Engr 270 AA -- Materials Science

Experiment #8 -- Hardenability of Steels

Purpose:

This experiment is aimed at understanding the effect of cooling rate on the hardness of two
steels. The experiment also shows why adding alloying elements other than carbon
enables a part to be heat-treated more uniformly and to a greater depth.

Background:

To understand heat treatment of steels requires an understanding of the Fe-C phase

diagram shown in Figure 1. A steel with 0.76 wt%C is said to be a eutectoid steel. A steel
with a carbon content less than 0.76 wt% is hypoeutectoid and greater than 0.76 wt% is
hypereutectoid. The region marked austenite (γ) is face-centered-cubic and ferrite (α) is
body-centered-cubic.

Figure 1. The iron-iron carbide phase diagram.

The microstructure, and hence the properties, of the alloy depends on its composition. If
one very slowly cools a hypoeutectoid steel from a point in the austenite region, the final
microstructure would contain proeutectoid ferrite (α) and pearlite pearlite (α + Fe3C). With
a hypereutectoid steel, the proeutectoid phase would be cementite (Fe3C).

The size, type, and distribution of phases present can be altered by cooling at a rate faster
than is required for thermodynamic equilibrium. Steels are often cooled so rapidly that
metastable phases appear. One such phase is martensite, which is body-centered-
tetragonal phase and which only occurs during very rapid cooling.

1
Much of the information on non-equilibrium distribution, size, and type of phases has been
obtained from experiments. The results can be presented in a continuous cooling
transformation diagram for eutectoid composition as shown in Figure 2. The final
microstructure (martensite and/or pearlite) depends on the cooling rate. For pearlite
formation, slower cooling causes coarse pearlite while fast cooling causes fine pearlite to
form. Cooling rates faster than the critical cooling rate result in martensite.

Figure 2. Continuous cooling transformation diagram

for eutectoid steel.

Martensite causes hardness in steels. Unfortunately, hardness in steels also produces

brittleness. The brittleness is usually associated with low impact energy and low
toughness. To restore some of the toughness and impact properties, it is frequently
necessary to “temper” the steels. This is accomplished by heating the steel up to a
temperature between 500 and 1000 degrees F. Tempering removes some of the internal
stresses and introduces recovery processes in the steel without a large decrease in
hardness and strength. To obtain the desired mechanical properties it is necessary to cool
steel from the proper temperature at the proper rates and temper them at the proper
temperature and time.

In a practical sense it is not possible to heat-treat all parts of the specimen to the same
level. The difference is due to the thickness for volume effect. Basically, when a part is
quenched in water or some other media, the heat must be conducted out through the
surface. This leads to a temperature gradient ∆T/∆y between the surface and the center
of the part being heat-treated. The temperature gradient varies with time, being less steep
at later times. Thus the temperature of the center lags in time behind the temperature of
the surface. This means that cooling rate varies as a function of depth. The greater the
depth, the slower the cooling rate. Different cooling rates can lead to a different hardness in
the center than at the edge. The edge could transform to martensite and the center to
pearlite.

2
The resulting microstructure also depends on the composition of the alloy. Figure 3 shows
the continuous cooling transformation diagram for 4340 steel (0.40 wt%C, 1.85 wt%Ni, 0.80
wt%C, and 0.25 wt% Mo). The presence of alloying elements other than Carbon shift the
pearlite (as well as the proeutectoid phase) and bainite formation to longer times, thus
decreasing the critical cooling rate. In fact, one of the reasons for alloying elements is to
facilitate the formation of martensite so that totally martensitic structures can develop in
relatively thick cross sections. The ability of a steel alloy to develop martensite is related to
a property called hardenability. It is a measure of the rate at which hardness drops off
with distance into the interior of a specimen as a result of diminished martensitic content.

Figure 3. Continuous cooling transformation diagram for

4340 steel.

The Jominy End-Quench Test

One standard procedure that is widely used to measure hardenability of steel is the Jominy
end-quench test. In this test water is sprayed on one end of a bar of steel while it is hot.
This leads to a one dimensional heat transfer cooling. Except near the surface of the bar
the temperature is controlled by that flow along the length of the bar.

Moving axially inward from the quenched end of the bar, the temperature and the rate of
change of temperature are changing. The temperature is higher and the rate is slower
away from the quenched end. If hardness is measured as a function of distance from the
end, a hardness profile can be obtained which applies to any part made from the same
steel.

Experimental Procedure:

3
You will be given two steels (1045) and an alloy steel (4130). Before heating the
specimens practice mounting the specimens in the rack and at the proper water flow to
spray the ends of the specimen.

Mark each specimen noting the hardness on the Rockwell C scale. Check to make sure
the collar of the Jominy is secure and put the specimen in the furnace at 1600 degrees F
for 45 minutes. While you are waiting to heat the specimens examine the microstructure of
the allow steel and carbon steel specimens provided by the instructor. At the end of the
austenizing treatment remove one specimen and carefully but rapidly place the specimen in
the hold with the water turned on.

Method of Test:

The standard method for the Jominy test is ASTM-A255. The specimen consists of a
cylindrical bar with a 1-in diameter and 4-in length and with a 1/16 in flange at one end.
The test consists of austenitizing at 5°F above the solvus line on the Fe-C phase which
separates γ from γ + α iron. Thereafter the specimen is removed from the furnace and is
placed in the hardenability fixture as in Figure 4a. The time spent transferring the specimen
from the furnace to the fixture should not be more than 5 sec. The fixture is constructed so
that the specimen is held 1/2 inch above the water opening so that a column of water is
directed only at the bottom of the bar. The water opening is 1/2 inch in diameter and the
flow is previously adjusted to cause the column to rise 2-1/2 inches without the specimen in
place. The test piece is held 10 minutes in the fixture under the action of cooling before
quenching in cold water.

Figure 4. Schematic of Jominy end-quench test specimen (a)

mounted during quenching and (b) after hardness testing.

After cooling, shallow flats 0.015 in. deep are ground along the specimen length (Figure
4b). Hardness (Rockwell C scale) measurements are taken for the first 2 ½ in. along each
flat; for the first ½ in., hardness readings are taken at 1/16 in. intervals, for the remaining 2
in., hardness readings are taken every 1/8 in. Figure 5 shows the correlation between the

4
hardness and the distance from the quenched end is due to the variation in the cooling
rates that result to different microstructures at different distances from the quenched end.

Figure 5. Correlation of hardenability and

continuous cooling information for eutectoid steel.

Using the observed hardness values at different distances from the quenched end,
hardenability curves can be plotted. Figure 6 shows typical hardenability curves for
commonly used steel alloys.

5
 Figure 6. Hardenability curves for five different steel alloys.

Lab Report Preparation

Using the standard format, prepare a lab report that includes the following:

1. Tabulation of observed Rockwell C hardness values for each specimen.

2. Hardenability curves for all samples plotted in the same graph. Comment on the
variability of the data as evidenced by deviations from a smooth curve. (Refer to Figure
11.7 of the text.).

3. Draw a smooth curve for each specimen, neglecting observed values that deviate too
much from the curve. Explain the differences and similarities between the obtained
hardenability curves, and the effect of the presence of alloying elements and the carbon
content of the sample. How do your hardenability curves compare with those shown in
Figure 6 of the lab handout. Propose possible explanations for any discrepancies.

4. Using the hardenability curves for the specimens, draw a radial hardness profile (one
for each steel alloy) for long, 2-in. cylindrical bars quenched in mildly agitated water.
(Please refer to Figure 11.8 of the text).