TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC BÁCH KHOA THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH

KHOA KỸ THUẬT HÓA HỌC

BỘ MÔN CÔNG NGHỆ THỰC PHẨM

BÁO CÁO PHÂN TÍCH CẢM QUAN

CƠ CHẾ CẢM NHẬN VỊ CHUA

GVHD: Nguyễn Hoàng Dũng

SVTH: Đặng Trần Hoàng Yến 1514173
Phan Thụy Thùy Dương 1510606
Đinh Nguyễn Ý Nhi 1512309
Lâm Huỳnh Xuân 1514161
LỚP: HC15KTTP
 Tháng 2, 2018

CONTENTS
1. GETTING INFORMATION PROCESS OF SOUR TASTE ___________________________________ 1
1.1. THE SENSE OF TASTE ________________________________________________________ 1
1.2. TASTE PAPILAE _____________________________________________________________ 2
1.3. TASTE BUDS _______________________________________________________________ 3
2. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STIMULUS AND SENSORY ORGANS _______________________ 4
2.1. INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________ 4
2.2. SENSORY ORGANS __________________________________________________________ 5
2.3. SOUR TASTE TRANSDUCTION _________________________________________________ 6
2.4. CONCLUSIONS _____________________________________________________________ 9
3. FACTORS AFFECT SOUR TASTE ___________________________________________________ 9
3.1. SUBJECTIVITY ______________________________________________________________ 9
3.1.1. AGE _______________________________________________________________ 9
3.1.2. SEX ______________________________________________________________ 10
3.1.3. ADAPTATION_______________________________________________________ 10
3.2. OBJECTIVITY ______________________________________________________________ 11
REFERENCES ___________________________________________________________________ 12
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Tongue perceives various tastes ___________________ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2. Model for the activation of sour taste receptor cells by strong and weak acids _____ 7
Figure 3. Thresholds of elderly male (me), elderly female (fe), young male (my) and female
young (fy) subjects for acetic acid and citric acid. ____________________________________ 9
 1. GETTING INFORMATION PROCESS OF SOUR TASTE
1.1.THE SENSE OF TASTE
Based on the information that is transported from the tongue to the brain, there are thought
to be at least five basic qualities of taste. Many dishes are made up of a combination of different
tastes. Some dishes taste sweet-sour, for example, while others are salty and savory.
According to sour taste
It is mostly acidic solutions like lemon juice or organic acids that taste sour. This sensation is
caused by hydrogen ions, chemical symbol: H+, split off by an acid dissolved in a watery solution.
There is a long-held misconception that the tongue has specific zones for each flavor where
you can taste sweet or sour, for example, especially well. But this myth is based on an incorrect
reading of an illustration of the tongue. You can still find these zones in many textbooks today.
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter and savory tastes can actually be sensed by all parts of the tongue.
Only the sides of the tongue are more sensitive than the middle overall. This is true of all tastes
– with one exception: the back of our tongue is very sensitive to bitter tastes. This is apparently
to protect us so that we can spit out poisonous or spoiled foods or substances before they enter
the throat and are swallowed.

Figure 1. Tongue perceives various tastes

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 Figure 2. The locations of each type of taste papilla and their neural connections to the brain

Taste processing in the central nervous system

 Pathway: Taste buds to cranial nerves to medulla and thalamus and then on to cortex
 Insular cortex: Primary cortical processing area for taste. The part of the cortex that first
receives taste information.
 Orbitofrontal cortex: The part of the frontal lobe of the cortex that lies above the bone
(orbit) containing the eyes. Receives projections from insular cortex Involved in
processing of temperature, touch, smell, and taste, suggesting it may be an integration
area.
1.2.TASTE PAPILAE
The taste papillae are a good number of wart-like bumps under the mucous membrane of the
tongue. They increase the surface area of the tongue several times and make sure that individual
tastes can be perceived more intensely. This is also called the magnifying effect of the tongue.
The papillae contain several taste buds with sensory cells.

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 There are four types categorized by their shape:
 Filiform papillae
Small structures on the tongue that provide most of the bumpy appearance. Have no taste
function.
 Fungiform papillae
Fungiform papillae are the most common: between 200 and 400 bumps are spread all over
the surface of the tongue. They are found mostly at the tip of the tongue and at the edges where
they make sure that these areas are especially sensitive to taste. Fungiform papillae not only
detect taste, they also contain sensory cells for touch and temperature. Each papilla contains 3
to 5 taste buds.
 Circumvallate papillae
Circumvallate papillae are very large and found at the base of the tongue, where the throat
begins. Every person has only 7 to 12 circumvallate papillae, yet these papillae each contain
several thousand taste buds. Circumvallate papillae are round, raised, and visible to the naked
eye. They are arranged in the shape of a V at the back of the tongue. These papillae are called
circumvallate papillae, because they are surrounded by a trench containing many glands that
“rinse” the taste-producing substances into the sensory cells.
 Foliate papillae
Foliate papillae can also be seen with the naked eye on the rear edges of the tongue. There
you can see several folds that lie close together. Our tongue has about 20 foliate papillae, each
of which has several hundred taste buds.
1.3.TASTE BUDS
Taste buds are composed of groups of between 50 and 150 columnar taste receptor cells
bundled together like a cluster of bananas. The taste receptor cells within a bud are arranged

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such that their tips form a small taste pore, and through this pore extend microvilli from the taste
cells. The microvilli of the taste cells bear taste receptors.
Interwoven among the taste cells in a taste bud is a network of dendrites of sensory nerves
called "taste nerves". When taste cells are stimulated by binding of chemicals to their receptors,
they depolarize and this depolarization is transmitted to the taste nerve fibers resulting in an
action potential that is ultimately transmitted to the brain. One interesting aspect of this nerve
transmission is that it rapidly adapts - after the initial stimulus, a strong discharge is seen in the
taste nerve fibers but within a few seconds, that response diminishes to a steady-state level of
much lower amplitude.

Once taste signals are transmitted to the brain, several efferent neural pathways are
activated that are important to digestive function. For example, tasting food is followed rapidly
by increased salivation and by low level secretory activity in the stomach.
Among humans, there is substantial difference in taste sensitivity. Roughly one in four people
is a "supertaster" that is several times more sensitive to bitter and other tastes than those that
taste poorly. Such differences are heritable and reflect differences in the number of fungiform
papillae and hence taste buds on the tongue.
In addition to signal transduction by taste receptor cells, it is also clear that the sense of smell
profoundly affects the sensation of taste. Think about how tastes are blunted and sometimes
different when your sense of smell is disrupted due to a cold.
2. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STIMULUS AND SENSORY ORGANS
2.1.INTRODUCTION
Anatomy of the taste system
A taste bud contains a group of 30 to 100 taste cells and is located on special folds and
protrusions of the lingual epithelium called papillae (Stewart and others 1997). There are 3 types
of gustative papilli: fungiform, foliate, and vallate. Fungiform papilli are mushroom-shape
structures located at the front of the tongue. They typically consist of 3 to 5 taste buds. Foliate
and vallate papilli contain hundreds of taste buds and are found, respectively, at the sides and
rear of the tongue (Gilbertson and others 2000).
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 Taste receptors are bipolar cells having a short life time, approximately 10 d (Beidler 1971).
They occur either lightly or densely packed in taste buds. Taste receptor cells are oriented
perpendicularly to the surface in contact with the stimuli in a roughly parallel arrangement with
apical and basolateral regions. The apical region is composed of microvilli, which have contact
with the oral cavity, while the basolateral region contains synapses with the sensory nerve fibers
(Lindemann 1996, 2001). Taste buds are innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (posterior
tongue), the chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve (anterior tongue), and the vagal nerve
(laryngeal buds) (Gilbertson and others 2000). Taste perception is initiated by the interaction of
the chemical stimulus with receptor sites located on microvilli. The stimuli may bind to a
membrane receptor or protein, it may pass through a channel, or it may activate or block an ion
channel (Lindemann 1996). The receptors then activate the synapses by releasing
neurotransmitters, which cause excitation of the nerve fibers. The signals are carried to the brain
stem where the central nervous system processes the information, resulting in taste perception
(Lindemann 2001).
Sour taste is the key element in the flavor profile of food acidulants. Understanding sour taste
requires information at several levels, including the chemistry of compounds that elicit taste
responses, interaction of taste elicitor compounds with taste receptor cells, and the physiological
and neurochemical responses that mediate sour taste perception. Significant efforts have been
put forth to determine the chemical basis for sour taste. Although it is generally accepted that
pH and organic acids are responsible for sour taste, it is not currently possible to accurately
predict and modify sour taste intensity in foods. Several studies have also attempted to identify
the receptors and transduction mechanisms for sour taste, but as yet the physiology of sour taste
is controversial and not completely understood.
2.2.SENSORY ORGANS
Some sensory organs can feel sour taste, which are
- Tongue and taste buds
- Tongue map
- Supertasters.
Sour taste can actually be sensed by all parts of the tongue. Only the sides of the tongue are more
sensitive than the middle overall.
To perceive sour taste, it can be seperated into 2 parts:
- In term of quantity: Detection threshold and determines taste can be changed depend on
each person.
- In term of quality: The taste reception is different for each individual but distribute
threshold of them in collection according to the standard rule. Taste itensity changes by
stimulus content.

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Sour taste is a basic taste and is characterized primarily by organic acids (other than amino acids)
but the threshold for different acids is different.
The reaction rate of taste is slower than other senses. And in each type of taste this reaction rate
is different. Average rate of sour taste is 0,536s.
2.3.SOUR TASTE TRANSDUCTION
Sour taste is the key element in the flavor profile of food acidulants. Understanding sour taste
requires information at several levels, including the chemistry of compounds that elicit taste
responses, interaction of taste elicitor compounds with taste receptor cells, and the physiological
and neurochemical responses that mediate sour taste perception. Significant efforts have been
put forth to determine the chemical basis for sour taste. Although it is generally accepted that
pH and organic acids are responsible for sour taste, it is not currently possible to accurately
predict and modify sour taste intensity in foods. Several studies have also attempted to identify
the receptors and transduction mechanisms for sour taste, but as yet the physiology of sour taste
is controversial and not completely understood.
It is often assumed that a stronger acid has a more sour taste, but this is not the case. Rather,
weak organic acids such as acetic acid or citric acid have a more intense sour taste than do strong
mineral acids such as HCl at the same pH. Weak acids are only partially dissociated in water, and
thus their titratable acidity is higher than that of a fully dissociated strong acid. Indeed, it seems
that titratable acidity is a better predictor of sour taste intensity than is the concentration of
dissociated protons in solution. [3]
Even so, the proton (H+, or more precisely, the hydronium ion HCO3+) is still believed to be
the proximate stimulus for acid taste, although it may act at different sites depending on the
source (Figure 2). Weak organic acids likely diffuse across the plasma membrane as neutral
molecules. Dissociation of the acids within the cytoplasm results in intracellular acidification.
How this impacts cellular physiology is unclear. Possibly, intracellular acidification results in
cellular depolarization by inhibiting membrane K+ channels (Figure 2) or perhaps by activating
other cation channels, either through direct modification of the channel proteins or perhaps via
cytoskeletal changes that could mechanically gate the channels. By contrast, H+ from strong
acids, which are fully dissociated in the extracellular solution, likely enter the TRC through plasma
membrane channels. This H+ flux can both provide an initial depolarization of the TRC as well as
contribute to theintracellular acidification of other proteins, including ion channels. [3]
Several channel and transporter types have been proposed as sour taste receptors. These
include: ACCN1 (amiloride-sensitive cation channel 1); HCN1 (hyperpolarization-activated cyclic
nucleotide-gated channel 1) and HCN4; the two-pore potassium channel KCNK3 (potassium
channel, subfamily K, member 3; a.k.a., TASK-1); and NHE-1 (Na+-H+- exchanger isoform 1). [3]

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 Figure 3. Model for the activation of sour taste receptor cells by strong and weak acids

In figure 2, strong acids, which are fully dissociated in solution, depolarize sour TRCs via an
inward proton conductance (green). This could lead to additional depolarization through
activation of voltage-gated Na+ channels (not shown) or inhibition (open triangle) of K+ channels
(blue) via intracellular acidification. Weak acids (red/green), which are only partially dissociated
in solution, are thought to diffuse across the plasma membrane before dissociating intracellularly
(extracellular protons would still pass through proton channels). Cytoplasmic protons could then
inhibit K+ channels. Either mechanism would result in membrane depolarization and subsequent
activation of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (orange), promoting the release of neurotransmitter
(gray circles) onto nearby afferent nerves (purple).
The machanism of sour taste transduction:

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 It is generally accepted that activation of sour taste receptors causes depolarization of
acid-sensitive taste receptor cells (Lyall and others 2001). Each cell of the body has an
electrical potential difference across its plasma membrane due to differences in ion
concentrations between the inside and outside of the cell (Beidler 1978). In nerve cells,
this difference is mainly determined by the membrane permeability of sodium,
potassium, and chloride ions (Beidler 1967; Myamoto and others 1998). At resting
potential, the cell is negatively charged inside relative to the outside. As the cell is
stimulated, an electrical gradient is established across the membrane, causing cell
depolarization. Thus, the cell becomes positive inside relative to the outside (Beidler
1967; Lindemann 1996). The activation of receptors by acidic stimuli is usually
accompanied by decreased intracellular pH and release of transmitters, which initiate
excitation of afferent nerve fibers to the brain cortex, ultimately leading to sour taste
perception (Lyall and others 2001).
 Acid stimuli primarily elicit a sour taste response at low concentrations, which is
transduced by the chorda tympani. However, at high concentrations, acids may also evoke
an irritation sensation, which is transduced by the trigeminal nerve (Nagy and others
1982; Yamasaki and others 1984). Two general hypotheses exist as to the mechanism of
sour taste perception. The first assumes extracellular adsorption of acidic stimuli, while
the second presumes penetration of sour taste stimuli into the cell. Early studies proposed
that sour taste perception is induced by binding of hydrogen ions to a phosphate group
on phospholipids in the gustatory receptor membrane (Koyama and Kurihara 1972). It has
been hypothesized that the chemical nature of the sour taste receptor is essentially like
a lipid rather than a protein since lengthening the alkyl chain structure of an acid favors
its diffusion through the membrane, while introducing polar groups decreases the acid's
permeability (Taylor 1927, 1930; Taylor and others 1930). In contrast, Beidler (1971)
suggested that proteins are the most likely candidates for taste receptors and proposed
that carboxyl groups on the protein are the specific receptor sites for sour stimuli.
 It has been established that cell depolarization caused by the interaction between protons
and ion channels mediates sour taste transduction (Myamoto and others 1998; Ugawa
and others 1998; Herness and Gilbertson 1999; Stevens and others 2001; Richter and
others 2003). Many studies have attempted to identify the specific channel molecules
that function as receptors for sour tastants. In the mudpuppy, blockage of voltage-
sensitive K+ channels located in the apical membrane has been suggested to mediate sour
taste transduction (Kinnamon and Roper 1988; Kinnamon and others 1988; Cummings
and Kinnamon 1992).
 It has been proposed that tight junctions in the basolateral membrane are permeable to
hydrogen ions, which may cause a decrease in the intracellular pH, contributing to sour
taste transduction (DeSimone and others 1995; Lindemann 2001). In humans, there is
evidence that neither apical epithelial Na+ channels nor apical Na+/H+ exchangers are

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 involved in sour taste transduction (DeSimone and others 2001). Independent
investigations of sour taste receptor proteins of the mouse have concluded that PKD2L1,
a polycystic-kidney-disease-like ion channel, is specifically involved in sour taste
perception (Huang and others 2006; Ishimaru and others 2006).
2.4.CONCLUSIONS
Sour taste perception is a complex event from both chemical and physiological standpoints.
Before efficient control of flavor in the formulation of acid and acidified foods can be done, a
clear understanding of the chemistry and physiology of sour taste is needed. It is evident that no
simple relationship exists between sour taste intensity and hydrogen ions. Likewise, sour taste
intensity of acids cannot be entirely explained by other variables, including titratable acidity,
buffer capacity, molar concentration, physical and chemical structure, and so on. The recent
hypothesis that sour taste intensity is directly related to the total molar concentration of all
organic acid species that have one or more protonated carboxyl groups plus the concentration
of free hydrogen ions may provide a basis for predicting sour taste in the formulation of foods.
The physiology of sour taste perception remains controversial and significant diversity among
species exists with regard to cellular schemes used for detection of stimuli. The variety of
mechanisms proposed, even within individual species, highlights the complexity of elucidating
sour taste transduction. However, recent evidence suggests that at least 1 specific sour taste
receptor protein has been identified.
3. FACTORS AFFECT SOUR TASTE
3.1.SUBJECTIVITY
3.1.1. AGE

Figure 4. Thresholds of elderly male (me), elderly female (fe), young male (my) and female
young (fy) subjects for acetic acid and citric acid.

There is a general loss with age in taste acuity and in the specificity of taste sensitivity.

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First, the neural noise hypothesis. The signal to noise ratio lowered by a dececrease in intensity
of signal, by an increase in the level of spontaneously firring neurones, or both, would make it
more difficult for the elderly to detect diffirences between the tastant and the blank.
Second, the stimulus persistence hypothesis. If in the aged nervous system the neural activity
after a taste stimulus lingers longer, the signal-noise ratio will be diminished when the following
stimulus is presented.
Third, the perceptual noise hypothesis is characterised by a decrease in the ability to neglect
irrelevant information. The irrelevant information could be considered as a type of noise, but on
a psychological level and not on a neural level.
Fourth, the disinhibition hypothesis. Elderly people could have problems with the selective
retrieval of relevant information from memory to connect with new information.
Fifth, the contexttual integration hypothesis. It might be the older people store information in a
way less integrated with context than younger people do, with contextual information serving as
a tool to separate otherwise similar events. So when older people try to retrieve events from
memory, more ‘nearly right’ candidates will com up as a result of a storage problem.
3.1.2. SEX
Figure 1 show that men are more prone to loss than women.
3.1.3. ADAPTATION
Adapting to the taste reduces sensory acuity, thus preventing you from detecting differences
between stimuli. The order in which you taste samples during a sensory test is important. Tasting
a strong sample, then a weak one results in adaptation. The opposite order, first weak then
strong, should not affect taste sensitivity. With short waits between samples (three minutes or
so), most effects of adaptation should dissipate. There are almost no issues when two stimuli
have different taste qualities.
 Smoking
When smoking a cigarette or cigar, the smoker places the taste buds in contact with chemical
compounds that greatly decrease the taste buds’ ability to register salty, sweet, sour and bitter
tastes.
 Obesity
Children and adolescents who are obese have less sensitive taste buds. That means for obese
children, sweet foods taste less intensely sweet, bitter foods are milder and salt is not as readily
perceived.
 Pregnancy

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 During pregnancy, nearly twothirds of women experience changes in taste. Pregnant women
have been found to have a reduced sensitivity to salty tastes, which may be the body’s way of
ensuring increased salt intake during pregnancy.
 Colds/ Flu/ Allergies
When suffering from a cold, individuals frequently complain that they have lost their sense
of taste. In reality, they have lost their sense of smell. Obstruction of air passages reduces
olfactory perception, a key component of how we taste.
 Disease
People with cancer and anorexia have reduced taste sensitivity as the result of their
compromised physical condition. Cancer patients have reported that taste changes return to
normal after treatment is completed.
3.2.OBJECTIVITY
 Meals
Sensitivity is reduced for between one and four hours after a meal, depending on what the
meal included. A spicy/hot meal such as enchiladas will have a greater effect than a bland meal
such as oatmeal and milk.
 Temperature
Influence of temperature on taste is not uniform. Taste buds can be put out of action by both
high and low temperatures. Increasing temperature appears to increase the response to
sweetness and decrease it to saltiness and bitterness. Decreasing temperature appears to
increase the response to bitterness and decrease the response to sourness.
 Taste Medium
 Solid vs. Liquid
The taste buds can only detect flavors that are dissolved in a liquid. You cannot taste a dry
substance with a dry tongue. Water is the best medium for sensitivity tests. Taste thresholds are
lower in water than in tomato juice.
 Viscosity
Increased viscosity reduces tastes sensitivity. Meaning, it’s easiest to detect tastes in liquid
state, harder in foams and more difficult in gels.

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 REFERENCES
[1] https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Sensory_Systems/Gustatory_System
[2] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0072592/
[3] Frank Zufall and Steven D. Munger, 2016. Chemosensory Transduction – The Detection of
Odors, Tastes, and Other Chemostimuli, pp. 292 – 294.

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