Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Impact of volcanism on the evolution of Lake Van (eastern Anatolia) III:

Periodic (Nemrut) vs. episodic (Süphan) explosive eruptions and climate
forcing reflected in a tephra gap between ca. 14 ka and ca. 30 ka
Hans-Ulrich Schmincke ⁎, Mari Sumita 1, Paleovan scientific team
GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Wischhofstr. 1-3, 24148, Kiel, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fifteen Lateglacial to Holocene rhyolitic, dominantly primary tephra layers piston-cored and drilled (ICDP
Received 17 June 2014 Paleovan drilling project) in western Lake Van (eastern Anatolia, Turkey) were precisely correlated to either of
Accepted 12 August 2014 the two adjacent and active large volcanoes Nemrut and Süphan based on shard textures, mineralogy and
Available online 23 August 2014
mineral and glass compositions. The young peralkaline (comenditic to pantelleritic) primary rhyolitic Nemrut
tephras are characterized by anorthoclase, hedenbergitic to augitic clinopyroxene, fayalitic olivine, minor quartz,
Keywords:
Lake Van
and rare accessory chevkinite and zircon. Phenocrysts in subalkaline primary rhyolitic Süphan tephras are chiefly
Holocene–Lateglacial tephrostratigraphy oligoclase-labradorite, with minor K-rich sanidine in some, biotite, amphibole, hypersthene, rare augitic
Episodic/periodic explosive activity clinopyroxene, relatively common allanite and rare zircon.
Nemrut and Süphan volcanoes Two contrasting explosive eruptive modes are distinguished from each other: episodic (Süphan) and periodic
Tephra swarm (Nemrut). The Lateglacial Süphan tephra swarm covers a short time interval of ca. 338 years between ca.
Climate forcing of volcanic activity 13,078 vy BP and 12,740 vy BP, eruptions having occurred statistically every ca. 42 years with especially short in-
tervals between V-11 (reworked) and V-14. Causes for the strongly episodic Süphan explosive behavior might
include seismic triggering of a volcano–magma system unable to erupt explosively without the benefit of exter-
nal triggering, as reflected in pervasive faulting preceding the Süphan tephra swarm. Seismic triggering may have
caused the rise of more mafic (“trachyandesitic”) parent magma, heating near-surface pockets of highly evolved
magma – that might have formed silicic domes during this stage of volcano evolution – resulting in ascent and
finally explosive fragmentation of magma essentially by external factors, probably significantly enhanced by
magma–water/ice interaction.
Explosive eruptions of the Nemrut volcano system, interpreted to be underlain by a large fractionating magma
reservoir, follow a more periodic mode of (a) long-term relatively constant supply of parent magma,
(b) evolution by low pressure crystal fractionation resulting in sporadic relatively low-volume eruption of
trachytic and minor rhyolitic magmas, (c) evolution of a large magma reservoir to the point of highly explosive
large-volume peralkaline rhyolitic Plinian eruptions at temporal intervals of ca. 20–40 ky, some accompanied by
ignimbrites and inferred caldera collapse.
A striking tephra gap between ca. 14 ka and ca. 30 ka, i.e. during glacial climate conditions, is postulated to be due
to climate-forcing via lithosphere unloading following deglaciation.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The modes and temporal intervals of explosive volcanic eruptions
differ greatly from volcano to volcano, being related, inter alia, to their
specific magma compositions, physical properties, mass transfer and as-
cent rates. Tephra layers in sediments of nearby lakes have the potential
to record the overall temporal, eruptive and compositional evolution of
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 4526 380022.
E-mail addresses: h-u.schmincke@t-online.de (H.-U. Schmincke),
msumita@geomar.de (M. Sumita).
1
Tel.: +49 431 600 2417; fax: +49 431 600 2924.
a volcano in much greater detail than in the commonly grossly incom-
plete onshore tephra record. A rigorous and high-resolution temporal/
compositional framework of intralake tephra successions thus provides
not only the basis for recording the long-term periodic or episodic
eruptive behavior of a volcanic system. It also allows a more rigorous
assessment of the impact of external forcing factors such as climate on
volcanic activity patterns (Smith et al., 2013). Moreover, a tephra-
based precise framework on eruption frequency, mode of eruption
and magnitude also forms the basic background for volcanic hazard
assessment (Lowe, 2011; Wulf et al., 2012; Alloway et al., 2013).
The Lake Van area in Eastern Turkey is bordered in the west and
north by two large active volcanic edifices, Nemrut (2948 m asl) and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.08.015
0377-0273/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
196 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213

30° 35° 40°

a Black Sea

ICDP Paleovan 2010 drill site

b
41°
NAF Eurasian 2004 coring stations (Litt et al., 2009)
Plate 1990 coring stations (Kempe 1990)

Lake Van 1974 coring stations (Wong and Degens, 1978)

Anatolian
Bit lis
Plate EAF
-Za
38° Aegean gr
o s Fold
Plate Be
lt

Tig
Arabian

ris R
Cy Plate
pru Euph

iver
s A rc rate
sR
35° Meditteranean i Ercis Gulf
300 km

ve
Sea 9

r
8

Süp
Sabazçayı River h a n v ol c a n o
Lake Nazik Aygıl Maar

Adilcevaz

Ahlat
VAN04-5
1
Site 1 (NB) VAN04-6

100
1441 fissure Karmı River K-7

m
12 K-9 VAN04-7
Germav dome
ut calde V-8

200m
mr
VAN04-2
Mu Basin r Site 2 (AR) K-5

300m
Ne

400m
Tatvan
13 K-4 Basin VAN04-9 VAN04-4 VAN04-3
Çekmeçe V-3
K-1 VAN04-10 14
y K-2 K-10 VAN04-1
lle
Mazik dome S e y m ira nv
a
3 Van
m River
otu K-6
K

Kirkor domes Tatvan 2

ncekaya hyaloclastite
u R i v er
Bitlis çüks cone
Kü
Dibekli scoria cone
r
Rive
Güzeldere

10

0 20 40
(km)

Fig. 1. (a) Anatolian, Eurasian, and Arabian plates with Lake Van just north of the collision zone. Tectonic elements partly after Taymaz et al. (2007). (b) Map of Lake Van and its immediate
surroundings, notably Nemrut and Süphan volcanoes and, to the south, İncekaya hyaloclastite cone. Three generations of coring stations are shown as well as the 2010 drill sites Northern
Basin (NB) and Ahlat Ridge (AR). Overview map of Turkey: NAF: North Anatolian Fault; EAF: East Anatolian Fault. Base map adapted from Google Earth (2012, Cnes/Spot Image). Map
modified from Sumita and Schmincke (2013c).

Süphan (4058 m asl), whose flanks extend far into the lake basin a closed basin. Both the northern and southern Anatolian fault systems
(Fig. 1). Lake Van, the third largest saline lake in the world, with a nucleate in the tectonic Van basin.
present lake level at 1648 m asl and a maximum depth of 450 m, has Here, we focus on Holocene and Lateglacial tephras based both on
been a favorite target for coring its sediments as part of an overall piston cores principally from the short core VAN04 taken in 2004 (Litt
study, particularly of the paleoclimate evolution of the area. Such et al., 2009) and on the 2010 ICDP drilling campaign cores (Expedition
studies were pioneered by Degens and coworkers (e.g. Degens and No. 5034). ICDP cores were recovered from two sites: Site 1 in the
Kurtmann, 1978; Degens et al., 1984), and recently continued by the Northern Basin (NB) was drilled 145.6 m into the lake floor at a water
ICDP Paleovan Project (Litt et al., 2009, 2011, 2012). Pearce et al. depth of 245 m below the present lake level some 6 km from the
(1990), Keskin (2003, 2007) and Şengör et al. (2003), inter alia, have coast and 10 km NW of Site 2. Site 2 was drilled at a water depth of
discussed the regional geodynamic setting and potential magma 360 m bpll (below present lake level) (1648 m asl). It penetrated
sources. Çubukçu et al. (2012) studied intrusive and extrusive volcanics 219 m blf (below lake floor) at Ahlat Ridge (AR) ca. 13 km from the
mainly from the Nemrut Caldera walls while Özdemir et al. (2011) coast next to site VAN04-2 (Litt et al., 2009) of the 2004 piston coring
and Özdemir and Güleç (2014) investigated the petrological and campaign (Fig. 1). Our current estimate of the number of tephra layers
geodynamic evolution of Süphan Volcano. The explosive and composi- drilled in the Paleovan project is N 450, some 30% more than previous
tional evolution of the two volcanoes, almost unstudied until recently, estimates (Stockhecke et al., 2014).
has been documented mainly for Nemrut by Sumita and Schmincke The aims of our study of Holocene to Lateglacial tephras cored in
(2013a, b, c). These authors also postulated that the growth of the Lake Van include the following:
Nemrut Volcano complex plugged the area between the Lake Van
basin and its southwestern outlet, the tectonic Muş Basin, rather than (1) To compositionally characterize the Lateglacial to Holocene
damming by a single lava flow (e.g. Degens et al., 1984), thus creating cored tephras derived from Nemrut and Süphan;
 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213 197

(2) To compare the periodic explosive eruptive behavior coupled and thus past climate conditions. Tephra layers have also been the cen-
with systematic changes between trachytic and rhyolitic tral time markers in the varved Holocene to late Lateglacial upper part of
magmas of the Nemrut volcanic system with the strongly con- the cores studied here, while our ongoing dating of feldspar phenocrysts
trasting highly episodic explosive bursts of Süphan Volcano; of tephra layers extends throughout the deep Site 2 core, the base of
(3) To evaluate climate and other forcing modes for the striking which was dated by us as ca. 570 ka (unpublished data). Ages for
ca. 15 000 year-long tephra gap preceding the Holocene– the young tephra layers based on varve dating were presented by
Lateglacial tephra sequence; Landmann et al. (1996a, b) and Lemcke (1996). Varve ages for tephra
(4) To briefly assess the probability and types of hazards of future layers are shown in Figs. 8 and 9 in Litt et al. (2009); see also Wick
eruptions of both volcanoes. et al. (2003). Heumann (pers. comm. 2012) repeated varve dating of
the Holocene to late Lateglacial sediments. While the young ages are
We discuss the general stratigraphy, particle characteristics, primary practically identical to those of previous authors, the older ages are
modes of emplacement, criteria for reworking, and regional correlation slightly younger. In the context of this paper, however, the relative
of young tephras cored in the western part of Lake Van in a companion ages and approximate age differences between tephra layers are more
paper (Schmincke and Sumita, 2014). The overall temporal, volcanic relevant than the precise physical ages (Fig. 2). The duration of a time
and compositional evolution throughout the past ca. 570 ky based on interval is denoted as “ky”; “ka” defines the physical time.
the drilled tephra succession will be discussed elsewhere.
3. Methods
2. Tephrostratigraphy and ages
Mineral and glass analyses were performed on polished grain mount
Tephra layers have been of fundamental importance in all previous thin sections (indicated by (G) in the tables; mainly 2 phi (0.25 mm) but
studies of Van Lake sediments as main stratigraphic markers allowing also the 3 phi (0.125 mm) fractions in the case of fine-grained tephras)
to correlate cores and to compare the evolution of the lake sediments from the tephra layers mainly in the short cores of VAN04 (VAN04-2, -7

Grain-size Phenocrysts

Source volcano
Recalculated
Volcanic layers

Emplacement
Sand (0.063 ~ 2 mm)

Feldspar (Anorthoclase)
Feldspar (Plagioclase)

varve age in B.P.

CPX (Hedenbergite)
Silt (< 0.063 mm)

OPX (Hypersthene)
Lapilli~ (2 mm <)

Olivine (Fayalite)
0

Fo-rich olivine
CPX (Augite)

Amphibole

Chevkinite
Allanite
Quartz

Biotite

Zircon
V-1 R

V-2 R

Nemrut
V-3 S+F
Holocene

5000 V-4 F(H?)

V-5 F

V-6 F

V-7 R

V-8 F

V-9 F

10000
Süphan

V-10 F

V-11 R
Pleistocene

V-13 F

V-14 F

V-15 F

V-16 F Nemrut
15000
F: Fallout; S: Syn-ignimbrite turbidite; H: hydroclastic; R: Reworked

Fig. 2. Stratigraphy, approximate ages (vy BP) and mineralogy of 15 tephra layers in Holocene–Lateglacial sediments drilled in Lake Van, Site 2 (ICDP Paleovan Project). Grain size,
diagnostic phenocrysts and emplacement modes are shown for tephras erupted in Nemrut and Süphan volcanoes. A more detailed comparison of varve ages of tephra layers (Landmann
et al., 1996b and Heumann unpubl.) will be given by Schmincke and Sumita (2014).
198 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213

and -8) and several from Sites 1 and 2. Sediment thin sections, courtesy
University Bonn, are indicated by the special number in the tables
((S) in the tables). The modal composition of tephra layers V-1 to
V-17 is discussed in the companion paper (Schmincke and Sumita,
2014).
Major elements and S, Cl, and F of glassy groundmasses and minerals
of tephra particles were carried out with a JEOL JXA 8200 electron
microprobe (EMP) at the GEOMAR Helmholtz Institute for Ocean
Research Kiel. Analytical conditions were 15 kV of accelerating voltage;
6 nA beam current for felsic glass, 20 nA for feldspar, amphibole, mica,
and pyroxene; 30 nA for volatiles; 100 nA for olivine crystals; and 20 s
of peak counting time. Analyses were performed with an electron
beam rastered to 5 μm for felsic glass, volatiles, sideromelane, and
1 μm or less for the minerals.
Analyses of feldspar, pyroxenes and olivine phenocrysts and of glass
shards were selected from either grain mount polished thin sections of
sieved tephra samples (generally -1 to -2 phi) or polished sections of
solid rock (or pumice) samples. Several points were analyzed in single
grains and recalculated as average (number of analyses). We here
only show analyses of the cores of phenocrysts. Glass analyses were
carried out principally on single shards and also on glass rims of pheno-
crysts where thick enough.
Pumice lapilli from tephra V-3 were large enough for XRF analysis
(Table 1), performed by Mineralogisch–Petrographisches Institut
Universität Hamburg. Analytical XRF methods are discussed in Sumita
and Schmincke (2013c).
oxides, including possibly even two 2 subpopulations at higher and
lower SiO2 concentrations. We also compared the group of young
Nemrut tephras to the ca. 28 ka old V-17 and especially V-18, corre-
lated precisely to the ca. 30 ka old onshore Nemrut Formation (NF)
that is strongly compositionally zoned from lower comendite fallout
through middle trachytic ignimbrite to late trachytic to mugearitic
mafic fallout (Sumita and Schmincke, 2013c) (Figs. 3 and 4). The
compositional similarity between V-3 and the tentatively correlated
prominent onshore Nemrut Caldera Tephra (NCT: the “Holocene
surge deposits” of Sumita and Schmincke, 2013c), well exposed at
the caldera rim (Fig. 5), is evident in Figs. 3c and 4b. There are also
slight compositional differences between the 6 Süphan tephras (V-8
to V-15). The relatively large compositional variation in V-13 is tentative-
ly attributed to glass hydration and minor ion exchange, Na being slightly
depleted while K is strongly enriched, a common chemical change in
volcanic glass alteration. Some eight Lateglacial to Holocene (?)
tephra layers of the Çekmeçe Formation (CekF) (see also Sumita and
Schmincke, 2013c), directly overlying the complex NF at Çekmeçe
Village on the slopes of Nemrut (Fig. 6), are all trachytic with some
rhyolite (Figs. 3c, 4a and d), and thus contrast with nearly all post-NF
(V-18) Nemrut tephras, except with the mafic part of the composite
Table 1
Whole rock chemical composition of V-3 pumice.

Analysis code no.: 137

4. Chemical composition
Volcanic layer no.: V-3a (composite)

Jung et al. (1978) interpreted all tephras corresponding to V-1 to Sample no. (composite sample): 2A-2H-1, 40–47 cm
VAN04-7-S2, 30–31.5 cm
V-16 as peralkaline and noted a decrease in Na2O concentrations VAN04-7-S2, 31.5–34 cm
with depth and other minor differences. They also mentioned the
Rock type: Rhyolite
possibility of alteration effects. Only some of the tephra layers stud-
ied by Jung et al. (1978), however, are probably equivalent to the Major elements (wt. %)
tephrostratigraphic framework of Ahlat Ridge. Their analyzed cores SiO2 72.52
TiO2 0.14
were located at two different localities, loc. 3, 20 km south of Ahlat Al2O3 12.25
Ridge, and loc. 14, 40 km (!) east-southeast of Ahlat Ridge (see Fe2O3 2.14
Fig. 1, 1974 coring station by Wong and Degens, 1978). Problems MgO 0.08
of correlation of previous cores/localities are discussed more fully in CaO 0.33
Na2O 4.79
Schmincke and Sumita (2014). Landmann et al. (2011) grouped
K2O 4.66
INAA trace element compositions into upper tephras thought to be MnO 0.05
related to Nemrut, confirming the interpretation of Sumita and P2O5 0.01
Schmincke (2009), and a lower group (their tephra layers J, K and SO3 0.06
L corresponding to tephras V-7 to V-15 in this paper) whose source LOI 3.29
Total 100.32
volcano was not specified. The “unknown” lower group corresponds P.I. 1.05
to our Süphan group, a precise comparison with the data of
Landmann et al. (2011) being impossible since their analyses were Trace elements (ppm)
V 1
done on bulk piston-cored tephra samples, which include both pri- Cr 20
mary and reworked particles/tephras. Co 0
All primary tephras analyzed by us between ca. 14 ka and the late Ni 0
Holocene (V-1 to -16) are rhyolite (Table 2; Figs. 3 and 4). The clear Cu 0
Sc 2
subdivision of the tephras into an upper peralkaline group (V-1 to -6,
Ba 24
also V-16), interpreted by us as erupted from Nemrut Volcano, and a Sr 5
lower subalkaline group (V-7 to V-15) derived from Süphan Volcano Zn 107
based on the composition of glass shards and type and composition of Ga 24
phenocrysts, and on a comparison with onshore tephras (Sumita and Rb 186
Y 99
Schmincke, 2009), was confirmed in the present more detailed study Nb 56
(Table 6 in Sumita and Schmincke, 2013c). La 73
Nemrut-derived tephra layers are peralkaline (comenditic) rhyo- Ce 142
lites differing from Süphan tephras in significantly higher Fe, Ti, total Zr 582
Nd 66
alkalis (mainly Na2O) and slightly higher halogen (F, Cl) concentra-
Pb 27
tions, while Süphan subalkaline rhyolitic tephras show higher con- U 12
centrations in Al, Mg, Ca and K compared to Nemrut tephras at Th 21
similar SiO2concentrations (Figs. 3 and 4). There are slight composi- XRF analyses were carried out by Mineralogisch–Petrographisches Institut Universität
tional differences between individual Nemrut tephras, the major Hamburg.
Nemrut tephra V-3 showing a relatively large spread in several P.I.: peralkaline index.
Table 2
Representative EMP analyses of glass shards in volcanic layers. Note: core numbering system is different from expedition in 2004 (VAN04) and ICDP (5034). Type of thin section: grain mount thin sections (G), and sediment thin sections (S). Sediment
thin section numbers are courtesy of University Bonn.

Source volcanoes: Nemrut Süphan Nemrut

Volcanic layer no.: V-3a V-4 V-5 V-6 V-8 V-9 V-10 V-13 V-14 V-15 V-16 V-17 V-17 V-18 V-18

H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213
Expedition no.: VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 5034 5034 5034 5034

Hole, core, section: 2A-6H-1 2A-6H-1 2A-6H-2 2D-6H-1

Interval (cm): 57–58 57–58 90–102 64–67

Depth (mblf): 13.50 13.50 15.24 17.62

Core station no.: VAN04-2-1 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4

Segment: S1 S1 S1 S2 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4

Interval (cm): 38.5–41.5 62.0–62.5 89.8–90.2 4.5–5.0 27.0–27.5 36.3–36.8 41–44.6 56.7–56.8 57.7–59.2 60.9–61.0 83.5–83.7

Type of thin section: S S S S G S S S S S S G G G G

Thin section no.: LV KP 16 LV KP 32 LV KP 35 LV KP 37 LV KP 66 LV KP 67 LV KP 69 LV KP 69 LV KP 69 LV KP 72

Grain no.: gl-13 gl-4 gl-7 gl-11 gl-4 gl-6 gl-23 gl-6 gl-7 gl-3 gl-2 gl-5 gl-10 gl-3 gl-7

Number of analyses: 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 1 2 1 1 2 2

(wt. %)
SiO2 76.11 75.01 75.56 75.69 76.29 76.12 75.60 74.44 76.01 74.26 76.50 67.43 75.35 65.51 72.81
TiO2 0.13 0.11 0.14 0.19 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.12 0.03 0.08 0.13 0.24 0.20 0.48 0.25
Al2O3 12.13 12.50 12.57 12.38 13.27 13.37 12.97 13.80 13.33 12.58 12.36 15.80 11.30 15.86 10.88
FeO* 1.85 1.83 1.65 1.55 0.65 0.56 0.80 1.27 0.63 0.91 1.26 2.29 2.83 4.45 4.30
MnO 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.16 0.12
MgO 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.25 0.01
CaO 0.20 0.26 0.25 0.23 0.69 0.70 0.82 0.73 0.71 0.46 0.21 0.79 0.16 1.33 0.23
Na2O 4.83 4.88 4.77 4.61 3.82 4.06 3.75 3.80 4.08 3.97 4.51 5.26 4.89 5.43 5.05
K2 O 4.52 4.61 4.60 4.56 4.47 4.78 4.58 4.88 4.82 4.85 4.52 5.19 4.42 5.79 4.40
P2O5 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.01
Total: 99.83 99.28 99.56 99.22 99.35 99.70 98.60 99.18 99.72 97.18 99.51 97.27 99.16 99.30 98.04

Volatile (wt. %)
F 0.160 0.096 0.138 0.140 0.104 0.041 0.077 0.042 0.102 0.099 0.080 0.080 0.164 0.061 0.206
Cl 0.101 0.089 0.093 0.095 0.028 0.022 0.017 0.035 0.032 0.031 0.076 0.076 0.126 0.038 0.131
S 0.003 0.008 0.006 0.005 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.008 0.008 0.002 0.002 0.000 0.012 0.005

199
200 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213

6 6.5
a b
5.5 6

5 5.5
Na2O (wt. %)

K2O (wt. %)
4.5 5

4 4.5

3.5 4

3 3.5
73 74 75 76 77 78 73 74 75 76 77 78
SiO2 (wt. %) SiO2 (wt. %)
18
Core tephras Core tephras c
(Nemrut) (Süphan)
17
V-3 V-8
V-4
V-9 16
V-5
V-10
V-6
V-13
Al2O3 (wt. %)
V-16 15
V-17 V-14
V-18 V-15 14

Onshore tephras (Nemrut) 13

Nemrut caldera tephra (NCT)
Cek F 12
Upper NF (fallout)
Middle NF (ignimbrite) 11
Lower NF (fallout)

10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
FeO* (wt. %)

Fig. 3. Comparison of the chemical composition of Nemrut and Süphan glass shards from drilled and three Nemrut onshore tephras. The onshore tephras include the chemically zoned
fallout/ignimbrite Lower (L-NF), Middle (M-NF) and Upper Nemrut (U-NF) Formation and the Holocene Nemrut Caldera Rim Tephra (NCT) correlated with tephra V-3, and the dominantly
trachytic Çekmeçe Formation (CekF) tephras overlying the 30 ka Nemrut Formation. In general, subalkaline Süphan tephras are clearly distinguished – at similar SiO2 concentrations –
from peralkaline Nemrut tephras by lower FeO* (c) and Na2O (a) and higher Al2O3 (c) and K2O (b) concentrations. The older compositionally zoned trachytic tephra drilled (V-17 and
V-18) and onshore (NF) Nemrut tephras show significantly lower Al2O3 at higher FeO* concentrations (c).

V-17 and the mafic middle (M-NF) and upper NF (U-NF). A preliminary
single crystal 40Ar/39Ar age of a lower member of the CekF is ca. 24 ka
(unpublished). We thus tentatively suggest that all CekF tephras are
part of the strongly compositionally zoned eruptive period begin-
ning with NF, and clearly differ compositionally from the young
Nemrut rhyolite tephras (V-3 to V-16). We will return to this point
when discussing the nature and origin of the “tephra gap” (see
below).
5. Mineralogy
Tephra layers of the first drilling campaign (1974) into Lake Van sed-
iments (Degens and Kurtmann, 1978; Degens et al., 1984) were not
studied in detail at the time. Valeton (1978) determined refractive indi-
ces of glass shards and Jung et al. (1978) reported on heavy mineral
parageneses of 19 tephra layers whose ages as estimated by Degens
and colleagues are about half the age of later more detailed varve stud-
ies (Landmann et al., 1996a). Jung et al. (1978) noted a striking strati-
graphic change in the qualitative mafic mineralogy of tephra layers
from a locality 20 km south of Ahlat Ridge that roughly correlates to
the tephra section studied by us. Tephra layers A to H2 of Jung et al.
(1978) from the upper cores were dominated by olivine and pyroxene
while a lower group of tephra layers (their I, J? to P) was said to be char-
acterized by biotite and hornblende. Sumita and Schmincke (2009,
2013c), in a more detailed study of the tephra layers cored in 2004,
found dominantly anorthoclase, hedenbergitic clinopyroxene, lesser
amounts of augite, Fe-rich olivine and minor quartz and chevkinite
to be typical of peralkaline rhyolitic tephra layers V-1 to -6 and
V-16 and, together with aenigmatite, of onshore Nemrut tephras in
general (Figs. 2 and 7–9) (see also Macdonald et al., submitted for
publication). Trachytic subaerial Nemrut tephras were shown to be
characterized by more sodic ternary feldspar and more magnesian
olivine and clinopyroxene but there is significant variability (Sumita
and Schmincke, 2013a,b,c).
The older subalkaline rhyolitic tephras V-7 to -15, corresponding ap-
proximately to the lower group of Jung et al. (1978), contain plagioclase,
minor quartz, biotite, amphibole and, in some, minor sanidine and hy-
persthene, accompanied by traces of augitic clinopyroxene, common
 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213 201

a Phonolite 10.5 b

Ne
12
d

mr
Core tephras
Tephriphonolite
Nemrut tephras Trachyte
10

ut
Süphan tephras
Onshore tephras
Cek F
Na2O+K2O (wt. %)

Na2O+K2O (wt. %)
10 U-NF 9.5
M-NF
Phonotephrite
L-NF

Benmoreite 9
8
b, c
Core tephras
Mugearite 8.5 V-3
Rhyolite V-4
6 V-5
8 V-6
Hawaiite Dacite
Andesite Onshore tephra
Basaltic Nemrut caldera tephra (NCT)
Basalt andesite
4 7.5
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 73 74 75 76 77 78
SiO2 (wt. %) SiO2 (wt. %)
10.5
c d Core tephras Onshore tephras

Sü

Ne
V-16 Cek F

ph

mr
12 V-17
U-NF (fallout)
10
an
M-NF (ignimbrite)

ut
V-18 L-NF (fallout)
Na2O+K2O (wt. %)

Na2O+K2O (wt. %)
9.5
11

Core tephras 10
8.5 V-8
V-9
V-10
8 V-13
V-14 9
V-15

7.5
73 74 75 76 77 78 65 70 75
SiO2 (wt. %) SiO2 (wt. %)

Fig. 4. Compositional contrast between Nemrut rhyolitic and trachytic tephras (a and d), (b) Nemrut tephras and (c) Süphan (lower total alkalis) as emphasized in total alkalis vs. SiO2.
Nomenclature after Le Bas et al. (1986).

allanite and minor zircon, allowing unequivocal assignment to Süphan
Volcano. There is a slight change in mineralogy with stratigraphy in
the Süphan tephras, as discussed below.
The marked mineralogical and textural contrasts between a lower
group of tephras sourced in Süphan volcano overlain by Nemrut-
derived tephras in the Holocene to Lateglacial tephra inventory of
western Lake Van is a robust stratigraphic tool, confirmed by the
major and trace element data discussed above.
We here present analyses of phenocrystic feldspar, clino- and ortho-
pyroxene, amphibole, olivine, biotite and allanite from tephra layers
basically from Site 2 and short core (Tables 3–8; Figs. 7–9). Our results
confirm the overall compositional range of phenocrysts in the onshore
tephras throughout the 400 ka explosive history of Nemrut volcano
and of a few Süphan tephras and allow us to slightly extend the miner-
alogical comparison of both volcanoes presented by Sumita and
Schmincke (2013a). Feldspar phenocrysts in Nemrut tephras range
from Na-rich sanidine through anorthoclase to andesine as is typical
of peralkaline evolved volcanics (Schmincke and Sumita, 1998).
Feldspar compositions in Süphan rhyolites, in contrast, range from oli-
goclase to labradorite but several tephras also contain high-K sanidine.
Feldspar compositions in the reworked tephra V-7 resemble mostly
Nemrut compositions while other aspects of this tephra indicate a
Süphan lineage. Mixing of both volcanic sources is not uncommon in
some reworked tephras.
The rhyolitic Nemrut tephras (e.g. V-3, correlated to onshore NCT)
contain nearly pure fayalite (Fa98-99) while olivines are more magnesian
in the compositionally zoned tephras (V-18 and NF) (Table 5; Fig. 9).
The clinopyroxenes show the largest compositional spread from nearly
pure hedenbergite to augite and are joined by hypersthene in several
Süphan tephras (Fig. 8).
6. Alteration
Glass shards in the cored Lake Van tephras are surprisingly fresh,
somewhat unexpectedly for an alkaline lake environment with an over-
all high pH of N 9.7 (Kempe et al., 1991; Kaden et al., 2010; Fig. 9 in Litt
et al., 2012). The glass shards of at least 4 Holocene–Lateglacial tephra
layers, however, show marginal to intense (fine-grained shards)
zeolitization (heulandite?) (Sumita and Schmincke, 2009) which is
most evident in whole rock thin sections. We suspect that the more
friable zeolitized portions of partly altered shards normally become
removed during washing and grain size analysis and thus assume that
alteration is more pervasive than is reflected in the grain mounts.
Glass shards of Süphan-derived reworked tephra V-11 are dispersed
in a carbonate matrix and are strongly zeolitized. Carbonate occurs
interstitially or as cement and partially replaces glass in all reworked
tephra layers studied (V-1, -2, -7 and -11). In any case, zeolite-
alteration of glass shards appears to be characteristic of these young
202 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213

1m

Fig. 5. Holocene rhyolitic Nemrut Caldera rim Tephra (NCT) consists of surge, ballistic, proximal density current and fallout deposits exposed at the caldera rim (loc. 102; see Sumita and
Schmincke, 2013a).

Debris avalanche deposits

Cekmece Formation

M-NF

Fig. 6. Ca. 5 m thick Çekmeçe Formation (CekF) tephra layers consisting of lower more trachytic to upper more rhyolitic fallout interbedded with mugearitic scoria fall/hyaloclastit. This
locality shows trachytic to rhyolitic fallout. Gray debris avalanche deposit near the top. Locality close to Yumurtatepe Village, 4 km east of Çekmeçe Village (loc. 94; see Sumita and
Schmincke, 2013a).
 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213 203

a Or Or Or

Ne
mr
n

n
Sa

Sa

Sa

ut
V-4 (n=20)
V-1 (n=3) V-3 (n=206) V-5 (n=30)
V-2 (n=25) NSU (n=35) V-6 (n=10)
V-16 (n=20)

o
o

o
An
An

An
Oli And La ByOli And La ByOli And La By
Ab Ab An Ab An An
Or Or
Core tephras
V-1 V-11
V-2 V-13

n
Sa

Sa
V-3 V-14
V-4 V-15
V-5 V-16
V-6 V-17
V-7 V-18a
V-8 V-18 (n=45)
V-9 V-17 (n=12)
V-10 Cek F(n=185) NF (n=213)
Onshore tephras
o

o
Nemrut caldera tephra (NCT)
An

An
Cekmece Formation (CekF)
Nemrut Formation (NF) Oli And La ByOli And La By
Ab Ab An An

b Or Or Or

Sü
ph
n

n
Sa

Sa

Sa

an
V-8 (n=19) V-13 (n=13)
V-7 (n=19)
V-9 (n=20) V-14 (n=37)
V-11 (n=8)
V-10 (n=25) V-15 (n=11)
o

o
o
An

An
An

Oli And La ByOli And La ByOli And La By

Ab Ab An Ab An An

Fig. 7. (a) Compositions of feldspar phenocrysts in eight Nemrut-sourced tephras in the Holocene to very Lateglacial section (upper 3 ternary diagrams) and of the 2 tephras (V-17, -18)
erupted prior to the major tephra gap (ca. 14–ca. 28 ka). Nemrut feldspar compositions range from Na-rich sanidine to andesine, the ternary feldspar to andesine compositions being
typical of the more mafic late-erupted tephras of compositionally zoned eruptions, well shown by the ternary plot combining the correlated onshore deposit Nemrut Formation (NF)
and the precisely correlated V-18 drilled at drill sites 1 and 2. Also shown are feldspar compositions of the Post-NF tephras of the onshore Çekmeçe Formation together with the
ca. 28 ka old V-17 tephra. Reworked tephras V-1 and -2 are shown by open symbols. (b) Feldspars of Süphan-sourced tephras are typically oligoclase to labradorite, some tephras also
containing K-rich sanidine.

tephras, while shards are commonly fresher or spot-altered by carbon- 7. Discussion

ate farther down the core in Site 2 tephras as judged, however, from
polished grain mount sections (ca. 219 mblf (meter below lake floor),
ca. 550 ka at the bottom of Site 2 core) (unpublished data). The reason
for the relatively low degree of alteration of glass in a saline lake/pore
solution environment is unclear. However, we recognize slight but
classic changes in glass composition, especially in the reworked tephras
(Fig. 3): decrease in Na and Ca concentrations, corresponding higher
K-concentrations and low analytical totals, these changes being typical for
variable hydration of evolved volcanic glasses (Fisher and Schmincke,
1984).
7.1. Periodic versus episodic modes of eruption
The frequency of explosive activity in a volcanic system can be
viewed in terms of several simple end-member modes: periodic, epi-
sodic and increasing, steady or waning eruptive rates. The rare occasion
of two large active stratocones that have grown side by side over several
hundred thousand years but have erupted highly contrasting evolved
magmas as recorded in the tephra record of the sediment column of a
large adjacent lake allows to deduce contrasting modes of eruption
204 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213

a Di Hd

Ne
Fer enbe
Fer enbe

Fer enbe
de
de

de
hed
hed

hed
psi
psi

psi
ro- rgi
ro- rgi

ro- rgi

mr
dio
dio

dio
Augite Ferroaugite Augite Ferroaugite Augite Ferroaugite

En
En

En
te
te

te

ut
Subcalcic Augite Subcalcic Ferroaugite Subcalcic Ferroaugite Subcalcic Ferroaugite
V-4 (n=4)
Pigeonite V-3 (n=149) Pigeonite V-16 (n=4) Pigeonite V-18 (n=50)
Hypersthene NSU
NCT (n=13) V-17 (n=18) Hypersthene NF (n=103)
En Fs
Core tephras Di Hd
V-3 V-16
b

Sü
Fer enbe
V-4 V-17

de

hed
psi

ro- rgi
V-14

p
dio
V-18 Augite Ferroaugite

En

ha
te
Onshore tephras

n
Subcalcic Augite Subcalcic Ferroaugite
Nemrut caldera tephra (NCT)
Nemrut Formation (NF) Pigeonite

Hypersthene V-14 (n=22)

En Fs

Fig. 8. Pyroxene quadrilateral showing compositions of pyroxene phenocrysts. (a) Rhyolitic Nemrut tephras are characterized by Fe-rich clinopyroxenes. More mafic (trachytic) Nemrut
tephras also contain ferroaugites and augites. (b) Pyroxenes in Süphan rhyolites are dominantly hypersthene and lesser augite. The two hedenbergitic pyroxenes in Süphan tephra V-14
are probably xenocrysts.

largely controlled by fundamental differences in magma generation/
composition, magma supply rates and degree of evolution prior to
eruption.
7.1.1. The exceptional Süphan tephra swarm and complex external and
internal trigger mechanisms
The primary tephras of the eight temporally closely spaced Süphan-
sourced layers V-8 (12,740 vy BP (varve years)) to V-15 (13,078 vy BP)
erupted at short intervals of 20 (V-15 to V-14) to 132 years (V-13 to
V-10). In reality, these numbers are probably even smaller because of
possibly additional primary tephra layers in the same stratigraphic in-
terval in the more proximal thicker Site 1 cores (Fig. 10), disregarding
explosive eruptions whose tephra volumes were too small and/or did
not reach the drill sites. In any case, the time interval of ca. 338 years
covered by the five primary Süphan tephras is small judging from the
overall rates in the onshore and Site 2 drilled tephra record (Sumita
and Schmincke, 2013a,b,c).
We here use the term tephra swarm to characterize a group of
relatively closely spaced tephra layers (in lake sediments) that are
practically identical in composition, individual tephra layers being
separated from each other by decades rather than hundreds of years
and thus representing a short but finite burst of explosive activity.
Whether or not such bursts are characteristic of the period of waning
activity of a volcano when external trigger mechanisms become
important or a feature governed by generation and composition of its
constituent magmas is unknown.
The extremely rare occurrence of tephra layers of Süphan composi-
tion, compared to the common Nemrut-derived tephras, during the
past ca. 200 ka in the Site 2 cores (unpubl.), raises the question as to
the nature of “rejuvenation” and specific triggering mechanisms of
Süphan explosive eruptions.
7.1.2. The episodic explosive activity of Süphan Volcano — a speculative
model
A number of observations, at first sight seemingly unrelated, have
led us to consider a model for the explosive activity of Süphan Volcano
during the inferred present waning stage of its activity that contrasts
strongly with that of adjacent Nemrut Volcano.
(1) There is a striking abundance of faulted sections on a mm to cm-
scale, most clearly expressed in laminated/varved sections, gen-
erally interpreted as due to seismic shocks below the tephra
swarm (Fig. 10a and b). These faulted intervals occur in 2 holes
at Site 1 spaced ca. 50 m apart and thus are not artifacts that oc-
curred during coring. The inferred earthquakes preceding the
Süphan tephra swarm end approximately below the central
thick major Süphan tephra V-10, below which faulting is partic-
ularly obvious. We speculate that the focused Süphan eruptive
swarm could have been triggered by a major period of persistent
seismic activity that began hundreds of years earlier, as shown by
pervasive but intermittent faulting at both drill sites. This specu-
lation is based on the unique characteristics of the composition-
ally homogeneous tephra swarm erupted over the short time
span of ca. 340 years and the absence of Süphan tephras higher
in the section in Site 1. The reason why this group of faulted sec-
tions is not well-expressed in Site 2 may be due to the fact that
Site 1 lies close to the major northern boundary fault of the tec-
tonic Van Basin. That earthquakes, especially those of the tremor
type (e.g. McNutt, 1996), accompany and precede volcanic erup-
tions by days to decades is common knowledge. Seismic trigger-
ing of volcanic eruptions appears to be common (Manga and
Brodsky, 2006). To document seismic precursors to volcanic
eruptions over hundreds of years is difficult, however.
The tectonically highly unstable Van basin, representing the
nucleating region for the major North and South Anatolian fault
systems (Fig. 1), is seismically extremely active (Horason and
Boztepe-Güney, 2007; Selcuk et al., 2010). Incidental triggering
of the rise of pockets of mafic parental magma at depth as a by-
product of regionally persistent seismic activity is thus plausible.
We also note that the Süphan tephra swarm dominates the
onset of explosively generated tephra following a tephra-
barren interval of some 15 ky in the cores, as discussed
below. Strong deformation also characterized the pre-Alleroed
sediments at both drill sites over several 1000 years, probably
reflecting abundant seismic activity which could have triggered
magma rise that ultimately lead to episodic magma rise be-
neath Süphan and finally eruption of the Süphan tephra
 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213 205

waning for a long time, disregarding possible major changes in

Number of crystals
5
a wind systems.
V-3 (n=7)
(2) The interpretation that the evolution of the Süphan tephra
swarm began with the rise of small pockets of mafic magma
from deeper levels within the Süphan edifice is also indicated
0
20 40 60 80 100 by fresh intermediate-composition “shards” (lithoclasts) in
many layers of the tephra swarm, documenting coexisting inter-
Number of crystals

5 mediate and felsic magma in the system. The triggering of volca-

NCT (n=8) nic eruptions by injection of mafic into more evolved magma is
well known (e.g. Fisher and Schmincke, 1984).
(3) The rising mafic magma could have encountered small pockets of
0 resident high-level rhyolitic magma, not by itself able or ready
20 40 60 80 100 for ascent to the surface, causing an explosive eruption.
Fayalite (mol %) (4) The final trigger for explosive eruptions may have been exter-
nal forcing by water or glacier ice. This is suggested by the low
Number of crystals

5 vesicularity of the glass shards of practically all Süphan

b V-18 (n=11) tephras – with the partial exception of V-10 – that show
such a low vesicularity (b10%) that factors other than
degassing of the erupted magma must have played a signifi-
0 cant role in magma fragmentation. Moreover, plagioclase phe-
20 40 60 80 100 nocrysts in the Süphan tephras show unusually thick glass
rims or are part of larger glass shards (Schmincke and
Number of crystals

5
U-NF (n=19) Sumita, 2014) suggesting initiation of explosive fragmentation
mainly by thermal shock rather than vesiculation.
Hydroclastic fragmentation mechanisms might thus have
been the final cause of explosive unloading of the rising silicic
0
magma that might otherwise have formed an extrusive dome.
20 40 60 80 100
Young domes dot the surface of Süphan and part of the lower
15 slopes and appears to represent the prevalent mode of near-
M-NF (n=47) surface emplacement of the viscous rhyolitic Süphan magmas
at least at this late (?) stage.
(5) In any case, the initial explosive eruption in the swarm
heralded a chain of events in the major dynamic rejuvenation
Number of crystals

10
inside the Süphan volcano–magma system. This swarm
peaked, ca. 60 years after the first explosive eruption, in the
most voluminous eruption of the swarm (V-10). Tephra V-
10 is the only one of the Süphan-sourced tephras that also
5
produced highly vesiculated pumice suggesting that closed
system conditions that had produced slowly cooling high
level magma pockets occasionally producing domes had tem-
porarily changed to open system scenarios. Most likely, the
0 conduit system had been mechanically weakened by several
20 40 60 80 100
explosive eruptions preceding the V-10 eruption by a few de-
cades. There is also a striking “symmetry” to the Süphan
10 tephras in that grain size of particles and phenocrysts, vesicu-
L-NF (n=10) larity of pumice and compositional parameters culminated
Number of crystals

with V-10 and decreased subsequently. Tephra V-10 was

5 40 years between V-15 and V-14, 20 years between V-14
0
20 40 60 80 100
Fayalite (mol %)
Fig. 9. (a) Olivine compositions in Nemrut tephras are dominantly fayalite for tephra V-3,
here correlated compositionally with onshore Nemrut Caldera rim Tephra (NCT).
(b) Olivine compositions change from fayalite to forsterite-rich from the rhyolitic lower
(L-NF) to the upper mafic trachyte top of the onshore fallout-ignimbrite unit (U-NF)
(ca. 30 ka). The trachytic tephra V-18 (ca. 28 ka) represents the last tephra in the drill
cores prior to the major tephra gap between 14 and 28 ka discussed in the text.
swarm. Moreover, Süphan tephras are almost absent in the
tephra record of the upper ca. 60 m of the core at Site 2 spanning
ca. 200 ky suggesting that Süphan explosive activity had been
also preceded by the longest time interval in the swarm:
and V-13, 132 years for V-13 to V-10 (V-11 is reworked and
V-12, interpreted as tephra by Litt et al. (2009), is a dark oxidized
zone), 63 years for V-10 to V-9, and 49 years for V-9 to V-8, V-7
being reworked.
The model sketched above receives some support from several
aspects of Süphan tephras spanning ca. 570 ka throughout the 219 m
long core drilled at Site 2 in Lake Van including the following:
• Many Süphan tephras throughout the 219 m core at Site 2 are also
characterized by the type of shard described, allowing us to provision-
ally identify Süphan tephras in thin sections in case diagnostic mineral
phases are absent.
• Images showing the different kinds of glass textures are presented by
Schmincke and Sumita (2014).
• Süphan tephra swarms also occur in several sections of the Site 2 core
suggesting that the mode of explosive activity of Süphan differs
206 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213

Table 3
Representative EMP analyses of feldspar phenocrysts from cored tephra layers. Fpz: zoned feldspar.

Source: Nemrut

Volcanic layer no.: V-3 V-3 V-4 V-5 V-5 V-6 V-16 V-17 V-18 V-18

Expedition no.: VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 5034 VAN04 5034 5034 5034

Hole, core, section: 2A-2H-2 2A-6H-1 2D-5H-2 2D-5H-2

Interval (cm): 68–68.5 57–58 34–40 34–40

Depth (mblf): 3.09 13.50 15.79 15.79

Core station no.: VAN04-2-1 VAN04-2-1 VAN4-2-4 VAN04-7 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4

Segment: S1 S1 S1 S2 S2 S4

Interval (cm): 38.0–40.0 51.0–52.0 89.5–90.0 93.0–93.5 4.5–5.0 83.5–83.7

Type of thin section: G G S G G G G G G G

Thin section no. LV KP 35

Grain no.: fp-10 fp-6 fp-1 fpz-2 fp-5 fp-9 fp-4 fp-4 fp-17 fp-1

Number of analyses: 2 2 2 10 2 2 2 2 2 2

(wt. %)
SiO2 66.83 66.41 66.47 56.77 66.41 66.73 66.74 60.49 61.39 67.00
TiO2 0.09 0.08 0.01 0.12 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.02
Al2O3 20.13 20.15 20.03 26.29 19.96 18.99 20.21 24.88 23.81 19.27
FeO* 0.21 0.29 0.22 0.44 0.22 0.17 0.15 0.29 0.20 0.48
MgO 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
CaO 0.15 0.12 0.20 8.28 0.19 0.19 0.21 5.92 4.98 0.02
Na2O 6.36 6.38 6.54 5.93 6.58 6.99 5.81 7.21 7.02 6.90
K2O 6.51 6.54 6.19 0.66 6.27 6.31 6.83 0.92 1.45 6.06
Total: 100.27 99.96 99.66 98.50 99.63 99.38 100.01 99.72 98.87 99.75
Or 40.0 40.0 38.0 4.0 38.2 36.9 43.1 5.5 8.9 36.6
Ab 59.3 59.4 61.0 54.2 60.9 62.2 55.8 65.0 65.4 63.3
An 0.7 0.6 1.0 41.8 1.0 0.9 1.1 29.5 25.7 0.1

Source: Süphan

Volcanic layer no.: V-8 V-9 V-9 V-10 V-10 V-13 V-13 V-14 V-14 V-15 V-15

Expedition no.: VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04

Core station no.: VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4

Segment: S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4 S4

Interval (cm): 27.0–27.5 36.0–36.5 36.0–36.5 41.6–42.0 41.6–42.0 56.4–56.5 56.4–56.5 58.3–58.7 57.5–59.3 61.0–61.1 61–61.1

Type of thin section: G G G G G S S G G S S

Thin section No.: LV KP 68 LV KP 68 LV KP 69 LV KP 69

Grain no.: fpz-5 fp-6 fp-10 fp-10 fp-2 fp-1 fp-2 fpz-1 fp-3 fp-10 fp-12

Number of analyses: 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 2 2 2

(wt. %)
SiO2 61.90 63.76 63.08 61.52 62.52 63.95 62.87 55.59 62.00 65.03 62.45
TiO2 0.08 0.00 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.07 0.00 0.00
Al2O3 24.03 19.94 24.28 25.34 24.52 19.11 23.57 26.80 22.78 19.29 23.73
FeO* 0.15 0.09 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.08 0.17 0.31 0.13 0.12 0.17
MgO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CaO 4.70 0.19 4.48 5.67 4.92 0.13 4.66 8.94 3.94 0.35 4.72
Na2O 7.48 2.67 6.84 6.60 6.89 2.83 7.78 5.71 7.69 4.87 7.82
K2O 0.91 11.78 1.04 0.76 0.94 12.22 0.99 0.48 1.29 9.05 0.92
Total: 99.26 98.43 99.90 100.07 99.97 98.32 100.02 97.92 97.89 98.68 99.80
Or 5.6 73.6 6.8 4.9 6.0 73.5 5.9 2.9 7.9 54.1 5.5
Ab 70.1 25.4 68.4 64.5 67.4 25.8 70.7 52.1 71.8 44.2 70.9
An 24.3 1.0 24.7 30.6 26.6 0.7 23.4 45.1 20.3 1.7 23.7

significantly from that of Nemrut in that its explosive eruptions occur
dominantly in temporally restricted short bursts and thus maybe
more typical of the system than of the waning stage.
• Periods of high eruption frequency such as those represented by the
Süphan tephra swarm are difficult to impossible to verify in subaerial
sections where thin tephra layers become easily eroded.
• The Süphan eruptive swarm followed close behind a single Nemrut
tephra (V-16), suggesting, but not proving, a dynamic coupling
between both systems.
7.1.3. The periodic explosive volcanic activity of Nemrut Volcano
We have previously suggested a periodic explosive activity of
Nemrut Volcano based largely on our detailed reconstruction of the
stratigraphic, compositional and temporal explosive activity of the
 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213 207

Table 4
Representative EMP analyses of pyroxene phenocrysts from cored tephra layers.

Source: Nemrut Süphan Nemrut

Volcanic layer no.: V-3 V-3 V-3 V-3 V-4 V-14 V-14 V-16 V-17 V-18 V-18 V-18

Expedition no.: VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 VAN04 5034 5034 5034 5034

Hole, core, section: 2A-6H-1 2A-6H-2 2D-5H-2 2D-6H-1

Interval (cm): 57–58 90–102 34–40 64–67

Depth (mblf): 13.5 15.24 15.79 17.62

Core station no.: VAN04-2-1 VAN04-2-1 VAN04-8 VAN04-2-1 VAN04-7 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4

Segment: S1 S1 S3 S1 S2 S4 S4 S4

Interval (cm): 41.0–41.5 40.5–41.0 97.0–100.2 40.5–41.0 82.0–82.5 58.3–58.7 58.7–59.4 83.5–84.0

Type of thin section: G G G G G G G G G G G G

Grain no.: px-6 px-8 px-4 px-11 px-2 px-5 px-1 px-2 px-6 px-13 px-16 px-3

Number of analyses: 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2

(wt. %)
SiO2 47.77 48.23 48.42 50.91 48.04 51.36 50.89 49.19 52.25 48.73 49.84 50.94
TiO2 0.29 0.29 0.27 0.48 0.22 0.22 0.19 0.22 0.41 0.27 0.56 0.28
Al2O3 0.22 0.23 0.28 1.22 0.23 0.85 0.58 0.28 1.28 0.18 1.21 1.04
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00
NiO 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.03
FeO* 30.50 29.04 28.82 13.74 26.77 12.57 27.38 28.09 14.21 30.11 18.38 14.30
MnO 1.22 1.19 1.09 0.64 1.13 0.56 1.11 1.23 0.60 1.13 0.91 0.62
MgO 0.44 0.79 0.93 12.29 1.91 12.57 18.09 1.86 12.06 0.14 8.16 12.62
CaO 18.03 19.01 18.86 19.81 19.39 20.25 1.17 18.94 19.52 18.06 19.81 18.84
Na2O 0.83 0.69 0.61 0.40 0.56 0.35 0.01 0.56 0.38 1.28 0.44 0.34
K2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total: 99.29 99.47 99.30 99.50 98.25 98.74 99.44 100.36 100.70 99.90 99.35 99.01
En 1.4 2.5 3.0 35.5 6.1 36.5 51.8 5.8 35.1 0.5 24.6 36.6
Fs 57.0 54.0 53.6 23.3 49.7 21.3 45.7 51.5 24.1 57.2 32.5 24.2
Wo 41.6 43.5 43.4 41.2 44.3 42.2 2.4 42.7 40.8 42.4 42.9 39.2

Table 5
Representative EMP analyses of olivine phenocrysts from cored tephra layers.

Source: Nemrut

Volcanic layer no.: V-3 V-18 V-18 V-18

Expedition no.: VAN04 5034 5034 5034 Table 6

Hole, core, section: 2A-6H-2 2A-6H-2 2D-5H-2 Representative EMP analyses of biotite phenocrysts from cored tephra layers.

Interval (cm): 90–102 90–102 34–40 Source: Süphan

Depth (mblf) 15.24 15.24 15.79 Volcanic layer no.: V-8 V-9 V-10 V-14

Core station no.: VAN04-2-1 Core station no.: VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4

Segment: S1 Segment: S4 S4 S4 S4

Interval (cm): 52.0–54.0 Interval (cm): 27.0–27.5 36.0–36.5 41.6–42.0 58.7–59.4

Type of thin section: G G G G Type of thin section: G G G G

Grain no.: ol-1 ol-6 ol-4 ol-5 Grain no.: mic-7 mic-1 mic-4 mic-3

Number of analyses: 2 2 2 2 Number of analyses: 2 2 1 2

(wt. %) (wt. %)
SiO2 29.46 30.34 32.65 34.10 SiO2 35.40 35.15 36.06 35.09
Al2O3 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 TiO2 4.58 4.11 4.74 3.04
FeO* 67.25 66.05 54.20 45.99 Al2O3 14.96 15.29 14.90 14.42
MnO 3.22 3.51 2.68 1.71 FeO* 25.34 25.05 23.83 23.46
MgO 0.38 0.08 11.22 19.57 MnO 0.50 0.58 0.52 0.46
NiO 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 MgO 7.86 8.09 8.99 9.51
CaO 0.25 0.29 0.39 0.33 CaO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 Na2O 0.40 0.36 0.39 0.41
Total 100.57 100.26 101.15 101.70 K2O 9.15 8.98 9.22 8.88
Fo 1.0 0.2 27.0 43.1 P2O5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Fa 99.0 99.8 73.0 56.9 Total: 98.16 97.59 98.65 95.25
208 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213

Table 7 interpreted to have been erupted as pumice lapilli fallout followed

Representative EMP analyses of amphibole phenocrysts from cored tephra layers. by a pyroclastic flow and is correlated to the spectacular Nemrut Cal-
Source: Süphan dera Rim Tephra (Fig. 5) (Schmincke and Sumita, 2014). It thus re-
Volcanic layer no.: V-8 V-9 V-10 V-14
sembles compositionally the lower part of the ca. 30 ka old large-
volume fallout-ignimbrite deposits of the Nemrut Formation. In
Core station no.: VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4
other words, the periodicity of 20–40 ky between moderate to
Segment: S4 S4 S4 S4 large magnitude rhyolite eruptions postulated by Sumita and
Interval (cm): 27.0–27.5 36.0–36.5 41.6–42 58.7–59.4 Schmincke (2013a) is extended to prehistoric times by the
Grain no.: amph-2 amph-2 amph-2 amph-4
Lateglacial–Holocene record. Interestingly, the duration of a ca. 30
ky-long time period preceding larger volume eruptions – say several
Number of analyses: 1 1 2 2
km3 DRE – appears to be common elsewhere, as shown, for example,
(wt. %) by the detailed study of the initial evolution of the Laacher See Volca-
SiO2 35.51 35.09 35.16 34.51
no magma reservoir (Schmitt et al., 2010). Moreover, the eight most-
TiO2 4.37 4.27 3.55 3.86
Al2O3 14.46 14.88 15.34 15.11
ly peralkaline ignimbrites on Gran Canaria, each representing
FeO* 25.44 24.99 23.87 23.75 volumes of N10 km 3 DRE, were erupted between ca. 14 Ma and
MnO 0.53 0.49 0.55 0.56 13.3 Ma at 20–40 ky intervals with almost no significant fallout
MgO 8.10 8.24 9.08 8.62 tephras deposited/generated in between (Schmincke and Sumita,
CaO 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.00
1998).
Na2O 0.37 0.39 0.44 0.43
K2O 9.07 8.86 8.93 8.88 The more evenly spaced larger explosive eruptions of Nemrut
P2O5 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 coupled with the generally moderately to highly vesicular nature of
Total: 97.85 97.26 96.94 95.70 the component glass shards, except for the angular non-vesicular
shards interpreted as hydroclastic or obsidian dome fragments, do
suggest that Nemrut explosive eruptions are fundamentally inter-
nally triggered. In other words, felsic magmas accumulate within
volcano throughout the past 400 ka (Sumita and Schmincke, 2013a,c). the Nemrut edifice over some time in high-level magma reservoirs
The basic observation was the recurrence of larger magnitude rhyolitic where volatiles are concentrated to such a degree that eruptability
tephras at intervals of ca. 20–40,000 years separated by several “small of the upper part of magma reservoirs is reached without necessarily
magnitude” dominantly trachytic tephras (Sumita and Schmincke, requiring major external triggers apart from injection of mafic
2013a). We also noted a rough correlation of periods of higher magmas (Fig. 11).
explosive volcanic activity during warm climate intervals, suggest-
ing a broad climate forcing (see below). The time interval considered
here – the past ca. 30, 000 years – is too short to allow recognition of 7.2. Interdependency of the Süphan and Nemrut systems — apparent
eruptive periodicities. All primary Nemrut tephras in the sediments or real?
erupted during the past ca. 13 ka (V-3 to -6 and 16) are rhyolitic. In-
terestingly, this includes by far the largest magnitude tephra in the Nemrut-sourced tephras are absent between 13,585 vy BP and
Holocene succession at both drill sites, V-3 (with thickness intervals 7192 vy BP, the time interval during which the Süphan tephra
ranging from 5 to 10 cm at Site 2 to 1.3 m (slumped) at Site 1) swarm was emplaced. This mutual temporal exclusion of explosive
(Schmincke and Sumita, 2014). V-3, slightly compositionally zoned, is activity might not be fortuitous because there are other time inter-
vals in the entire 219 m core of Site 2 where Nemrut and Süphan
tephras are mutually exclusive.

Table 8 • However, the alternation of explosive periods of one volcano while

EMP analyses of allanite phenocrysts from V-10. the other volcano is quiet might only be apparent and rather be due
to changing wind systems. In this model, northerly winds would
Source: Süphan
transport Süphan tephras southward covering western Lake Van
Volcanic layer no.: V-10 V-10 whereas simultaneously erupted Nemrut tephras would simply be
Core station no.: VAN04-2-4 VAN04-2-4 deposited southwest of the Nemrut edifice and thus be absent from
Segment: S4 S4 the Lake Van depocenter.
• We have previously speculated that Süphan magmas might have
Type of thin section: G G
occasionally entered the Nemrut systems following the huge eruption
Interval (cm): 42–45 42–45 of the Nemrut Formation fallout and subsequent pyroclastic flow
Grain no.: 1 2 (Sumita and Schmincke, 2013c). Nevertheless, documentation and
(wt. %) interpretation of a mechanical/dynamic coupling between the two
SiO2 29.94 29.83 volcanic systems remain equivocal.
TiO2 1.76 1.72 • The four primary Nemrut tephras overlying the Süphan tephra swarm
ThO2 0.88 0.79 are spaced widely between V-6 (7192 vy BP), V-5 (6888 vy BP), V-4
Al2O3 11.85 11.62
Fe2O3 17.02 17.11
(6005 vy BP) and V-3 (2650 vy BP). In other words, the average
La2O3 7.72 8.14 time between Nemrut eruptions whose deposits were encountered
Ce2O3 11.93 12.11 at Site 2 amounts to ca. 1133 years with three shorter intervals
Pr2O3 1.15 1.12 (b 300 resp. b 900 years) between V-6 and V-4, a very long gap of
Nd2O3 3.08 2.90
3355 years between V-4 and V-3 and an even longer gap of
Sm2O3 0.31 0.15
Y2O3 0.09 0.12 6393 years between V-16 and V-6 (Fig. 11).
MgO 1.20 1.31 • Interestingly, the largest magnitude eruption (V-3) was preceded by
CaO 9.96 9.40 the longest noneruptive interval, supporting our speculation that
MnO 0.36 0.46 magma recharge rates at Nemrut are relatively uniform over time
Total: 97.25 96.78
(Sumita and Schmincke, 2013a,c).
 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213 209

a 0
Sec: 1 Sec: 2 b 0
Sec: 1 S e c t: 2
16 Nemrut tephra
cm cm
8 Süphan tephra
10 10 8x Unknown composition

Faulted intervals
7 7x
20 20

7y
30 30
7z

40 40
8

8x
50 50 8
9 9x
10
8x
60 60
9
11
13 12
70 14 70
15
10

80 80

11
13 12
90 16 90 14

15
100 100 15x

16x

110 110

120 120

16
130 130

140 140

150 150

Fig. 10. Two continuous core profiles from Paleovan drill sites: (a) Site 2, Ahlat Ridge, low sedimentation rates ca. 0.5 m/1000 a; (b) Site 1, Northern Basin, high sedimentation rates
ca. 1.5 m/1000 a. Tephra layers are significantly thicker in Site 1 cores because of close proximity to the source volcanoes Nemrut and Süphan. Site 1 sections represent ca. 2 ky, Site 2
cores ca. 6 ky. Faulting is pervasive in section 2 of Site 1 core below the young tephras (this time interval not shown for Site 1) and pronounced in the 60 cm long core section below tephra
V-10 in section 2 of Site 1 core. Faulting can also be recognized in the upper part of section 1 of Site 1 core. Sections of the profiles representing pronounced faulting are shown with
red bars. In Site 1 turbidites (massive gray deposits) are generally not cut by the faults. The Süphan tephra swarm discussed in the text comprises primary tephras V-8 to V-15.

7.3. The remarkable tephra gap between ca. 29 ka and ca. 14 ka: climate
control of explosive volcanism?
The sudden appearance of tephra layers in the cores at Sites 1 and 2 at
13,585 vy BP contrasts markedly with their absence during the preceding
ca. 15,000 years where a new active phase of volcanism is documented
by the very voluminous combination of fallout and ignimbrite/syn-
ignimbrite turbidite NF (V-18) at ca. 30 ka and a single tephra V-17 at
ca. 28 ka (Fig. 11). The impressively abrupt boundary between a tephra-
rich Holocene/LG section and a preceding tephra-barren ca. 15 ky-long
period coincides with another clear boundary between perfectly varved
younger sediments beginning with V-16 and preceding unvarved mot-
tled sediments reflecting cool “glacial” climate conditions (Stockhecke
et al., 2014) in the time interval between ca. 28 ka and ca. 13,800 vy BP,
despite perfect recovery of cores. The same time period in Site 1 cores
consists entirely of very approximately 250 turbidites. Whether or not
210 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213

a
Fallout - ignimbrite eruption Fallout - ignimbrite eruption

Eruption Süphan tephra

Fallout
magnitude swarm
NF
NCT CekF

Cored 8~15 19 21
1 23 4 56 7 16 Tephra gap 17 18 20 22
tephra
Climate Warm climate Y. LGM
Dryas Cold - dry
Age
(B.P.) Holocene Pleistocene

0 10000 20000 30000

Tephra gap
b
Source volcanoes
Core Tephra layers Nemrut
(ICDP Nonvolcanic
sediments
Site 2) 0 No recovery
Süphan
25 50 75 100
Depth (m cblf) (ca. 190 ka) Climate
Tephra layer distribution in the upper 100 m Warm Cold

Fig. 11. (a) Details of Late Pleistocene tephra gap. (b) Contrast of large Late Pleistocene tephra gap with much smaller tephra gaps in the upper 100 m (up to ca. 190 ka) of Site 2 core. Tephra
distribution in Site 2 core after Stockhecke et al. (2014).

individual subaerial tephra layers occur in this huge turbidite interval or
may have been eroded is impossible to say. However, the striking contrast
is confirmed by the complete lack of tephras in the seismic reflection
record in the sediments during the same time interval (Fig. 12).
The absence of tephra in a ca. 15,000 ky core section with excellent
recovery is thus unlikely to be fortuitous. The period between
ca. 13,800 and ca. 29 ka corresponds to the Last Glacial Maximum
(LGM), when dry conditions prevailed and lake level dropped to about
210 m bpll (Litt et al., 2009; Sarikaya et al., 2011). This period is also
reflected in the low-amplitude seismic reflections due to low acoustic
contrasts (Cukur et al., 2014) (Fig. 12).
We can envisage three main explanations for this remarkable
coincidence between climate and the presence/absence of tephra
layers: (1) lack of sedimentation/preservation of tephra layers in

S N

Site 1
Site 2
TWO-WAY TRAVEL TIME (Sec.)

0.6

V-3 (NCT; ca. 2650 vy BP)

V-8 ~ V-15 (ca. 13000 vy BP)

Süphan tephra swarm
0.65 Tephra gap
V-18 (NF; ca. 30 ka)

4 km

Fig. 12. Seismic section showing tephra gap between V-18 and V-8 to V-15 south of Site 2 (courtesy D. Cukur, pers. comm. 2014).
 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213
the lake sediments; (2) lack of explosive volcanic activity during gla-
cial conditions; and (3) prolonged exhaustion of the Nemrut system
following the large-magnitude eruption of the NF volcanic unit at ca.
30 ka.
Model 1 (volcano-control): Change in the frequency of Nemrut
eruptions due to temporary exhaustion of the Nemrut system
following a large magnitude eruption
Volcanoes worldwide show variably long pauses in eruptive activity
of as much as hundreds of thousands of years (e.g. in the case of large
caldera systems) following large-volume (explosive) eruptions owing
to the massive sudden evacuation of upper portions of their high-level
magma reservoirs coupled with much lower mafic magma supply
rates. The magma volume of the large magnitude eruption of the
coupled fallout-ignimbrite of the compositionally zoned rhyolite–
trachyte NF (Nemrut Formation) at ca. 30 ka described in detail in
Sumita and Schmincke (2013c) ranks among the largest explosive erup-
tions of Nemrut during the past 400 ky and is estimated to have been on
the order 5–10 km3. Because of the near absence of Süphan tephras in
the drilled sections during the past ca. 200 ka, possibly due to the drastic
waning of its activity, tephras of peralkaline composition sourced in
Nemrut Volcano are the rule during any one-time interval. Tephra-
barren core sections lasting longer than 1000 years are extremely rare
in the 219 m long Site 2 cores and none was found longer than
2000 years despite the occurrence of several large-magnitude erup-
tions, some much larger than NF. In conclusion, we cannot entirely ex-
clude the possibility that the ca. 15–16,000 year-long time interval
lacking tephra layers in the core is due to the temporary “exhaustion”
of the highly evolved upper part of the Nemrut magma reservoir but
think this explanation is unlikely.
Model 2 (climate-control): Change in wind directions
In scenario 1 we assumed no change in the rate of explosive vol-
canism of both volcanoes between today and ca. 30 ka. One factor
that could have had a major impact on the likelihood of tephra de-
position in Lake Van concerns fundamentally opposite wind direc-
tions during dominance of the Siberian high with easterly winds
between ca. 29 ka and ca. 13.8 ka. In scenario 1, tephra lobes
would be deposited west of the lake contrasting with “normal”
dominant west-southwest wind directions. In central Europe,
high-pressure areas over Russia during the winter generate cold
easterly winds. This hypothesis receives some support from a com-
parison of the onshore and drilled tephra records. The glass compo-
sitions and mineralogy of the Çekmeçe Formation tephra layers are
dominantly trachytic (except for one mugearitic tephra), with the
lowermost tephra correlated tentatively with V-17. A single-
crystal dating attempt of the plagioclase-dominated trachytic
Çekmeçe Formation tephras was not entirely convincing (large er-
rors) but is not unreasonable (ca. 24 ka, see above) (unpublished
data). Since none of the Çekmeçe Formation tephra layers, except
possibly V-17, appears to occur in the cored lake sediments we con-
clude that northeastern winds dominated during most of the peri-
od of Çekmeçe Formation eruptions. Alternatively, the eruptions
were of such small magnitude that their depositional fans did not
reach the drill sites, or lower elevation winds had been directed
more to the southeast (towards Çekmeçe Village) and deposited
mainly in the southern part of the lake.
Model 3 (climate-control): Frozen lake surface
Model 3 would envision a frozen lake surface all year round during
glacial conditions. Tephra layers deposited on the ice could become
quickly removed from the ice surface by storms and thus have a very
low preservation potential.
Model 4 (climate-control): Lithosphere loading
211
A major potential cause of a dependence of eruption frequency on
climate could be lithosphere loading during glacial times, suppressing
magma generation in the asthenosphere. Subsequent drastic unloading
due to glacier melting would trigger partial melting in the astheno-
sphere and/or magma reservoir unloading. We have previously specu-
lated that the rates of explosive volcanic activity of Nemrut were
significantly lower during glacial periods than during warm periods
based on a detailed temporal reconstruction of explosive activity over
the past 400 ka in the Lake Van area (Sumita and Schmincke, 2013a,
c). A relationship between (explosive) volcanic activity and glacial vs.
interglacial conditions has been recognized worldwide, as first postulat-
ed by Kennett and Thunell (1975) and corroborated since many
times. Explosive volcanic activity in Iceland, for example, appears
to have increased following melting of the ice shield at ca. 10 ka
(Sigvaldason et al., 1992; Werner et al., 1996; Huybers and Langmuir,
2009; Sigmundsson et al., 2010), a process explained by Jull and
McKenzie (1996) as due to asthenospheric unloading. These authors
showed that ice sheet melting during the deglaciation of Iceland within
the Pleistocene–Holocene decreased the pressure in the mantle by up to
19,000 Pa a− 1, melt production increasing by a factor of about 30. If
indeed no major explosive activity occurred at Nemrut and Süphan
volcanoes during the last glacial period, lithosphere loading followed
by unloading due to glacier melting may have been the major cause
for the suppression of magmatic/volcanic activity.
7.4. Future volcanic activity of Süphan and Nemrut volcanoes and major
types of volcanic hazards
The tightly grouped Süphan tephra swarm (V-8 to V-15) indicates
that Süphan is still able to erupt explosively, even though its explosive
activity appears to have been waning for almost 200 ky. By international
definition, Süphan Volcano can thus be considered active. Based on the
overall occurrence of Süphan tephra layers in the Paleovan cores, how-
ever, the explosive activity of Süphan seems to have drastically
decreased with time. At Site 2, Süphan tephras are practically absent
in the cores over the past ca. 200 ka except for one short interval at ca.
80 m blf based on the characteristic mineralogy and glass compositions.
This could be interpreted as a long period of explosive dormancy of
Süphan Volcano, reflecting waning (explosive) activity within its
magma system, although we cannot entirely exclude changing wind
directions to more northerly directions. Nevertheless, in view of the
dominant SW wind directions over the entire time interval in the area,
at least during interstadial climate conditions, Süphan tephras are
of course much less likely to be represented in the Paleovan cores
as the drill sites are located south-southwest of the volcano. The pre-
ponderance of Nemrut tephras during this time interval could thus be
mainly climate (wind direction)-controlled. Nevertheless, the ages of
stratigraphically young onshore fallout tephras from Süphan east of
the volcano so far dated by us (unpublished data) also do not suggest
significant explosive activity of Süphan during the past ca. 200 ka. We
thus speculate that explosive activity of Süphan volcano has drastically
decreased during the past ca. 150 ky. The exceptional short-lived burst
here documented may thus indicate special circumstances, such as
major external triggering as discussed above.
The frequency of Nemrut eruptions as documented in the cores
during the short time interval considered here is much lower, namely
hundreds to thousands of years between those eruptions whose tephra
reached the drill sites. When taking into account our unpublished data
over the same interval of ca. 150 ka used for viewing the frequency of
Süphan tephras, we note long intervals with almost no tephras in the
cores (e.g. between 13,800 vy BP and ca. 30 ka) whose significance
has been discussed above.
These are only minimum numbers since eruptions of smaller magni-
tude and variable environmental control on depositional lobes (wind
strength and direction) might have caused significant gaps in the lake
sediment tephra record.
212 H.-U. Schmincke, M. Sumita / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 285 (2014) 195–213
Dome emplacement and sector collapse are the most obvious signs
of late-stage (?) dynamic behavior of the Süphan edifice, the devastat-
ing aspects of debris avalanches on land and upon entering a large
lake not needing to be overemphasized. A major debris avalanche de-
posit formed widespread hummocks over 20 km between Süphan and
the town of Patnos. We have noted meter-thick deposits probably
representing the edge of debris avalanches on the southern slopes of
Süphan and also on the northern outskirts of the town of Tatvan (see
also Fig. 6). In general, however, Nemrut Volcano appears to be still in
a relatively active stage including the generation of pyroclastic flows
and several historic eruptions (Karakhanian et al., 2002; Haroutiunian,
2006). Any type of volcanic mass flow could not only directly impact
the bustling towns of Ahlat and Tatvan (combined population ca.
80,000) but also generate tsunamis whose effect might still be hazard-
ous for the town of Van itself.
8. Conclusions
Fifteen Lateglacial to Holocene tephra layers recovered by piston cor-
ing and ICDP drilling in western Lake Van are sourced in either of the two
large volcanoes Nemrut and Süphan that border the lake to the west and
north as shown by distinct mineralogical and compositional differences.
The data presented here confirm and extend our earlier interpretation of
a tightly grouped pre-Holocene explosive swarm of Süphan tephras and
an upper Holocene group of lower frequency explosive eruptions of
Nemrut Volcano reflecting significant regional shifts in source volcano
and thus magma composition.
Nemrut tephras are variably peralkaline rhyolites characterized by
anorthoclase, hedenbergitic clinopyroxene and fayalitic olivine plus
minor quartz, aenigmatite and accessory chevkinite. In contrast, Süphan
tephras are subalkaline rhyolites and carry plagioclase, rare sanidine,
augitic clinopyroxene, commonly biotite and more rarely amphibole,
hypersthene and quartz plus accessory zircon and allanite. The contrast
between Nemrut and Süphan tephras also includes textural criteria.
Vitric shards in Süphan tephras are commonly blocky, poorly vesicular,
the vesicles being characteristically tubular and twisted. Angular dark
juvenile tachylite shards appear characteristic of several Süphan
tephras. Both criteria could imply external fragmentation triggered by
injection of newly risen more mafic magma impacting a small volume
of poorly vesiculated viscous felsic magma that might have been
emplaced as a dome without heating by an influx of hotter more
mafic magma. We also speculate on eruption beneath a glacier cover
adding another external triggering mechanism.
Major and long-lasting seismic activity is reflected in a pronounced
interval of faulting that comprises a ca. 2-m thick section of mostly
varved sediments starting at ca. 16 ka and mostly ending just prior to
the main Süphan tephra (V-10) (12,886 vy BP). This period of seismic
unrest is tentatively interpreted as having been instrumental in causing
the rise of mafic magma into higher levels of the nearly dormant Süphan
volcanic system, thereby triggering an unusually high frequency explo-
sive swarm lasting ca. 400 years.
The eruptive patterns of Nemrut and Süphan volcanoes differ
significantly from each other. The episodic Lateglacial Süphan tephra
swarm of eight very closely spaced explosive bursts spaced less than
100 years apart contrasts strongly with the more periodic eruptive be-
havior of Nemrut Volcano with hundreds to thousands of years between
larger explosive eruptions. These distinct eruptive patterns also charac-
terize the tephra record of the ca. 550 year-old 219 m core sunk into
Lake Van sediments.
Süphan volcano, whose activity likely began prior to 550 ka, appears
to have been approaching the end of its explosive volcanic activity for
the past ca. 200 ka. The explosive activity of Nemrut volcano, in contrast,
also began at least ca. 570 ka ago but increased strongly at ca. 400 ka
judging from onshore outcrops. There are no signs that its activity is
waning.
The V-3 tephra event confirms the 20–40 ky periodicity of rhyolitic
Nemrut tephra eruptions previously postulated by us. This time interval
is interpreted as the incubation interval for the development of highly
evolved magma batches generated in Nemrut and other volcanic
systems of similar magnitude.
The sudden appearance of tephra layers at ca. 13,800 years BP at
the beginning of the Lateglacial contrasts strongly with the absence
of tephra in the preceding ca. 15,000 year-long interval of glacial
conditions. The striking near-absence of tephra at both sites for some
15,000 years is tentatively interpreted as climate-controlled. Litho-
sphere unloading at the end of the glacial period might best explain
the increase in magma production and explosive volcanic activity.
Acknowledgments
Our work was supported in its early stages by DFG grants SCHM 250/
86-1 and SCHM 250/87-1. Short core material was kindly put at our
disposal by Thomas Litt and Mike Sturm. Georg Heumann generously
provided core photographs and logistic assistance at Bonn University
where we took the short core tephra samples and also kindly provided
his unpublished list of varve years. Thanks to the many colleagues who
participated in the ICDP Paleovan Project. Deniz Cukur kindly supplied
the seismic section of Fig. 12. Repeated sampling of the Paleovan cores
at Marum (Bremen) was always a pleasure thanks to the amiable assis-
tance of Axel Wülbers, Walter Hale and Hans-Joachim Wallrabe. Ray
Macdonald made very helpful comments on the article. We also thank
two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions. At GEOMAR, Mario
Thöner provided a cheerful atmosphere during our long hours in the
EMP lab. Piotr Dzierżanowski (University of Warsaw) kindly provided
the allanite EMP analysis.
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