RADIAN ACADEMY MATHS for GROUP-I EXAM E-Copy MATERIALS

NATURAL NUMBERS:
i) PURE RECURRING: Decimal in which all the
The set of the natural numbers is denoted by N, thus. figures after the decimal point are repeated, is
N = {1, 2, 3, 4 . . . . } known as a pure recurring decimal such as
0.666666……., 0.2626262626…… etc, are pure
Remember : 0 (zero) is not a natural number and set of recurring decimals.
natural numbers is infinite.
ii) MIXED RECURRING: A decimal in which at least
WHOLE NUMBERS: one figure after the decimal point is repeated is
The set of whole numbers is denoted by W, thus. known as a mixed recurring decimal.
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . . } 0.17777777……., 0.2959595959595……. etc, are
called mixed recurring decimals.
INTEGERS : Natural numbers, along with their negatives
including 0 (zero) are called Integers. RATIO & PROPORTION
The set of integers is denoted by I or Z thus
RATIO
I = { …., -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ….}
The ratio of two quantities a and b in the same
RATIONAL NUMBERS : A number of the form p/q. where units, is the fraction a and we write it as a : b.
p and q are integers and q ≠ 0 is called a Rational b
Number. In the ratio a : b, we call a as the first term or
antecedent and b, the second term or consequent.
The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q thus,
Q = { p/q : p, q are Integers and q ≠ 0} 5
Example: The ratio 5 : 9 represents with antecedent
9
IRRATIONAL NUMBERS: A number which can’t be 5, consequent 9.
expressed in the form p/q is called an Irrational Number.
Thus, √2. √3, √7, 4√2, 6√18 are irrational numbers. INCOMMENSURABLE: If the ratio of two quantities
can not be expressed as the ratio of two integers it is
REAL NUMBERS: The rational and irrational numbers said to be incommensurable. As an example the ratio
taken together constitute Real Numbers.
of the side of a square to its diagonal is 1 : 2.
The set of real numbers is denoted by R. PROPERTIES:
a) If both the quantities x and y of a ratio are
ABSOLUTE VALUE: The Absolute Value of a real multiplied or divided by the same quantity, the
number is that number, which is obtained by dropping result does not change.
the sign of the real number if any and is denoted by b) Two or more ratios can be compared by making
placing the real number with in the symbol | | . their denominator same.
Thus, |-7 | =7 , |-9.64 | = 9.64, |25| = 25
EXAMPLE: 4 : 5 = 8 : 10 = 12 : 15 = 4/7 : 5/7 etc.
Note: In general an even number is represented as 2n,
n € N, and an odd number as (2n-1) where n € N
1. Compound Ratio: Ratios are compounded by
PRIME NUMBERS: A natural number that is divisible by 1 multiplying together the antecedents for a new
and itself only is called a Prime Number. antecedent, and the consequents or a new
consequent. The compounded ratio of the ratios
Thus the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 … are prime numbers. (a: b) , (c : d) & (e : f) is (ace : bdf).
1 1
COMPOSITE NUMBERS: A natural number that is 2. If a : b is the given ratio, then : or b : a is
a b
neither 1 nor a prime number is called a Composite
number.
called its inverse or reciprocal ratio.
a c
3. Comparison of Ratios: ( a : b) > (c : d ) if >
Thus the numbers 4, 6, 8, 10,. 12, 14 . . . . are composite b d
numbers.
4. If the antecedent = the consequent, the ratio is
NOTE: Number 1 is neither a prime number nor a called the ratio of equality. Ex. 3 : 3.
composite number. 5. If the antecedent > the consequent, the ratio is
called the ratio of greater inequality. Ex. 4:3.
RECURRING OR REPEATING DECIMALS: In
repeating decimals a digit or a block of digits repeats 6. If the antecedent < the consequent, the ratio is
itself again and again. We represent such decimals by called the ratio of less inequality. Ex. 3:4.
putting a bar on repeated digit or digits.
7. Duplicate ratio of a : b is (a2 : b2)
8. Sub-duplicate ratio of a : b is ( a : b)

9. Triplicate ratio of a:b is (a3 : b3)

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10. Sub-triplicate ratio of (a : b) is (a1/3 : b1/3) VARIATION
If x is Directly Proportional to y, then x = ky for
11. If sum of two numbers is A and their difference is a some constant k and we write it as
then the ratio of the two numbers is (A+a):(A–a). xαy
If x is Inversely Proportional to y then xy = k for
12. The ratio between two numbers is a:b. If each some constant k and we write ,
number is increased by x, the ratio becomes c:d, 1
Xa(c − d ) Xb(c − d ) xα
then the two numbers are and . y
ad − bc ad − bc CONTINUED PROPORTION: When the first is to the
second as the second is to the third, as the third is to
13. A number which when added to the terms of the the fourth, and so on, are equal they are said to be in
ad − bc continued proportion i.e.
ratio a:b makes it equal to c:d is
c −d
x y z t u
= = = = = .......
14. The incomes of persons are in the ratio a:b and y z t u m
their expenditures are in the ratio c:d. If each of them The quantities x, y, z, t, u, m are said to be in continued
saves Rs. X, then their incomes are given by proportion.
Xa(d − c )
and
Xb(d − c )
. RESULTS:
ad − bc ad − bc 1. Four quantities are in proportion if and only if,
product of the extreme terms is equal to the
15. If in x litres mixture of milk and water, the ratio of product of middle terms and conversely.
milk and water is a:b, the quantity of water added to
ad − bc 2. If three quantities are in continued proportion then
be added in order to make it equal to c:d is
c −d the product of the extreme terms is equal to the
square of the middle terms.
PROPORTION
The equality of two ratios is called Proportion. 3. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM: If three quantities
If a/b = c/d, then a, b, c, d are proportional. This are in continued proportion then the ratio of first to
can be expressed as a : b = c : d or a : b :: c : d. Here third is the squared ratio of the first to second.
a and d are called extremes, while b and c are called
mean terms. PERCENTAGE, PROFIT, LOSS AND DISCOUNT
a) Gain % = (Gain x 100)
1. Product of means = Product of extremes.
CP
Thus if, a : b :: c : d, then bc = ad.
b) Loss % = (Loss x 100)
2. Fourth Proportional
CP
If a:b = c:d, then d is called the fourth proportional
c) SP = (100 x Gain %) x CP
to a, b, c.
100
3. Third Proportional
d) SP = (100 – Loss %) x CP
If a : b = b : c, then c is called the third proportional
100
to a and b.
e) CP = 100 x SP
4. Mean Proportional
(100 + Gain %)
Mean proportional between a and b is ab . f) CP = 100 x SP
5. Invertendo (100 – Loss %)
a c b d TRADE DISCOUNT: The discount is always given on
If = , then =
b d a c the marked price. Successive discounts are attractive
6. Alternendo to the buyer but profitable to the seller e.g. two
discounts of 20% and l10% come out to be only 28% to
a c a b the purchaser. As a matter of fact purchaser thinks it
If = , then =
b d c d 30% discount.
7. Componendo
a c a+b c+d SIMPLE & COMPOUND INTEREST
If = , then =
b d b d COMPOUND INTEREST: Compound interest is
8. Dividendo defined as the interest which is every time added to the
a c a−b c−d principal whenever it is due. Addition is done after a
If = , then = fixed period, usually after a year. After the interest is
b d b d added to the principal, the total amount acts as
9. Componendo-Dividendo
principal. Thus the difference between the original
a c a+b c +d
If = , then = principal and final amount is called compound interest.
b d a−b c −d

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PRINCIPAL: The money lended on interest is called
principal or sum. Thus , if V is the value at a time t and R% p.a is the
rate of depreciation, then the value of machine after n
SIMPLE INTEREST: The extra money paid by the years is given by
borrower is called interest. n
 R 
AMOUNT: Amount – Principal – Interest. = V x 1 − 
 100 
Formulae for Simple Interest: If P, R and T are Amount after T years is given by
principal, rate and time then S.I. is given by T
P × R ×T  R 
A = P 1 − 
S.I. =  100 
100
NOTE:
100 × S .I .
P= (a) For 2 years the difference between the compound
R ×T interest and the simple interest is equal to simple
100 × S .I interest for 1 year on 1st year’s interest.
R= (b) The amount of the previous year is the principal for
P ×T
the successive year.
100 xS .I (c) The difference between the amount due at the end
T=
P× R of two consecutive years = simple interest for one year
on the lesser amount.
COMPOUND INTEREST: CI = Amount – P (d) When the interest is payable half yearly, divide the
If P = principal, R = rate % p.a. and T = time (years) rate by 2 and multiply the time by 2.
then (e) When the interest is payable quarterly or once in
(a) Amount after T years (compounded annually) 1/4th year divide the rate by 4 and multiply the time by
r 4.
 R 
= P 1 +  (f) There is no difference between simple interest and
 100  compound interest on the principal for first year. C.I , is
(b) Amount after T year (compounded half yearly) more that S.I. after one year.
2T
 R  REMAINDER THEOREM: Let f(x) be a polynomial of
 
= P 1 + 2  degree greater than or equal to one and ‘a’ be any real
 100  number. If f(x) is divisible by (x-a) , then the remainder
  is equal to f(a).
 
In this case rate becomes half and time becomes Example: Determine the remainder when the
double. polynomial f(x) = x3 - 3x2 + 2x + 1 is divided by (x-1).
(c) If the rate be p% , q%, and r% during first year,
second year and third year, then amount after 3 Solution: By remainder theorem, the required
years. remainder is equal to f(1).
Now, f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 1
 p  q  r  => f(1) = 1 – 3 + 2 + 1 = 1.
=P 1 +  1 + 1 + 
 100  100  100  Hence , the required remainder is equal to 1.
POPULATION GROWTH FORMULAE:
a) If P is the population and R % is the growth rate FACTOR THEOREM: Let f(x) be a polynomial of
then in n years population will be degree greater than or equal to one and a be a real
n number such that f(a) = 0, then (x-a) is a factor of f(x),
 R  Conversely, if (x+a) is a factor of f(x), then f(-a) =0.
= P x 1 + 
 100 
b) If p% is the growth rate during first year and q% REMARK:
during second year then the population after 2 years is i) (x+a) is a factor of a polynomial f(x) if f(-a) =0.
given by. ii) (ax-b) is a factor of a polynomial f(x) if f(b/a) = o
iii) ax + b is a factor of a polynomial if f(-b/a) = o
 p  q 
= p 1 + 1 +  iv) (x-a) (x-b) is a factor of a polynomial f(x) if f(a) = 0
 100  100  and f(b) = 0.
This formula can be used for more than two years. TIME, SPEED & DISTANCE
c) If R % per annum is the decrease in population
SPEED: Distance covered per unit time is called speed.
then after n years.
n
Distance
Speed =
 R 
=px 1 −  Time
 100  Distance = Speed × Time (or) Time = Distance/Speed
DEPRECIATION: It is a well known fact that the value
If the speed of a body is changed in the ratio a : b then the ratio
of a machine or car or any other article decreases with of the time taken changes in the ratio b : a
time due to wear and tear. The decrease in value is
called depreciation value.
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NOTE: Distance is normally measured in kilometres, metres or If a body covers part of the journey at speed x and the remaining
miles; Time in hours or seconds and Speed in km/hr (kmph), part of the journey at speed y and the distances of the two parts
miles/hr (mph) or metres/second (m/s). of the journey are in the ratio m : n, then

To convert speed in kmph to m/sec, multiply it with 5/18.

( m + n ) xy
The average speed for the entire journey is
To convert speed in m/sec to kmph, multiply it with 18/5. xn + ym
AVERAGE SPEED: Average speed of a body travelling at TRAINS
different speeds is defined as follows.
1. Time taken by a train of length “d” metres to pass a pole or
Total distance travelled a standing man or a signal post is equal to the time taken by
Average Speed = the train to cover “d” metres.
Total time taken

NOTE: The average speed of a moving body is NOT EQUAL to 2. Time taken by a train of length “d1” metres to pass a
the average of the speeds. stationary object of length “d2” metres is the time taken by the
train to cover (d1 + d2) metres.
A body travels from point A to another point B with a speed of x
kmph and back to point A (from point B) with a speed of y kmph. 3. If two trains or two bodies are moving in the same direction
at u m/s and v m/s, where u > v, then their relatives speed = (u
x kmph – v) m/s.

A y kmph B 4. If two trains are moving in opposite directions at

u m/s and v m/s then the relative speed is = (u + v) m/s.
Let AB = d, the time taken by the body to travel from A to B be
t1 and that from B to A be t2. 5. If two trains of length “a” metres and “b” metres are
moving in opposite directions at u m/s and v m/s, then time
Then t1 = d/x and t2 = d/y. The total distance travelled is 2d. a+b
2d taken by the trains to cross each other is sec.
2d 2d
Average Speed = = = u+v
t1 + t 2 d d
+ 1 1
d  +  6. If two trains of length “a” metres & “b” metres are moving
x y x y in the same direction at u m/s and v m/s, then the time taken by
2 2 xy a+b
= = the faster train to cross the slower train is sec.
 1 1 x+y u −v
 x + y  7. If two trains “A” & “B” start at the same time from points
 
“P” and “Q” towards each other and after crossing they take
2xy “a” secand “b” sec in reaching B and A respectively, then
Average Speed = kmph
x+y (A’s speed): (B’s speed) = ( √b : √a )
NOTE: This formula does not depend on the distance
between A and B. This formula can be used only if the distances BOATS AND STREAMS
travelled in each case are equal.
1. In river, the direction along the stream is called
If the entire journey AD is travelled with the different speeds, A
downstream and, the direction against the stream is called
to B with a uniform speed of x kmph, B to C with a uniform
upstream.
speed of y kmph and C to D with a uniform speed of z kmph
such that AB = BC = CD.
2. If the speed of a boat in still water is u km/hr and the
x kmph y kmph z kmph speed of the stream is v km/hr, then:
Speed of boat in downstream = (u + v) km/hr.
A BC D Speed of the boat in upstream = ( u – v) km/hr.
The average speed from A to D is given by the formula
3. If the speed downstream is “x” km/hr and the speed
upstream is “y” km/hr, then:
3 3 Speed in still water = (x + y)/2 km/hr
Average Speed = =
1 1 1 yz + zx + xy Rate of stream = (x – y)/2 km/hr.
+ +
x y z xyz RACES AND CIRCULAR TRACK

3 xyz Let the two persons “A” and “B” with respective speeds of a
Average Speed = and b (a > b) be running around a circular track (of length L)
xy + yz + zx starting at the same point at the same time.
Running in the Running in the
In general the ‘n’ equal distances are travelled with the speeds SAME direction OPPOSITE dir.
of x1 kmph, x2 kmph, ...., xn kmph, then the average speed is Time taken to meet
given by for the FIRST L L
n TIME some where
Average Speed = kmph on the track. a −b a+b
1 1 1 Time taken to meet
+ + .... +
x1 x2 xn for the first time at
the same LCM  , 
L L L L
LCM  , 
NOTE: The above is the harmonic mean of n numbers.
STARTING a b  a b 
POINT.

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 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
THREE PERSONS A general quadratic equation is expressed as
2
Let the three people A, B and C with respective speeds of a , b ax + bx + c = 0, where a≠0; a, b and c are constants.
and c (a > b > c) be running around a circular track (of length L) Roots of the quadratic equation:
starting at the same point at the same time in the same
direction.
A quadratic equation has two roots α and β given by

Time taken to meet

CLOCKS
for the FIRST TIME
 L L 
LCM  , 

How many times the hands of a clock Coincide or making
on the track. a − b b − c 
o
an angle 0 or lie in a straight line facing same direction
Time taken to meet for
in a day?
the first time at the
L L L
LCM  , , 
Note: Day in a problem means 24 hours not 12 hours.
STARTING POINT. a b c 

In 12 hrs, the two hands of the clock coincide once in every 1 − b + b 2 − 4ac
hour. Between 11 and 12, the coincidence is at 12 O' clock. α =
Between 12 and 1, there is no further coincidence, because it 2a
coincides at 12. In 12 hrs, the two hands of the clock coincide
11 times only. In a day, the two hands coincide 22 times. − b − b 2 − 4ac
and β =
2a

How many times the hands of a clock are at 180° or lie in a
straight line but facing opposite direction in a day?
The quantity D = b2 – 4ac is known as the discriminant.

In 12 hrs, the two hands of the clock at straight angle once in I. If D = b2 – 4ac > 0 the roots are real and distinct.
every 1 hr. II. If D = b2 – 4ac = 0 the roots are real and equal.
Between 5 and 6, the angle between them is 180° at 6 O' clock III. If D = b2 – 4ac < 0 the roots are imaginary.
only. Also, between 6 O' clock and 7 O' clock, they will not be
at 180° as it start from 180°.
In 12 hrs, 11 times. In 24 hrs, 22 times, they are at 180°.
RELATION BETWEEN ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS
If α and β are the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0

How many times the hands of a clock are at right angles in -b c
a day? then α + β= and α β =
a a
Every one hour, the two hands are at right angles twice, except
between 3 & 4 and 9 & 10. Hence x2 – ( α + β) x + α β = 0 (or) (x – α) (x – β) = 0
Considering 2 to 3 they are at right angles for first time
between 2:25 to 2:30. For the second time they are at right HIGHER DEGREE EQUATION:
angles at 3. Between 3 and 4, they are at right angles only P(x) = a0xn + a1x n-1 + …. + a n-1 x + an = 0
once. (ie) between 3.30 and 3.35. Where the coefficients a0, a1, …. an and a0 ≠ 0 is called
Similar argument holds for 9 & 10.
an equation of nth degree, which has exactly ‘n’ roots
The hands of a clock are at right angles 22 times in 12 hrs.
In a day, 44 times they are at right angles. α1, α2, … αn.
a1
Σαi = α1 + α2 + ….αn =

How many times the hands of a clock lie on the same a0
straight line in a day? a2
Σαiαj = α1α2 + … + α n-1αn = -
a0
The two hands lie on the same straight line, when they coincide
an
and when they are at straight angle. ∏ αi = α1 × α2 × …× αn = (-1)n
In 12 hrs. the hands of the clock lie on the same straight line 22 a0
times.
In a day, they lie on the same straight line 44 times. FUNCTION
The following table sum up the above discussions:
A function from X to Y is defined as a relation X x Y
Angle b/w the hands Number of times such that no two different ordered pairs of the relation
12 hrs 24hrs (Day) have the same first component and every element of X
has an image in Y.
0° (Coincidence) 11 22
180° (Straight Angle) 11 22
0° or 180° 22 44 It is denoted by f : X → Y or X x Y
(Straight line)
90° (Right angle) 22 44 DOMAIN: Domain of a function is the set of values of
a, when (a, b) belongs to the function.
MINUTE HAND
In 1 hour, the minute hand makes a complete rotation of 360°.
RANGE: Range of a function is the set of value of b,
In 1 minute it rotates about 360/60 = 6°.
when (a, b) belongs to the function.
HOUR HAND
In 1 hour, the hour hand makes a complete rotation of 30°. In 1 CO-DOMAIN: If (a, b) belong to a function f: A -> B
minute it rotates about 30/60 = ½ °. then b is called co-domain of the function. Range is a

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subset of co-domain, sometimes the range and co- MANTISSA: Mantissa of a number is found with the
domain have the same elements. help of logarithmic tables.
1. The mantissa is the same for the logarithms of all
FUNCTION DOMAIN numbers having the same significant digits.
Sin-1 x [-1.1] 2. The logarithm of one digit number, say 2, is to be
Cos-1 x [-1.1] see in the table, opposite to 20.
Tan-1 x ]−∞, ∞[ 3. The mantissa is always taken positive.
Cot-1x ]−∞, ∞[
Sec x-1
(- ∞ , -1] U [ 1, ∞ ) ANTILOGARITHM: If log a = m, then a = antilog of m,
Cosec x -1
(- ∞ , -1] U [ 1, ∞ ) i.e., The number corresponding to a given logarithm is
called antilogarithm.
1. The function is called an onto function if every
element of set Y has at least one pre-image in set 1. If the characteristic of the logarithm is positive,
X. then: “put the decimal point after ( n+1)th digit,
. X Y where n is equal to characteristic.
1 a 2. If the characteristic of the logarithm is negative,
2 b the:”put the decimal point so that the first significant
3 c digit is at ‘n’th place, where n = characteristic’.
4
Properties of Logarithms.
2. The function is called one-one if distinct elements 1. Log 1 = 0 , irrespective of the base
have distinct images. 2. Log a a = 1, logarithm of any number to its own
base is always 1.
X Y 3. Logarithm of product
1 a Log a (mn) = Log a m + Log a n
2 b 4. Logarithm of ratio
3 c Log a (m/n) = Log a m - Log a n
5. Logarithm of a Power
Log a m n = nLog a m
3. The function is called many-to-one, if one or more 6. Base changing formula
elements of set X there correspond only one Log a m = Log a m x Log a b
element of set Y. 7. Log a q(n p) = Log n p / Log a q irrespective of
X Y the base.
a 8. Particular case
b 1 log a a n = n
9. a log a n = n
c In particular e In n = n

NOTE: SOME IMPORTANT POINTS: Those logarithms

1. One-one is also written as 1 – 1. whose base is 10 are known as Common (decimal)
2. An onto function is also called ‘surjection’ logarithms while which has base e (e = 2.71828….) are
3. An into function is also called ‘Injection’ known as natural or Napierian logarithms. Natural
4. Both Injective & Surjective in called Bijective logarithm is changed to decimal logarithm as

LOGARITHMS PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

COMMON LOGARITHMS: Logarithms calculated to PERMUTATIONS: It is defined as the ways of
the base 10. These consists of two parts: arranging object. Here the order i.e. position is
1) Characteristic (the integral value) important.
2) Mantissa (the positive fraction)
CHARACTERISTIC: The number of permutations of objects taken r at a
1) To find the characteristic of a number greater than time is
n n!
one. Pr = n (n-1)(n-2)(n-3)…(n-r+1) =
“Characteristic is one less than the number of digits to ( n − r )!
n n n
the left of the decimal point in the given number”. Pn = n!; P0 = 1; P1 = n
Ex. characterstic of 514.34 is 2 and 3125.875 is 3. NOTE: n! = n×(n-1)×(n-2) ……. 3×2×1 =1
2) To find the characteristic of a number less than one. RESULTS:
“Characteristic is one more than the number of zeros i) The total number of permutation of n items taken all
between the decimal point and the first significant digit together, when ‘p’ items are of one type, ‘q’ are of
of the number and is negative”. second type and ‘r’ of then third kind and the remaining
n!
Ex. characterstic of 0.34 is 1 and 0.00075 is 4 . are of different type is
p! q! r !

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ii) The number of circular permutations of n different 4. Characteristic : A quality possessed by an individual
objects is n-1!. person, object or item of a population, e.g. heights of
individuals, nationality of a group of passengers on a
COMBINATIONS flight etc.
When r objects taken out of n objects then 5. Variable and attribute: A measurable characteristic
combination of n objects taken r at a time, we write is called a variable or a variate. A non-measurable
n n! characteristic is called an attribute. It may be noted
Cr = C (n, r) = here that by measurable characteristics we mean
( n − r )! r !
n n those characteristics which are expressible in terms of
Note: Cr = C n-r some numerical units, e.g. age, height, income etc.

STATISTICS CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE VARIABLE.

STATISTICS is concerned with scientific methods for
collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting and
analyzing data, as well as drawing valid conclusions and
making reasonable decisions on the basis of such
analysis.
LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS
1. Statistics is not suited to the study of qualitative
phenomenon.
2. Statistics does not study individuals but is used only
to analyse an aggregate of objects. We study group
characteristics through statistical analysis.
3. Statistical decisions are true only on an average and
also the average is to be taken for a large number of
observations. For a few cases in succession the
decision may not be true.
4. Statistical decisions are to be made carefully by
experts. Untrained persons using statistical tools, may
lead to false conclusions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS.
1. In statistics all information are to be expressed in
quantitative terms. Even in the study of quality like
intelligence of a group of students we require scores
or marks secured in a test.
2. Statistics deals with a collection of facts not an
individual happening.
3. Statistical data are collected with a definite object in
mind. i.e. there must be a definite field of enquiry.
4. In every field of enquiry there are large number of
factors, each of which contributes to the final data
collected. So statistics may be affected by a
multiplicity of causes.
5. Statistics is not an exact science.
6. Statistics should be so related that cause and effect
relationship can be established.
7. A statistical enquiry passes through four stages,
Collection of data, Classification & tabulation of data,
Analysis of data and Interpretation of data.
A variable which can theoretically assume any value
between two given values is called a Continuous variable
otherwise it is a discrete variable; heights, weights ,
agricultural holding are some examples of continuous
variables whereas number of workers in a factory, number
of defectives produced, readings on a Taxi meter are
examples of discrete variables.
Data which can be described by a discrete or continuous
variable are called discrete data or continuous data
respectively.
The first and foremost task of a Statistician is to collect
and assemble his data. When he himself prepares the
data, it is called a primary data but when he borrows them
from other sources (Government, semi-Government or
non-official records) the data is called a secondary one.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
The term of ‘Central Tendency of a given statistical data’
we mean that central value of the data about which the
observations are concentrated. A central value which
enables us to comprehend in a single effort the
significance of the whole is know as Statistical Average or
simply average.
The three common measures of Central Tendency are
i) Mean ii) Median iii) Mode
THE MOST COMMON AND USEFUL MEASURE IS THE
MEAN.
ARITHMETIC MEAN
Advantages:
1. This is the widely used measure of Central Tendency.
2. It is simple to understand and easy to Calculate.
3. It is rigidly defined
4. Calculations depend on all the values
5. It is suitable for algebraic treatment.
6. It is least affected by sampling fluctuations.

COMMONLY USED TERMS: Disadvantages:

i) Cannot be determined by inspection
1. Data: A collection of observations expressed in ii) It is very much affected by the presence of a few
numerical figures, obtained by measuring or counting. extremely large or small values of the variable
2. Population: A population or a universe consists of iii) Mean cannot be calculated if a single term is
the totality of the set of objects, with which we are missing.
concerned, e.g. all workers working in a plant, all iv) A.M. cannot be calculated for grouped frequency
times produced by a machine in a particular period distribution with open end classes, unless some
etc. assumptions are made.
3. A sample: A sample is a sub-set of the population i.e.
it is a selected number of individuals each of which is
a member of the population.
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GEOMETRIC MEAN QUARTILES OF UNGROUPED DATA: Write the n
Advantages: items of the data in ascending order. Then Lower
i) G.M. is not widely used. It is particularly suitable Quartile Q1 = (n +1)/4th item
for averaging rates of changes. n +1
ii) It is rigidly defined and depends on all values of Middle Quartile Q2 (Median) = th item
2
the series. th
Upper Quartile Q3 = 3 (n+1) /4 item.
iii) It is suitable for algebraic treatment
iv) G.M. is not affected by the presence of very large DISPERSION: The variation or scattering or deviation of
or small values of the variable. the different values of a variable from their average is
Disadvantages: known as Dispersion.
i) Unlike A.M, G.M. is neither simple to understand
nor simple to calculate. ABSOLUTE MEASURES: The three absolute measures
ii) If any value of the series is Zero. G.M. cannot be are
calculated. i) Range
iii) Calculation of G.M. is impossible unless all the ii) Mean deviation
values are positive. iii) Standard deviation.
HARMONIC MEAN: Range: Range is the simplest measure of dispersion. It is
Advantages: the difference between the largest and the smallest
i) It is useful in averaging rates ratios and prices. values of a variable. This is not the widely used measure
ii) It is suitable for algebraic treatments as it lacks in accuracy.
iii) Its calculation is based on all values of the series.
Disadvantages: Coefficient of Mean Dispersion:
i) It is very limited use and not easy to understand The coefficient of mean dispersion is defined by the
ii) H.M. cannot be calculated if any value is Zero. formula.
RELATION BETWEEN A.M., G.M. and H.M. Coefficient of Mean Dispersion
For any set of positive values of a variable, we can write
A.M. ≥ G.M. ≥ H.M. equality occurring only when the
values are equal.
MeanDeviationfrommean
=
Mean
For a pair of observations only, AM x HM = (GM)2
MeanDeviationfromMedian
MEDIAN: Or =
Advantages: Median
i) It is easily understood.
ii) Not affected by extreme values. STANDARD DEVIATION: This is most important absolute
iii) Can be determined by inspection in case of a measure of dispersion. Standard deviation (S.D.) for a set
simple frequency distribution. of values of a variable is defined as the positive square
iv) It can be calculated from a grouped frequency root of the arithmetic mean o the squares of all the
distribution with open-end classes, provided by deviations of the values from their arithmetic mean. In
closed classes are of equal width. short, it may be defined as the square root of the Mean
Disadvantages: squares of deviation from mean.
i) It is not well-defined and also it is not possible to S.D is usually denoted by a greek small letter σ
find a well defined mode. (pronounced Sigma)
ii) It is not suitable for algebraic treatment If x1, x2 . . . . xn be a series of values of a variable and x
iii) It is not based on all values of the variable their A.M. : then S.D. is defined by
iv) It is affected by sampling fluctuations.

( x − x) + ( x ) ( )
2 2 2
MEDIAN: The value of the item which divides the data 1 2 − x + ..... + xn − x
into two equal parts is called median. σ =
Median of ungrouped data: If the n items in the data n
are arranged in ascending or descending order and
n +1 For a frequency distribution
if n is ODD then , th item; This square of S.D . is known as VARIANCE
2

( )
2
n n
if n is EVEN, then the average of th, +1 th ∑ f xi − x
2 2 σ = , where N = Σf
items is called median. N
QUARTILE DEVIATION: The items which divide the data 2
i.e. variance = σ = (S.D.)
2

into four parts are called quartiles. They are denoted by

Q1 , Q2, Q3 i) Coefficient of range = Max.value – min. value
max.value + min. value
Quartile deviation = Q3 – Q1 ii) Coefficient of Q.D. = Q3 – Q1
2 Q3 + Q1
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RELATIVE MEASURES OF DISPERSION Binomial distribution is a discrete distribution. A
binomial distribution can be used when
n1 x1 + n2 x 2 a) The number of trials is finite
x = b) The trials are independent of each other
n1 + n2 c) The probability of success is constant for each
trial.
An experiment which has two mutually disjoint outcomes,
n1σ 12 + n2σ 2 2 + n1d12 + n2 d 2 2 usually called “success” and “failure” is called a Bernouilli
σ2 =
n1 + n2 trial.

An experiment consisting of a repeated number of

where d1 = x - x , d2 = x 2 - x Bernoulli trials is called a binomial experiment.

The relative measures of dispersion are pure numbers POISSON DISTRIBUTION:

and are mainly employed in comparing the dispersions of A random variable X is said to follow Poisson distribution
two or more distributions. There are two relative if its probability mass function is given by
measures:
 e− λ λ x
i) Coefficient of Variation P (X=x) =  when x = 0, 1, 2, 3 , . . . .
S .D.  x!
(as percentage) = x 100 0 otherwise
Mean
λ is known as the parameter of the Poisson distribution.
ii) Coefficient of Mean Deviation (as percentage) =
MeanDeviation Mean = λ
x 100
MeanorMedian Variance = λ
Standard deviation = √λ
MEASURES OF SKEWNESS: NORMAL DISTRIBUTION:
A continuous random variable X is said to follow normal
The degree of skew ness is measured by its coefficient. distribution with mean µ and standard deviation σ if its
The very common measures are: probability density function is given by
1. Pearson’s first measure: −∞ < x < ∞
1( x − µ )2
Mean − Mode f (x) =
1
e 2σ 2
- −∞ < µ < ∞
Skewness =
S tan darddeviation σ 2π
σ >0
2. Pearson’s second measures: µ an σ are called the parameters of the normal
3 ( Mean − Mode ) distribution
Skewness =
S tan darddeviation Mean = µ
2
Variance = σ
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION Standard deviation = σ

A random variable X is said to follow binomial distribution Properties of normal distribution:

if its probability mass function is given by The total area under the normal curve is UNITY.
Mean, Median and mode of the distribution are all equal.
n x n-x
P(X ) = { cx p q when x = 0, 1, 2, 3, …. n Mean = Median – Mode = µ
{ 0 Otherwise The maximum probability density (i.e. the maximum
ordinate) occurs at x = µ
X denotes the number of successes.
n denotes the total number of trials.
p is the probability of success in each trial. 1
Maximum ordinate =
q is the probability of failure in each trial. σ 2π
We have q = 1-p.
It has only one mode at x = µ , Therefore it is unimodal
n and p are known as the parameters of the binomial
distribution . Curve is symmetrical about x - µ , so that skewness =0.
Mean = np
Variance = npq NOTE:
1/3
Standard deviation = √(npq) The cube roots of unity, ie., the values of 1 are
1 3 1 3
1, - +i , - -I
2 2 2 2
These are denoted by 1, ω , ω 2. We have
a) 1 + ω + ω 2 = 0 b) ω 3=1
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 m m m(m − 1) 2 SP
1. (1 +x) =1+ x+ x + The constant ratio is called the eccentricity,
1! 2! PM
m(m − 1)(m − 2) 3 denoted by e.
x +.... If e = 1 , the conic is called a parabola
3! If e < 1 the conic is called an ellipse
-1 2 3 4 5 If e > 1 the conic is called a hyperbola
2 (1+x) = 1 – x + x –. . . x + x – x + . . .
-1 3 4 5 The general equation of a conic will be an equation of
3. (1-x) = 1 + x + x2 + . x + x + x + . . . second degree in x and y, in the form
ax2+ 2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy + e = 0
4. (1 + x) -2 = 1 – 2x + 3x2 – 4x3 + . . .. . Conversely, the general equation of second degree in x
and y, i.e.,
5. (1 - x) -2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + . . .. . 2 2
ax + 2hxy + by + 2gx + 2fy + e = 0 will represent a conic
x x x2 x3 x4
6. e = 1 + + + + + …… if abc + 2fgh – af2- bg2- ch2 ≠ 0 and
1! 2! 3! 4! i)
2
h - ab for a parabola
1 1 1 1 ii) h2 < ab for an ellipse
e =1+ + + + + …… 2
1! 2! 3! 4! iii) h > ab for a hyperbola
2
iv) h > ab and a+b =0 for a rectangular
x x2 x3 x4 hyperbola.
7. e –x = 1 - + + +
1! 2! 3! 4! COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Distance Formulae: The distance between the points
x x x 
8. ex – e-x = 2  + + . + ..... A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is given by
1! 3! 5!  2
AB = ( x 2 − x 1)2 + ( y 2 − y 1)
1  1 1 1  The distance of the point P(x,y) from the origin O is given
e- =2 1 + + + ......
e  1! 3! 5!  by
-1 1 1 1 1 OP = x2 + y2
e or =1+ + + + ……
e 1! 2! 3! SECTION FORMULAE:
(a) The coordinates (x,y) of a point R which divides the
join of two points P(x1,Y1) and Q(x2,y2) in the ratio m1:
 x2 x4 x6  m2 internally are given by
1 + 2! + 4! + 6! ......
x -x
8. e + e =2
  x = m1x2 + m2x1 , y= m1y2 + m2 y1
m 1 + m2 m 1 + m2
(b) If (x, y) divides the line segment PQ in the ratio k :1
1  1 1 1  (internally), then
e+
e 1 + 2! + 4! + 6!......
=2
x = kx2 + x1 , y = ky2 + y1
k+1 k+1
x2 x3 x4 (c) If M(x, y) is a midpoint of PQ, then
10. log (1-x) = -x - + - - . . . .. .
2 3 4 X = 1 (x1 + x2), y = 1 (y1 + y2)
2 2
x 2 x3 x 4 (d) If R (x,y) divides PQ externally in the ratio m1:m2 ,
11.log (1-x) = -x - - - - . .. .. .. then
2 3 4 X = m1 x2 - m2 x1
1+ x  x 3 x5  m1 – m2
12.log = 2 x + + + ...... Y = m1y2 – m2 y1
1− x  3 5  m1 – m2
x 3
x 5
x 7 e) If R(x, y) divides PQ externally in the ratio K:1 ,
13. sin x = x - + - + .. . . . . then
3! 5! 7! X = Kx2 - X1 . y = ky2 – y1
x2 x4 x6 k-1 k-1
14. cos x = 1 - + + + ..... CENTROID : It is the point where the three medians of a
2! 4! 6! triangle meet. Centroid divides each median in the ratio
x3 2 5 2:1 . The coordinates (x,y ) of the centroid of the triangle
15. tan x = x + + x +..... whose vertices are (x1,y1) (x2, y2) (x3+ y3)are given by
3 15 X = 1/3 (x1 + x2 +x3) = 1/3 (y1+y2+y3)
CONIC : The locus of a point P which moves such that its
distance from a fixed point S bears a constant ratio to its INCENTRE: It is the point where the internal bisectors of
distance from a fixed l is called a conic. a triangle intersect. The coordinates k (x, y) of the
incentre are given by:
The fixed point S is called the focus.
x = ax1 + bx2 + mcx3 y = ay1 + by2 + cy3
The fixed line l is called the directrix. a+b+c a+b+c

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ORTHOCENTRE: The three altitudes (the lines through Angle between he two straight lines:
the vertices and perpendicular to the opposite sides) of a Y = m1 x + c1, y = m2 x + c2
triangle interest in a common point called orthocenter of
a triangle. m1 – m2
tan θ = 1 + m1 m2
CIRCUM-CENTRE: This is a point which is equidistant
from three vertices of a triangle. Thus it is the centre of a) The above two straight lines are perpendicular if,
the circle that passes through the vertices of triangle. It is θ = 90o tan 90o = Not defined , i.e. if
also the point of intersection of the right bisectors of the 1 + m1m2 = o or m1 x m2 = 1
sides.
b) The above two straight lines are parallel if
AREA OF A TRIANGLE: The area of a triangle whose θ = 0 => tan θ = 0, i.e. m1 = m2
vertices are A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C (x3, y3) is given by
= 1/2 (x1(y2-y3)+x2(y3-y1) + x3(y2 – y2)} ANGLE BETWEEN THE TWO STRAIGHT LINES:

If there pints A, B, C are collinear (lie on the same a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0

straight line). Then Area = 0. a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0

LOCUS OF A POINT: It is the path traced by a pilot tan θ = a1b2 – a2b1

moving under certain conditions. Thus the locus of a a1a2 + b1b2
point which moves such that it is always at a constant
distance from a given point in a plane, is a circle. a) The above lines are perpendicular if
A1b2 – a2b1 = 0
EQUATION OF A LOCUS: The equation of the locus of a
moving point P(x,y) is an algebraic relation between x and i.e. a1 = b1
y satisfying the given conditions, under which P moves. a2 b2
Thus, if P(x,y) moves along the circle of radius r having
kits centre at the origin, then equation of the locus is The equations of two parallel lines differ in constant term
X2 + y2 = r2 only.

STRAIGHT LINE; Equation of a straight line parallel to the straight line

EQUATIONS O A STRAIGHT LINE: ax + by + c= 0 , is ax + by + k = 0
(a ) Equations of coordinate axes: Sine at every point
on the x-axis, y=0, hence the equation of the axis of x is y Equation of a straight lien perpendicular to the straight line
= 0 . Similarly, the equation of the y=axis is x=0. ax + by + c = 0, is bx – ay + k = 0

Equations of straight lines in various forms: Equation of a straight line through the point of
(a) Slope Intercept form intersection of the straight lines
y= mx + C a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 is
(b) slope-point form a1x + b1y + c1 + k (a2x + b2y + c2) = 0
y – y1 = m (x -x1)
m = tan θ ± tan

(c) Intercept form 1 + tan θ tan

x+ y =1
a b Length p of the perpendicular from
P (x1 , y1) to the lien ax + by + c = 0
(d) Two point form
y – y1 = y2 – y1 (x – x1) P= ax1 + by1 + c
x2 – x1 √a2 + b2

(e) Parametric form,: Perpendicular distance p between and parallel straight

x-x1 lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0, are
= y-y1 = r
cos θ sin θ
any point on this line P = c1 - c2
2 2
(x1 = r cos θ , y1 = r sin θ) a +b
Equation of angle bisectors between the straight lines,
(f) Normal form a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2y + c2 = 0 , are
X cos θ + y sin θ = p
a1 x + b1y + c1 = a2x + b2y + c2
2 2 2 2
(g) General equation: √a 1+b1 √a 2 + b 2
Ax + By + C = 0

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Concurrency of the three straight lines, The straight lines: Sum or Differnce nto product:
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 b) sin A + sin B = 2sin A+B/2cos A-B/2
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 c) sinA – SinB = 2cos A+B/2sin A-B/2
a3x + b3y + c3 = 0 d) cosA + cos B = 2cosA =B /2cos A-B / 2
e) cos A – cos B = -2A+B/2sin A-B/2
are concurrent if
Product into sum or difference:
a1 b1 c1 a) 2sinA cosB = sin (A +B) + sin (A-B)
a2 b2 c2 = 0 b) 2cosA cosB = cos(A+B) + cos(A-B)
a3 b3 c3 c) 2sinA sinB = cos (A-B) – cos (A+B)

TRIGONOMETRY Relations between he sides and angles of a triangle:

In ∆ ABC,
1. sin ø = p/h = perpendicular / hypotenuse a) Sinc formula
2. cos ø = b / h = base / hypotenuse a b c
3. tan ø = p/b = perpendicular/base = = = 2R
4. cosec ø = h/p = hypotenuse / perpendicular sin A sin B sin C
5. sec ø = h/b = hypotenuse / base
6. cot ø = b/ = base / perpendicular b) Consine formulae
b2 + c 2 − a 2
TRIGONEMETRIC RELATIONS: Cos A =
1. sin ø = 1/cosec ø
2bc
2. cos ø = 1/sec ø
3. tan ø = 1/ cot ø c 2 + a 2 − b2
4. tan ø = sin ø / cos ø Cos B =
2ca
5. cot ø = cos ø / sin ø

QUADRANTS a2 + b2 − c2
Cos C =
2ab
The two axes Xn OX and Y n OY divides the plane into
Four Quadrants. PROJECTION FORMULAE:
i.In first quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive. a) a = b cosC + c cosB
b) b = c cosA + a cosC
ii. In second quadrant, only sin ø and cosec ø are positive. c) c = a cosB + b cosA
iii. In third quadrant, only tan ø and cot ø are positive.
iv. In fourth quadrant, only cos ø and sec ø are positive. General values of Trigonometric Functions:
a) If sin ø = Sinα
IMPORTANT RELATIONS Then , θ = n π+ (-1)n α, n €1
I. sin2ø + cos2ø = 1
2 2
II. 1 + tan ø = sec ø b) If cos θ = cos α
2 2
III. 1 + cos ø = cosec ø Then, θ = n π ± α, n € 1
SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAE:
1) sin (A±B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
ds
i) velocity at time ‘t’ is v =
2) cos (A±B) = cos A cos B – or + sin A sin B dt
3) tan (A±B) = tan A ± tan B / 1 ± tan A tan B dv d 2s
4) sin (A±B) sin (A – B) ii) acceleration at time ‘t’ is a = = 2
5) sin (A±B) sin (A ± B) dt dt
= sin2 A – Sin2B = Cos2B – Cos2A
6) cos ( A +B) Cos (A – B)
= cos2A – sin2 B = cos2b – sin2A

DOUBLE – ANGLE FORMULAE:

a) sin2ø = 2sin ø cos ø = 2tanø / 1+ tan2ø
2 2
b) cos2 ø = cos ø – sin ø
2
= 2cos ø – 1
2
= 1 – 2sin ø
2 2
= 1-tan ø / 1 + tan ø
7) cos2 ø = ½ (1 + cos2ø)
2
8) tan2 ø= 2tan ø / 1 – tan ø

Triple-Angle Formulae:
3
a) sin3ø = 3sin ø - 4 sin ø
3
b) cos3ø = 4cos ø - 3 cos ø
3 2
c) tan3ø = 3tanø - tan ø / 1-3tan ø

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 LOGICAL REASONING for TNPSC EXAMS
Logic is the science and art of reasoning correctly, the
science of the necessary laws of thought; Reasoning is
the mind’s power of drawing conclusions and deducting
inference from premises. And so, Logical Reasoning
implies the process of drawing logical conclusions from
given facts in conformity to what is fairly to be expected or
called for. It must be noted that logical conclusions
means what is derived by reasoning or logic and not the
truth or fact.
PROPOSITION: The logical proposition is an expression
or a statement which affirms or denies something, so that
it can be characterised as true or false, valid or invalid.
Like any other grammatical sentence, a proposition has a
subject, a predicate and a copula connecting the two.
Example: Philosophers are intelligent.
Here, ‘Philosophers’ the subject, ‘intelligent’ is predicate
and ‘are’ is copula.
RADIAN IAS ACADEMY
For the validity of drawing inference in an argument
the propositions are also classified on the basis of
quality; as Affirmative (Positive) or Negative, and
Quantity; as Universal or Particular
a) UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE – ‘A’ Proposition
Only subjective term is distributed:
Example: I. All men are strong.
II. All Birds have beaks.
In the above statements, subject is ‘All’ , i.e. ‘All men’
and ‘All’ birds;
b) UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE – ‘E’ Proposition:
Both subjective and predicative terms are distributed
Example I. No man is perfect
II. No fools are wise
In the above statements, the distributed term is ‘No’,
‘No one’. When no man is perfect, then one who is
perfect cannot be man. Similarly, when no fools are
wise, then one who is wise cannot be a fool.

The propositions can be classified into Four categories. c) PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE – ‘I’ Proposition:
Neither of the terms is distributed.
(I) CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION: Emphasises what is Example: I. Some children are very naughty
and what is not, i.e., a subject is a predicate or is not II. Some politicians are dishonest
predicate. In the above statements, the distributed term is not
Example: I. All cats are dogs. particular, i.e. ‘some’. When some children are
II. No hens are ducks. naughty, then some of those who are naughty may be
Logically speaking, all cats must be dogs irrespective of children. Similarly, when some politicians are
the truth that cats can never be dogs. So, also in second dishonest, then some dishonest men may be
sentence, no hens are ducks leaves no argument that politicians. There is no defined certainty.
some hens may be ducks.
d) PARTICULAR NEGATIVE: ‘O’ Propositions:
(II) DISJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION: Leave every scope of Here the predicative term is distributed. ‘Some used
confusion as they have either -------- or --------- in then with a negative sign is a particular negative
proposition.
Example: Either she is shy or she is cunning. Example: I. Some students are not intelligent
These type of propositions give two alternatives. II. All animals are not pets.
In the statement ‘All animals’ may mislead it to be a
I. Antecedent i.e. ‘she is shy’ and Universal negative but ‘All’ with ‘not’ is a particular
II. Consequent i.e. ‘or she is cunning’ negative. However, words such as ‘some’ ‘mostly’ ‘all
The inferences drawn on such statements are probably but one’ etc. are particular Propositions.
true or probably false. The right inference often depends
PREMISE is a proposition stated or assumed for after-
on one’s own ability to sense and analyse the validity of
reasoning especially one of the two propositions in a
the logic.
syllogism, from which the conclusion is drawn. Of the two
statements, the first is major premise and the second is
(III) HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION: Correspond to the
minor premise.
conditions, and the conditional part starts with words such
Example: All dogs are hens. (major premise)
as ‘if’.
All pups are dogs. (minor premise)
Example: If I am late, I will miss the train. Here also,
Inference: All pups are hens.
proposition has two parts.
Based on the two premises, the inference is drawn.
I. antecedent – if I am late, and TERM is a word used in a specially understood or defined
II. consequeny –I will miss the train source which may be subject or predicate of a
proposition. The terms in the major premise are called
(IV) RELATIONAL PROPOSITION: Denote the relation major terms and that in the minor premise are called
between the subject and the predicate. The relation can minor terms. The middle term occurs in both the premise.
be (I) symmetrical (II) non-symmetrical or (III) In the above example, dogs, hens and pups are three
asymmetrical. terms used. Of these ‘hens’ is the major term, ‘pups; is the
minor term and ‘dogs’ is the connecting or the middle
Example: I. She is as tall as Pinki term.
II. Jai is wiser than Roy
III. Tim is brother of Ria. INFERENCE is the act of drawing a logical conclusion
from given premise. This logical deduction follows
necessarily from the reasoning of given premises and not
of the truth.

RADIAN IAS ACADEMY ANNA ARCH-CHENNAI & SIMMAKKAL-MADURAI mailtoradian@yahoo.co.in 98404-00825, 98404-33955