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AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
R E P O R T S AND M E M O R A N D A
F. L. W~.sr
F. L. W:EST
Summary.--This note reviews past and present work on noise reduction of the reciprocating engine exhaust.
Collected measurements of t h e noise level surrounding various engine installations and the effect of silencing
experiments on engine and aircraft performance are presented. In view of the growing application of the gas turbine,
some recent observations of its noise characteristics are included.
The adverse effects of simple baffle silencers on engine power illustrate the need for renewed investigation of silencing
by acoustical interference methods allowing unrestricted gas flow. In this respect, limitations of past work on the theory
of silencers are discussed and possible improvements suggested.
In conclusion, a tentative method of calculating the influence of engine and exhaust pipe design on the noise spectrum
is applied to a typical system.
1. Introduction.--During the war the trend of exhaust system development has been towards
higher performance and lower weight without regard to any effects such development might
have had on noise. In civil aircraft however the reduction of noise to bearable limits is of first
importance.
In the past, efforts have been made to achieve some measure of silence, the criteria being
maximum attenuation with a minimum exhaust back pressure and added weight, but the need
to maintain useful exhaust thrust imposes a further condition, which demands a renewed and
more thorough investigation of the problem.
Simple jet engines present a somewhat different problem to the conventional reciprocator
but with certain modifications the general principles of noise reduction still apply.
111. Sensation Level and A2bparent Loudness.--Early acoustical theories attempted to use the
phon unit as a measure of sensation level. The system is hovcever of little use when analysis of a
complex noise is required and it is preferable to deal with intensity in decibels on a frequency
basis. As the ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies, the loudness of a sound is not truly
represented b y tile decibel scale and further, it is not always possible to reduce results to obtain
overall noise levels ; but these minor faults are more than outweighed b y the ease of application
and the fact t h a t overall noise levels are rarely of much scientific value.
1.2. Silencing of Low _Frequency Noise.--The noise spectrum inside a conventional aircraft
cabin is shown in Fig. 1 extracted from Ref. 1. Curve A is for an untreated cabin and B for a
cabin soundproofed b y standard methods with a material of about 0.5 lb/sq ft surface density.
Fig. 2 shows how the attenuating quality varies with surface density for an average sound proofing
material. It is considered t h a t a material with the surface density stated above is the heaviest
t h a t can be economically used at present.
An experimental silencing scheme in the form of a venturi shroud leading to a silencing chamber
w a s now presented throat forward to the nozzle in order to surround the air jet. About 30 db
noise reduction was achieved by this means and it was shown that axial adjustment of the linear
distance between the nozzle exit and the rear end of the shroud between ½ in. and 3 in. had
negligible effect on the transmission. This fact may be of major importance as it would appear
t h a t little or no sound energy is propagated from a gas jet until turbulent mixing with the
surrounding medium is established.
In the theory the effects of viscosity dissipation and temperature gradients within the acoustic
filter circuit are neglected. Within the limits recorded in practice, only a slight error in the esti-
mated attenuation is expected from temperature variation, but viscosity, especially with orifices
or perforations of small diameter can cause appreciable reduction of intensity dependent on the
frequency of the acoustic vibration. A further necessary assumption restricts the application
of the simple formulae to filters whose dimensions are small compared with the wave length, the
physical limitation being t h a t the medium within a capacity chamber is considered to vibrate as
a whole with uniform sectional velocity distribution. At the higher frequencies of incident noise,
the transmission cannot be predicted with a n y degree of confidence on this account. Pressure
distribution again is assumed uniform in any one chamber of the filter.
The acoustic properties Of a baffle-type silencer will be affected by the presence of a steady
flow. The classical theory was modified by Griffith ~ to take account of this and much more
rational results were claimed, but the model experiments by Davis and Fleming 11 showed incon-
sistent agreement with Grifflth's theory (Fig. 9), leaving discrepancies not yet satisfactorily
explained. Finally, present theories assume a completely inert outer case and baffles. Shell
and diaphragm vibrations m a y have an important influence on the action of the acoustic filter
and an exact theory must necessarily take them into account.
6.2. Analogy with Electrical Circuits.--The close analogy between acoustical filter problems
and the action of alternating currents in equivalent electrical circuits is well known. In the
modern developments in the electrical theory the errors introduced by simplifications analogous
to these iust described for the acoustic filter theory are overcome by an appropriate adjustment
of the impedances of the various branches of the network. There is a possibility that errors in the
present acoustical theories could be eliminated b y similar methods.
6.3. Analysis of Exhaust Noise of Piston Engines.--Kauffman and Schmidt ~7have put forward
a method for obtaining the frequency of the component tones contained in the exhaust noise
spectrum of a piston engine, but without an experimental frequency analysis of the noise the
relative intensity at each frequency cannot be determined by their methods. Pressure pulses
excited b y the mass discharge" from the cylinder set up vibrations. . of the column18 of gas in the
exhaust pipe and have a marked effect on the acoustic transm~sslon. Kastner has developed a
method to estimate the amplitude of this pulse by a series of successive approximations. For a
given engine and exhaust pipe tile variation of wave form and relative amplitude of the funda-
mental pressure wave with engine speed and power output can be obtained. It will be appreciated
t h a t the transmitted noise intensity is dependent primarily on the pressure fluctuation inside the
pipe. Therefore if the complete pressure-wave including disturbances due to ' e d g e t o n e s '
6
and the resonator effect of Kauffman and Schmidt can be determined from theoretical considera-
tions, it becomes possible to predict the external noise intensity from the design details and
operating conditions of the engine.
An attempt has been made to apply Kauffman and Schmidt's and Kastner's methods to a
Hercules engine. Fig~ 12 illustrates the estimated frequency of acoustic resonance at the exhaust
port while Fig. 13 shows the mean variation of exhaust pipe pressure. The cylinder resonance
vibrations will be superimposed on the mean pressure-wave and their frequency can be
determined from Fig. 12 but the relative amplitudes present a more formidable problem. Stewart 2
gives an expression (p. 51) for the magnification factor of the ideal cylinder resonator but consider-
able experimental data is necessary before the application to the Hercules can proceed further.
REFERENCES
No. Author Title, etc.
1 Leo. L. Beranck and others .. Principles of Sound Control in Aeroplanes. Crnft Laboratory, H a r v a r d
University. O.S.R.D. 1543. 1944.
2 Stewart and Lindsay .. .. Acoustics. D. Van Nostrand Coy. Inc., New York.
3 A . H . Davis .... .. Acoustical Theory of the Exhaust Silencer, Particularly of the Baffle
Type. Physics Dept. N.P.L. 1933. A.R.C. Report 389.
4 A . W . Morley .... .. Progress of Experiments in Aero-Engine Exhaust Silencing. R. & 1Vi.
1760. 1937.
5 A . W . Morley .... .. Note on Noise and Performance Tests of a Silenced Heyford Airplane.
A.R.C. Report 1681. March, 1935.
6 Staff of Engine Dept., R.A.E. .. Flight Tests of Silencers for Tiger Moth Aeroplanes. A.R.C. Report
3157. July, 1937.
7 Staff of Engine Dept., R.A.E. .. Flight Tests of Silencers for Tutor Aeroplanes. A.R.C. Report 3156.
July, 1937.
8 Staff of Engine Dept., R.A.E. .. Flight Tests of Silencers for H a r t Trainer Aeroplanes. A.R.C. Report
3155. June, 1937.
9 A . H . Davis . . . . . . .. Progress Report oi1 Model Experiments Concerning Acoustical Features
of Exhaust Silencers. A.R.C. Report 1118. March, 1934.
10 A . H . Davis and N. Fleming .. Further Model Experiments Concerning the Acoustical Features of
Exhaust Silencers. A.R.C. Report 1421. February, 1935.
11 A . H . Davis and N. Fleming .. The Attenuation Characteristics of Some Aero-Engine Exhaust Silencers.
A.R.C. Report 2249. February, 1936.
12 A . A . Griffith .... .. Note on the Action of Baffle Silencers. A.R.C. Report 1129. February,
1984.
13 E. P. Hawthorne and F/O B. Exhaust Ejector Tests of a Merlin 46 Engine. A.R.C. Report 7624.
Zaporski. February, 1944.
14 J . C . Morrison .... .. The Problem of Exhaust Silencing and Engine Efficiency. Proc. I . A . E . ,
Vol. X X V I I , p. 614. March, 1983.
15 N. Fleming . . . . . . •. The Silencing of Aircraft. Proc. R.Ae.S. April, 1946.
16 Bristol Aeroplane Company, Ltd. Ground Test Comparisons of Noise Intensity Inside a Beaufighter Fuselage.
(Aero engine division). Interim development report H 1 7 / B F R . 1 1 / J L . 9 5 5 / 1 .
17 A. Kaufffnan and U. Schmidt .. Schalld~mpfer f u r AutomobiImoteren. M. Krayn. Berlin. 1932.
18 L . J . Kastner .... .. A Study of the Release Process in a Four-Stroke Engine including an
Investigation of Conditions both in the Engine Cylinder and in the
Exhaust Port. Manchester University.
7
(60496) A **
APPENDIX I
8
II0
i .I I
~1" ENGINED
TRANSPORT
!
100
\ /MIUTARY AIRCRAFT
LONG RANGE BOMBER
\\ .J
>
N
u2
lu 90
\ \
PATROL AND TRANSPORT
CIU(L AIRCRAFT
CARGO TRANSPORT
n,-
\ \
m
\ \
\ _2
:,_1 'Q
80
70
CIVIL A | R C R A F T J
PASSENGER TRANSPORT
z-',,
\
\\
\
~,. ,
o
z
-1
o z
a
\
\ bJ
60
\
u
0
SO
\
EXHAUST J i
PROPELLER , D.
FREQUENCY OCTAVES
4.75 75 ISC, 300 600 I:~00 Z400 >4800 CYCLES PER SECOND
~0 300 ~0 J200 ~00 4800
FREQUENCY OCTAVES (CYCLES PER SECOND)
it.
o~
men
•0 Ca .J
~'0 ~
4"0 ~'
FREQUENCY CYCLES/SEC
9
V 4-0" I
©
~AE~SOP~SENTFILLING
iSIJRGESS T Y P E SILENCER
, ~_i I
ASIEST05 BETEEN
FIG. 6. A Typical Form of Flame-damping Shroud for In-line Engines.
b~JBLE SHELL
SECTION A A A
L_ .... I
~0o
----L_ I I' I r--- /' I
I
r I WITH AIR FLOW
C/~L CLJLATED / --L ! .
8
== I
I
I
~o
Z
I
OBSERVED j-
~ao NOAIR FLOW
L
O
So mo aDO SO0 1ODD ~.000 500C~ 5O ioo ~oo soo ,ooo eooo ~ooo
FREQU.ENCY (C';~LES PER 5EC) ~EOUENC* (CYCL~2SEC)
(a) Calculated and Observed Attenuation Char- (a) Observed Attenuation Characteristics of a
acteristics of a 4-section Baffle Silencer. Four 4-section Baffle Silencer With and Without Air
Holes in each Baffle (No Air Flow). Flow (4 Holes in Each Baffle).
/
120
I
IOO 5TEWAET"L0W PASS I tbo
SILENCER I
~ --L. J_ _L. _L _J~ I | AIR FLOW , 5 . 6 CLI F'T
, pr"R J IN
,.31 80
~ - - T-I- -- T I I
I
7~J 80
•
/ x
O
o" 60 ' ,Y d WITI,4 A I ~ FLOW"
Z x, x
g
'-I 4 0 40
Z,
hJ NO AIR F L O W
I- Z
OBSERVED L w
I-
~o
-J LV I'
L
5O I00 ~00 ~00 I000 ~'000 5000 50 ~00 200 500 I000 E'O00 5000
FREGIJENCY [CYCLES PER SEC F R E Q H E N C Y ( C Y C L E 5 / 5EC)
(b) Calculated and Observed Attenuation Char- (b) Observed Attenuation Characteristics of a
acteristics of a 5-section Stewart Low-pass Silencer 5-section Stewart Low-pass Silencer With and
(No Air Flow). Without Air Flow.
~O
~ VOK.ES
g-
g
z R.A ' E ' T Y P E 3
.
I
0
50 I00 zoo soo [ooo eooo sooo Io,ooo
FREqUENCY (CYCLES/SEC)
FIG. 10. Attenuation Characteristics of Experimental Silencers (see
Figs. 4 and 5). From Ref. 11.
100
¢'.e¢=aeT,oN 0~ NOiSe ~
INTENSITY PEP-, CENT %
O
0 I'O ~'O
I=|PE "EXIT AREA~ SG~ INS
FIG. 11. Effect of Restricting Exhaust Pipe Outlet Area on the Noise Intensity
of the Fundamental Note.
12
o
I--
u
>, <
u._ w ~<
I- (13 -J
HO -~
800
::%
• ~.~ ~"
600
u ",i
u 400
u
Z
~oo
0
60
f 4O 0
BDC
....
STANDARD "rIMING
....
~TANDARD TIMING MASTER CYLINDER
MODIFIED TIMING MASTER CYLINDER
STANDARD TIMING N~ :=' CYLINDER
40
I
BO
I
I?0
CRANK ANGLE - DEGREE.~
IO ~0 ° B T D C MODIFIED TIMING
160 g00
IO 50 ° BTDC
EC ~0 ° A'rDC EC 15° A T D C
EO 55° BBDC EOS5° BBDC
[ C 55 ° A B D C I C 55° A B D C
er
"+20-
Z ~ --fGAS VIBRATIONS AT E X H A U S T - -
,#' P O R T D U E T O R E S O N A N C E WITH.
~,,'; C Y L I N D E R . F R E Q U E N C Y FROM F'IG.12
. , i i,l~i ~
]
|
PiPE HARMONICS DUE TO
/FLLINIDAMENT/kL
I
1
P R E S S U R E PULSE
~0*10- "-~. I ' - - - - ~ -------7 L -- E N G I N E SPEED 84.00 IR.P.M.
J L ,,~ .d I I a" [ P i P E L E N G T H 4- F T
hJ
IZ I; ~j,.~-r I ] t~, I t ~ STANIDt2 T I M I N G .
03
U
~
B_
0 L_ J_
'~,~'1 ~ t[11 \ / ]'"-~/ I ICRANKANGLE-DEGREEs
I:.%;.,.,L
;;t~M,M
I,,,
I ........
~-glI "rotI/ 1 ,rl- It- I I
I I
m -I0.
2:J X U
m
M
X
-20
I:D.C B.DC. T.O.C. B.O.C. "ZD.C.
FIG. 13. Estimated Pressume Fluctuation m the Exhaust Pipe of a Hercules
Engine. (nearthe port).
HOLES DRILLED OPPOSI'i'E EACH
OTHER THROUGH BOTH WALLS
ENTRY{
l--~-T--1
o o o
1 l o
> o o o o
I I I I I I
HIS SPACE MAY BE
FILLEDWITH PACKII'4G I
\
FIG. 14a. Straight-through Silencer. FIG. 14b. Capacity-type Silencer.
13
t60496) W t . 17/680 K.9 2/54 Hw. PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
Re & Mo MOo 2803
Yubtica6ons of the
Aeronsudcs][ Research Council
~ N D ~ X T O A L L IIEPO~T5 A N D I'x~EBIORANDA P U B L i S H e D ~N T H E
A N N U A L T~CHN]tCAL REPOI~TS~ AND 5EPARATEL~_(--
April, 195o - R. & M. No. 2600. 2s. 6d. (as. 7½d.)