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CHEMISTRY
Chap No. 14 D and F BLOCK ELEMENTS
1. Electronic configuration for D-shell; (n-1)d1-10 ns0,1,2,3
2. Binding energy increase upto VIB and then decreases.
3. Oxidation states; +3 is common at beginning and +2 at the end.

Catalytic properties;
4. Fe → Haber process → Ammonia synthesis
5. V2O5 → Contact process → H2SO4 synthesis
6. TiCl4 → polymerization of ethene to polythene
7. Ni, Pt and Pd → hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
8. Cu → oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde.

Magnetic behavior;
9. Weakly attracted → paramagnetic
10.Weakly repelled → diamagnetic
11.Paramagnetic → one or more unpaired electron
12.Diamagnetic → pared electrons
13.Ferromagnetic → five unpaired electrons like Fe+3 and Mn+2

Alloy Formation;
14.Gold → Cu = 20-25 %, Au=70-75 % → 18 carat
15.Brass → Cu = 60-80 %, Zn=20-40 %
16.Bronze → Cu =75-90 %, Sn=10-25 %
17.Steel → Fe=90-95 %, C=0.1-2 %
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Complex Ion
18.A pale blue precipitate of Cu (II) hydroxide forms when ammonia is
added to a solution of Cu (II) ions.
19.If we add more ammonia to four ammonia molecules and two water
molecules surrounds Cu+2 ion and deep blue solution of formula
[Cu(H2O2(NH3)4]+2 is formed.

Nomenclature of coordination complex

20.Catoin is named first and anion later.
21.Negative ligands ends with ‘o’.
22.Positive ligands end with ‘ium’.
23.Ligand of complex are named in order of negative → neutral →
positive.
24.Name of metal is followed by ‘ate’.

25.[Cr(NH3) 6](NO3) 3 →Hexaamminechromium (lll) nitrate

26.K2 [PtCl6] → Potassium hexachoroplatinate (lV)
27.[CO(NH3) 3(NH2)3] → Trinitrotriaminecobalt (lll)
28.[CO(NH3)4(Cl2)]Cl → Dichlorotetraaminecobalt (lll) chloride
29.Na3[Co(NO2)6] → sodium hexachlorocobaltater (lll)
30.Na3[Fe(CN)6] → sodium hexacyanoferrate (lll)
31.K3 [Fe(CN)6] → potassium hexacyanoferrate (lll)
32.Na2 [Fe(N)(CN)5] → Sodium pentacyanonitrosylferrate (lll)
33.[CO(en)2 (Cl)2] →Dichloro-Bi-ethylenediamine cobalt (ll)

Shapes of complex ions

34.6-Coordinated complex ions has octahedral shape.
35.4-coordinated complex ions have tetrahedral and square planar
complex.
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36.5-coordinated complex ions have triognal bipyramidral and square

pyramidal shapes.
37.[CuCl4]2- and [CoCl] 2- have tetrahedral ion geometry
38.Cisplatin {Pt(NH3)2Cl2} has square planar structure

Colours of Complexes
39.Sc3+ → Colourless
40.Ti3+→ Purple
41.Ti4+→ Colourless
42.Cr3+→ Blue
43.Mn2+→ Green
44.Fe3+→ Yellow
45.Co2+→ Blue
46.Ni2+→ Green
47.Cu2+→ Blue
48.Zn2+→ Colourless
→ 33-43-23-22-22 →p-bgy-bgb

Vanadium
49.Vanadium was discovered by mistaken by Andres Manuel del Rio in
1801.
50.Vanadium was rediscovered by Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Sefstrom.
51.The word Vanadis means goddess of beauty and love in Scandinian
mythology.

Oxidation states of vanadium(23)

52.V+2 → Violet
53.V+3 → Green
54.V+4 → Blue
55.V+5 → Colorless

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As catalyst as contact process

56.Platinum was used as catalyst for conversion of SO2 to SO3 but as it is
susceptible to poisoning by arsenic impurities
57.Vanadium oxide V2 O5 is used as catalyst for conversion of SO2 to SO3.
58.V2 O5 is also used as catalyst in oxidation of alcohol and hydrogenation
of olefins or alkenes.
59.Sulfuric acid is manufactured by contact process.

Chromium
60.Atomic number 24
61.Corrosion resistant
62.Discovered by French chemist Louis Nicolas Vauquelin in1797.
63.Chromium forms a large number of coloured compounds.
64.21st in nature abundance among the elements in earth crust.
65.Atomic weight 51.996
66.Melting point 1907 degree C or 3465 0F.
67.Boiling point 2672 degree C or 4842 0F.
68.Specific gravity 7.2.

Chromium minerals
69.Chromite or chrome iron stone (FeO.Cr2O3).
70.Chrome ochre (Cr2O3)
71.Crocite (PbCr2O3)

Oxidation states
oxides CrO Cr2O3 CrO3
Oxidation state +2 +3 +6
Nature Basic Amphoteric Acidic

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Ionic Ionize to some Covalent

extent
Chromous salt Chromic
compound
Oxidation Stable Reduction

The chromate – Dichromate equilibrium

72.K2Cr2O4 or solid potassium chromate, when dissolved in water, it forms
a yellow solution.
73.K2Cr2O7 or solid potassium dichromate,when dissolved in water, it
forms a orange solution.
74.The colours come from the negative ions; CrO4-2 and CrO7-2 .
75.CrO4-2 + 2H+ are in equilibrium with CrO7-2 + H2O
76.Addition of acid to the reactant shifts the equilibrium towards right and
yield more orange colour.
77.The addition of a base promotes the conversion of dichromate to
chromate.

Reduction of chromate (VI) with zinc and an acid;

78.Potassium dichromate (VI) can be reduced to chromium (lll) and
chromium (ll) ions by using Zinc either dilute sulphuric acid or
hydrochloric acid.

Potassium Dichromate as oxidizing agent in organic chemistry

79.Potassium dichromate (VI) solution acidified with dilute sulphuric acid
commonly used as an oxidizing agent in organic chemistry.
80.Potassium dichromate (VI) oxidizes primary alcohol to formaldehyde.
81.Potassium dichromate (VI) formaldehyde to formic acid.
82.Potassium dichromate (VI) oxidizes secondary alcohol to ketones.
83.Potassium dichromate (VI) does not oxidizes tertiary alcohol.

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Potassium Dichromate as oxidizing agent in titration

84.In redox reaction a standard solution of potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7
is used to determine the unknown concentration of a solution of Fe+2.
85.Dichromate ion reduces to chromium (III)
→ CrO7-2 + 14H+ +6e → 2Cr+3 + 7H2O
86.Fe (II) is oxidized to Fe(III).
→ 6Fe+2 →6Fe+3 + 6e-
87.CrO7-2 + 14H+ +6Fe+2 → 2Cr+3 + 7H2O + 6Fe+3
88.CrO7-2 → orange
89.Cr+3 → green
90.The 1:6 mole ratio with respect to amount of CrO7-2 and Fe+2 is
consumed.

Manganese
91.Hite, silvery metallic element
92.Used in making alloys
93.First isolated by Swedish chemist John Gorrlieb Gahn in 1774.
94.Corrodes in moist air.
95.Dissolves in acids.
96.Melting point, 1245 degree C or 2271 0F.
97.Boiling point, 2061 degree C or 3742 0F.
98.Specific gravity of7.4.
99.Atomic weight, 54.968

100. Manganese does not exist in free state, except in meteors.

101. Manganese is distributed in all world in the form of ores, such as
 Pyrolusite → magnet
 Rhodochrosite
 Franklinite

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 Psilomelane
 manganite
102. The word manganese come from Latin world ‘magnes’ meaning
magnet.
103. Manganese ranks about 12th in abundance among elements in
Earth’s crust.

Oxidation state of manganese

104. +7 → Mn2O7 and MnO4-
105. +6 →MnO3, Manganic salt (H2MnO4) and manganates (K2MnO4)
106. +4 → MnO2
107. +3 → H2Mn2O4 and Mn2(SO4)3
108. +2 →[Mn(H2O6]+2, MnO, MnCO3, MnSO4, MnCl2.
109. +3 → manganic compound
110. +2 →manganous compounds

Potassium manganite (VII) as an oxidizing agent in organic chemistry

111. Alkenes react with potassium manganite (VII) solution in cold.
112. The colour change depends upon on whether potassium manganite
(VII) is used under acidic condition or alkaline condition.
113. Under acidic condition manganite (VII) is reduced to manganese (II)
ions.
114. Under basic condition the manganite (VII are first reduced to green
manganite (VI) ions and then to dark brown solid manganese (IV) oxide
or manganese oxide.
115. 7 → 6 (dark green solution)
116. 6→ 4 (dark brown precipitate)

Potassium manganite (VII) as an oxidizing agent in titration

117. KMnO4 is a strong oxidizing agent with intense dark purple colour.
118. During reduction the purple permanganate ion changes into
colourless Mn+2 ion.

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119. The solution turns from dark purple to faint pink colour at
equivalence point.
MnO4- + C2O4-2+ → Mn+2 + CO2
120. No addition indicator is used in this titration because KMnO4 acts
itself as an indicator.
121. KMnO4 solution is used to find the concentration of Fe(II) ions in a
solution. The redox reaction is given below;
KMnO4 + Fe+2 → Mn+2 + Fe+3

Iron
122. Atomic number 26
123. Complexes are; [Fe(H2O)6]+2 and [Fe(H2O)6]+3
124. Iron (II) salts → pale green
125. Iron (III) salts → yellow or brown
126. Iron is used to catalyse the synthesis of ammonia through Haber’s
process.

Ores
127. Red haematite → Fe2O3
128. Brown haematite or limonite → 2F O2 O3 .H2 O
129. Magnetite → Fe3 O4

Varieties of iron
130. Malleable or Wrought iron → 0.1 – 0.25 %
131. Steel → 0.25-2 %
132. Cast or pig iron → 2-3 %

Oxidation states of iron

133. +2 → Ferrous → pale green
134. +3 → Ferric →yellow or yellow brown
135. +2 very easily oxidize to ferric ion.

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136. Even traces of dissolved oxygen in solution will accomplished

oxidation of +2 to +3.
137. When ferrocyanide added to solution containing ferric ions, a
precipitate known as Prussian blue is [Fe(CN)6]2 formed.
138. Most +3 oxidation solutions are yellow or yellow brown due to
formation of [Fe(H2O)5 (OH)]2+.

Iron as catalyst in Haber process

139. N2 + H2 → N2H2 → highly endothermic reaction
140. N2H2 + H2 → N2H4
141. N2H4+ H2 → 2NH3
142. N2H2 → highly unstable
143. The hydrogen and nitrogen are absorbed on metallic iron surface.
144. Splitting of N2 into @N is slowest step and so limits the rate of entire
process.
145. N + H → NH
146. NH + H → NH2
147. NH2 +H → NH3

Iron ions in the reaction between persulphate ions and iodide ions
148. The reaction between persulphate ion and iodide ions in solution can
be catalyzed using either iron (II) or iron (III) ions.
149. S2O82- + 2Cl- →2SO4-2 + I2
150. For Iron(II);
S2O82- + 2FE2+ → 2SO4-2 + 2Fe+3
2Fe+3 + 2I- →2Fe+2 + I2
151. For Iron(III);
2Fe+3 + 2I- →2Fe+2 + I2
S2O82- + 2FE2+ → 2SO4-2 + 2Fe+3

Reaction of Hexaaqua iron(II) Hexaaqua iron (III) with water and

ammonia

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152. Any hexaaqua complex ions undergo acid base reaction with water to
produce a solution of pH less than seven.
153. These are not redox reaction because during the reaction no change
in the oxidation state of central metal occurs.
154. In case if Iron (II) case
155. [Fe(H2O)6]+2 + H2O → [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]+1 + H3O
156. In case if Iron (III) case
157. [Fe(H2O)6]+3 + H2O → [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]+2 + H3O
158. Ferric gives more acidic solution than ferrous ions.(+3>+2)
159. In case of alkaline solution OH- solution ions remove H3O+ ions and
equilibrium shifts forward and more H+ are lost from the complex in
stages until a precipitate is formed.
160. [Fe(H2O)6]+3 + 3OH- →[Fe(H2O)3(OH)3]0 + 3H2O
161. In case of Fe (II) complex the reaction in alkaline solution does not
proceed because is energetically unfavorable.

Reaction of Hexaaqua iron (II) and hexaaqua iron (III) with ammonia
162. Ammonia can act both as a base and a ligand.
163. Here ammonia simply act as a base, removing H+ from the complex.

In case if Iron (II) case

164.
[Fe(H2O)6]+2 + 2NH3 → [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2] + 2NH4+

In case if Iron (III) case

165. [Fe(H2O)6]+3 + 3NH3 → [Fe(H2O)3(OH)3] + 3NH4+
166. [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2] → Orange
167. [Fe(H2O)3(OH)3] → Brown

Reactions of the iron with carbonate ions

168. In case of iron (II)
169. Fe+2 + CO32- → FeCO3

In case of iron (III)

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170. The hexa aquairon (III) ion is sufficiently acidic to react with the
weakly basic carbonate ion
171. If you add sodium carbonate solution to a solution of hexa aquairon
(III) ions, you get exactly the same precipitate as if you added sodium
hydroxide solution of ammonia solution.
172. 2[Fe(H2O)6]+3 + 3CO32- → [Fe(H2O)3(OH)3] +3CO2 + 3H2O

173. Testing for iron (III) ions with thiocyanate ions

174. This provide an extremely sensitive test for iron (III) presence in
solution.
175. If you add thiocyanate ions, SCN- to a solution containing iron (III)
ions, you will get an intense red solution containing the ion
[Fe(SCN(H2O)5]2+.
176. [Fe(H2O)6]3+ + SCN- → [Fe(SCN) (H2O)5]2+

Copper
177. Brownish red
178. Atomic number 29
179. The word is copper is derived from Cyprus.

Ores
180. Malachite → CuCO3Cu(OH)2
181. Azurite → 2 CuCO3Cu(OH)2
182. Chalcocite → Cu2S
183. Copper pyrite → CuFeS2

Oxidation States
184. +1 → Diamagnetic → colourless → Cu2O, CuCl, CuBr
185. +2 → cupric compound → Coloured → CuO, CuF2, CuCl2, CuCO3,
CuSO4.

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186. +3 → found in oxides → KCuO2, a blue black solid.

187. Indeed, both copper (III) and even copper (IV) fluorides are known,
K3cuF6 and Cs2CuF6, respectively.
188. In solid compounds copper (I) is often more stable at moderate
temperature.
189. The copper (II) ion is usually more stable in aqueous solution.
190. Compounds of +2 copper are called cupric compounds.
191. The best studied copper (III) compounds are the cuprate
superconductors.
192. Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) consists of both Cu(II) and
Cu(III) centres.
193. Like oxide, fluoride is a highly basic anoin and is known as to stabilize
metal ions in high oxidation states.

Reactions of Hexaaqua copper (II) ions with hydroxide ions

194. [Cu(H2O)6]+2 + 2OH- →[Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] + 2H2O
195. [Cu(H2O)6]+2 → blue solution
196. [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] → blue ppt
197. Medium → neutral

Reactions of Hexaaqua copper (II) ions with ammonia

198. [Cu(H2O)6]+2 + 2NH3 → [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] + 2NH4-
199. [Cu(H2O)6]+2 → blue solution
200. [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] → blue ppt
201. The ppt dissolves in the presence of excess ammonia
202. [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] +4NH3 + 2OH- + 2H2O

Reactions of Hexaaqua copper (II) ions with carbonate

203. The Hexaaqua copper (II) are not strongly acidic enough to release
CO2 from carbonates.
204. Cu+3 + CO3-2 →CuCO3

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205. Different metals are known for their specific colour

206. Cobalt (II) nitrate → red
207. K2Cr2O7 → orange
208. KCrO4 → yellow
209. Nickel (II) chloride → green
210. KMnO4 → red
211. White titanium oxide is n important ingredient in white paint.

CHAP NO.15 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

1. Organic chemistry deals with carbon based compounds.
2. The world organic means life or living.
3. In 1928, friedrich Wohler synthesized urea from ammonium cyanate.
4. The compounds which contain carbon but nor organic are :
• Carbon containing alloys
• Simple oxides of carbon
• Allotropes of carbon
• Metal carbonates
• Bicarbonates
• Carbonyls
• Cyanides
• Cyanates
• Sulfides
5. Major sources of organic compounds are;
• Fossil remains
• Petroleum
• Natural gas
6. Coal occurs in rock strata in layers called coral beds.
7. Coal formation:
Wood → Peat → Coal

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8. Coal exists in different forms like:

• Lignite (low C %)
• Sub- Bituminous coal
• Bituminous coal
• Anthracite (high C %)
9. Coal is major source of aromatic compounds.
10. Petroleum means crude oil
11. Petroleum is also called mineral oil/ crude oil/ liquid gold.
12. Petroleum includes only crude oil in strict sense.
13. Petroleum includes both crude oil and natural gas in common sense.
14. Natural gas and petroleum are found in association with each other.
15. Anticancer agent palliate (Taxol) are obtained from yew tree.
16. Antimalarial agent artemissin are obtained from Artimisia annual.
17. The study of processes and chemical reaction by which organic compounds are
made are called Synthetic organic chemistry.
18. An intermediate product of a reaction is used to synthesize a target process is
called partial synthesis.
19. Sometime the starting material converts through many steps into targeted
products. Such process is called total synthesis.
20. Urea process of Friedrich was commercialized for the first time by Gustaf
Kompa from the synthesis of camphor in 1913.
21. Some products of Biotechnology:
• Benzylpencilin → an antibiotic
• Insulin → A hormone
• Polyhydroxybutyrate → A Biodegradable thermoplastics
• Renin → an enzyme Chemosensory protein(CSP)
22. Destructive distillation of coal:
• Coke → a reducing agent
• Coal tar → used for fertilizer making
• Coal gas
• Ammoniacal liquor → mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
23. Coal gas is also called town gas.

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24. Coal is converted to petroleum by Fischer-Tropsch process.

25. A hydrogen and carbon monoxide is converted into alkane by Fischer –Tropsch
process.
26. The conversion of source of carbon into gaseous reactants like CO and H2 in
Fishceher-Tropsch plant is called Gasification.
27. The self-linkage of carbon atom to form chains and ring compounds is called
Catenation.
28. Two or more compound having same molecular formula but different
structural formula is called isomers and this property is called isomerism.
29. Characteristics of organic compounds are;
• Unique properties of carbon like catenation.
• Isomerism
• None-ionic character
• Solubility
• Rates of organic reactions
• Similar structural features and behavior
30. The mostly bonds of organic compounds are covalent which are none-polar.
31. Most of organic compounds are insoluble in water buit soluble in none-polar
solvents.
32. The organic reactions are slow because they involves breaking of some bonds
and formation of new bonds.
33. Life molecules includes: Proteins
• Nucleic acids
• Enzymes
• Fats
• Lipids etc
34. Many farmers in USA grow maize for ethanol.
35. Quinonee → antimalarial
36. Aspirine → cardiac disease and pain killer
37. Borneol → anti-inflammatory
38. Benzyle benzoate → scabicide
39. Galantamine hydrobromide → alzheimer’s disease

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40. The first fullerenes was discovered in 1885 by Herold Kroto, James Heath,
Seam O’Brion, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley.
41. In 2010, fullerenes were also discovered in outer space.
42. Some fullerenes are:
• C20
• C60

• C70
• C76
• C84
→ Smallest is C20 but most common I sC60.
43. Benzene ring is present in aromatic compound.
44. Organic compound types are
Hydrocarbons
1. Alkane
2. Alkene
3. alkynes
Derivatives of hydrocarbons
1. Alkyl halide
2. Alcohol
3. Phenol
4. Ether
5. Ketones
6. Carboxylic acids
7. Aldehydes etc
45. An atom or group of atom that gives certain characteristics properties to an
organic compound is called a functional group.
46. Functional group is chemically active part of molecule.
47. A series of organic compounds that are differ by methylene group and have
same structural and chemical characteristics are called homologous series.
48. Alkane → CnH2n + 2
49. Cycloalkanes → CnH2n

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50. Alkenes → CnH2n

51. Alkynes → CnH2n - 2
52. Alkyl → CnH2n + 1
53. Characteristics of homologous series:
• Each series have its own formula.
• Members of series have same chemical properties.
• Series members have same method of preparation.
• Physical properties increase with increase in molecular mass.
54. Extract sodium test or Lassaign’s solution(L.S) is prepared by heating the
substance with sodium metal in fusion tube till tube become hot and after
cooling its filtered.
55. Detection of Carbon in organic compounds
O.C + CuO →CO2
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 milky colour
56. Detection of Hydrogen in organic compounds
O.C + CuO →H2O
H2O + CuSO4 CuSO4.5H2O blue colour
57. Detection of Nitrogen in organic compounds
L.S + NaOH + FeSO4 boil-cool +FeCl3 + HCl/H2SO4 prussian blue or green colour
58. Detection of Sulphur
L.S +acetic acid + lead acetate black ppt of lead sulphide
59. Detection of Halogens in organic compounds L.S + conc nitric acid +silver
nitrate solution →
 White ppt soluble in ammonium hydroxide indicate Chlorine
 Yellow ppr slightly soluble in ammonium hydroxide indicate Bromine
 Deep yellow ppt insoluble in ammonium hydroxide indicate Iodine
60. Detection of Oxygen in organic compounds
 Can’t be test directly
 Tests for oxygen containing functional group
 Formation of water in nitrogen atmosphere
 Combustion analysis

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