Q1.Hardness is defined as the soap consuming capacity of a water sample.

Generally, soaps
consist of the sodium salts of long fatty acids (such as oleic acid, palmic acid and stearic acid).
The soap consuming capacity of a water largely due to the presence of Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions as
they form insoluble scums of calcium and magnesium soaps which do not have any detergent
value.

For softening of water by zeolite process, hard water is percolated at a specified rate through
a bed of zeolite. Zeolite holds sodium ion loosely and can be represented as Na 2Z, where Z
represents insoluble radical frame work.

Q1B)When the water passes through the zeolite the hardness causing ions (Ca+2,
Mg+2 etc.) are retained by the zeolite as CaZ and MgZ respectively, while the
outgoing water contains equivalent amount of sodium salts.

Q3. Hydrodynamic lubrication was first researched by Osborne Reynolds (1842-

1912).When a lubricant was applied to a shaft and bearing, Reynolds found that
the rotating shaft pulled a converging wedge of lubricant between the shaft and
the bearing. He also noted that as the shaft gained velocity, the liquid flowed
between the two surfaces at a greater rate. This, because the lubricant is viscous,
produces a liquid pressure in the lubricant wedge that is sufficient to keep the two
surfaces separated. Under ideal conditions, Reynolds showed that this liquid
pressure was great enough to keep the two bodies from having any contact and
that the only friction is the system was the viscous resistance of the lubricant.
The P–B ratio is defined as:

where:

 RPB is the Pilling–Bedworth ratio,

 M – the atomic or molecular mass,
 n – number of atoms of metal per one molecule of the oxide
 ρ – density, and
 V – volume.

Q4. BEDWORTH RULE-PILLING

An oxide is protective or non-porous if the volume of the oxide is at least as great
as the volume of the metal from which it is formed. If the volume of the oxide is
less than the volume of the metal, the oxide layer is porous (or non-continuous)
and hence non-protective because it cannot prevent the access of oxygen to the
fresh metal surface below, The ratio of the volume of metal oxide to the volume of
the metal is also known as specific volume ratio.
Specific Volume Ratio = MO/O
MO = Volume of Metal Oxide, M = Volume of Metal
Smaller the specific volume ratio greater is the oxidation corrosion. Alkali and
alkaline earth metals form oxide of volume less than the volume of metal, thus the
oxide layer faces stress and strain, developing cracks and pores. Porous oxide
scale permits free access of oxygen to the underlying metal surface for fresh
action, and corrosion continue.
Metal like Aluminum and Copper from oxides, whose volume is greater than the
volume of the metal, thus an extremely tightly adhering non porous layer is
formed. Due to the absence of cracks or pores the rate of oxidation rapidly
decreases to zero.
Example, the specific volume ratio of W, Cr and Ni is 3.6, 2.0 and 1.6 respectively
therefore the rate of corrosion of W is least even at high temperature.
Q5. Lime soda process is one of the water softener systems. In this system
calcium hydroxide and soda ash are used as reagents. By this process soluble
magnesium and calcium salts are removed as calcium carbonate and magnesium
hydroxide precipitated. After removal of this precipitated, we obtain soft water.
Both temporary water hardness and permanent water hardness are removed by
this lime softening water softener systems. There are two type lime-soda
process; cold lime soda process and hot lime soda process.

Q5.B Soap is less effective in hard water since it reacts to form a calcium or magnesium
salt of the organic acid in the soap and forms a grayish soap scum with no lather.
Detergents, on the other hand, lather in both hard and soft water.
Q6.A , B ) Every molecule has some absorption for UV rays. And at a particular
wavelength of UV rays, there is a maximum absorption. This is called
as λmax. This λmax is a characteristic (specific) for every molecule. When we
scan the sample using the UV rays (usually between 200 nm-400 nm), the
sample absorbs the UV rays accordingly and gives a broad spectrum. This
means that the sample absorbs all the different wavelengths of the UV rays and
gives an absorption value for each wavelength absorbed, along with the
wavelength at which maximum absorption took place i.e., λmax. So we get an
intense peak for the λmax and that peak denotes the λmax of the sample.