the

circuit in which it is connected in series, not by CT itself.
• CT is a variable flux device, unlike PT , which is a
constant flux device.
• This results in variation in ratio and phase errors , over
the dynamic range, which is large,
• The dynamic range may be 1 % to 120 % of rated
current.
• For a given design, the Im and Ie becomes larger
proportion of the current, lower the current , leading to
increased ratio and phase errors.
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• CTs must be designed with cores which

have lower excitation current ( Im and Ie).
• Higher permeability.
• Short magnetic path
• Larger cross section
• Lower flux density
• Generally class 0.5 CTS use GOSS
material, class 0.2 uses mumetal.
• Most common type of construction uses
tape wound toroids .
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Some facts about CTs…
• Primary and secondary windings need to be tightly
coupled.
• Turns compensation is invariably used, actual turns
ratio is less than rated ratio.
• Secondary is generally wound with multiple insulated
parallel wires,
• CT secondary shall never be open circuited, when
primary is energised, it produces very high voltages,
which may be fatal, as well cause damage to
equipments.
• Generally below 100 A, primary wound type of CTs are
used,

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Some facts about CTs…

• CTs may saturate due to
• Open secondary winding.
• Due to DC current in secondary, like for testing
resistance using a multimeter.
• Due to short circuit fault
• A saturated core will have lower permeability, thus
increased ratio and Phase errors.
• Such CTs shall be demagnetised,
• Lower the burden in VA , lower the error.
• For practical purposes , variation of errors due to
change of frequency can be ignored.

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Limits of errors.

AS PER IS 2705/1992 AND IEC 60044.1/1996.

ACCURACY + % CURRENT (RATIO) PHASE DISPLACEMENT IN

CLASS ERROR AT % of RATED MINUTES % OF RATED CURRENT
CURRENT.

5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120

0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 15 8 5 5

0.2 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10

0.5 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30

1.0 3.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 180 90 60 60

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Effect of load power factor on phase error

LAGGING POWER FACTOR PHASE ERROR TO CAUSE + 0.1%
INCREASE IN INSTRUMENT READING

0.5 2.0 MINUTES LEADING

0.6 2.6 MINUTES LEADING
0.7 3.4 MINUTES LEADING
0.8 4.5 MINUTES LEADING
0.9 7.0 MINUTES LEADING
0.95 9.5 MINUTES LEADING

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Testing of current transformers
• Absolute or bridge methods.. Not much used these days.
• Comparision Method: or Primary injection method: This is a
modification of the basic bridge methods. Instead of reading the
primary and secondary currents, the secondary current of a
calibrated ‘standard’ / reference current transformer and the
transformer undergoing test are compared with each other by
nulling method using a bridge , or direct error computation. The
comparision method , of course requires the use of a ‘Standard
‘current transformer with a rating which corresponds to that of
each current transformer involved in calibrating.
• We require a source, reference CT, calibrated burden set, and a
comparator.
• Reference temp specified is 40 deg C

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Metering Units.
• Metering units for 11 and 33 KV are
combined CT /PT units, where three CTs
and two or three CTS are built in one
casing. Generally oil is used as insulation
and are completely sealed units.

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Metering unit circuit

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11 KV metering unit… oil filled , out door
type

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