CHAPTER 1:

-Living and non-living things are composed of the same chemical elements.
-cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living things.

-LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION:

-Atom, smallest unit of an element. composed of protons electrons and neutrons.
-Molecule, union of to or more atoms of the same or different elements.
-Cell, the structural and functional unit of all living things.
-Tissue, group of cells with a common structure and function.
-Organ, composed of tissue functioning together for a specific task.
-Organ System,composed of several organs working together.
-Organism, complex individual containing organ systems.
-Population, organisms of the same speicies in the same area.
-Community, interacting population in a particular area.
-Ecosystem, community plus the physical environment.
-Biosphere, regions of the earth's crust, water and atmosphere inhabited by living
things.

-Energy is the ability to do work

-Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell.
-Photsynthesis is the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy and
carbohydrates.
-Homeostasis is the maintenance of internal conditions within certain boundaries.

-Genes determine the characteristics of an organism, composed of

DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid)

-Adaptation is any modification that makes an organism better able to function in a

particular environment.

-Evolution is the change in a population of organisms over time to become more

suited to the environment.

-Evolution tree of life traces the ancestory of life on earth to common ancestor.

-Taxonomy is the branch of biology that identifies, names and classifies organisms.

-Systematics is the study of evolutionary relationships between organisms.

-Ecosystems are characterized by chemical cycling and energy flow.

-chemicals are not used up when organisms die.
-as a result of death and decomposition, chemicals are returned to living plants.
-there must be constant input of solar energy, as energy from the sun flows
through plants and other members of the food chain as one population feeds on
aother.
-Ecosystems have been negatively impacted by human populations, such as
destruction of forest or grassland for agriculture, housing and industry.
-Humans depend upon healthy ecosystems for: Food, Medicines and Raw Materials.

-Biodivesity is the total number and relative abundance of species, the variability
of their genes, and the ecosystems in which they live.

-Extinction is the death of the last member of a species or larger classification

category.

-The scientific method is a standard series of steps used in gaining new knowledge
through research.
-Steps are, 1) Observation, 2) Hypothesis, 3) Experiments and Data Collection, 4)
Conclusion/Scientific Theory.

-CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:
-Living things are organized
-Living things aquire materials and energy
-Living things maintain homeostasis
-Living things respond to stimuli
-Living things reproduce and develop
-Living things have adaptations

Chapter 2:

-Matter is anyhting that has mass and occupies space.

-Exists in three states. solid liquid and gas.
-All matter is composed of elements, living and non-living.

-Six elements make up 95% of the body weight of organisms.

-Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur.

-An atom is the smallest part of an element that displays the property of the
element.

:Name Charge Mass

-Proton +ve 1 amu
-Neutrons no charge 1 amu
-Electrons -ve negligible , orbiting clouds around nucleas (electron
shells)

-An ion is an atom that has lost or gained an electron.

-ionic bonds are formed when electrons are transferred between atoms.
-salts are solid substances that usually separate and exist as individual ions in
water.

-covalent bonds are formed by sharing electrons between atoms to form octet of
electrons in the outer shell.
- non-polar covalent bonds are equally shared electrons between atoms(hydrogen gas
and oxygen gas).
- polar covalent bonds are unequal sharing of electrons (i.e:water).

-electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself in

a chemical bond.
-in water the oxygen atom is more EN than the hydrogen atom and the bonds are
polar.

-Properties of Water:
-has a high heat capacity, absorb thermal heat without changing temperature, helps
maintain internal temps.
-has a high heat of vaporization, cools body as it uses heat to vaporise water.
-is a good solvent,
-cohesive, ability of water to cling to itself, flows freely.
-adhesive, ability to cling to polar surfaces, flow in veins.
-ice is less dense than water, acts as insulator.

Chapter 3:

-Organic Molecules contain carbon and hydrogen atoms.

-4 Biomolecules in living organisms.
-Carbohydrates
-Lipids (Fats, Oils, Steroids)
-Proteins
-Nucleic Acids

-Triglycerides:
Long-Term energy storage and insulation, also called fats and oils, one
glycerol to three fatty acids by dehydration synthesis.
-Fatty acids:
-Unsaturated:One or more double bonds, liquid at room temp, i.e: plant oils.
-saturated:no double bonds,solid at room temp, i.e: butter.

-Phospholipids: Membrane Components, similar to triglycerides, one glycerol linked

to two fatty acids. Function: form plasma membranes.

-Steroids: Four fused carbon rings, various functional groups attached to the
carbon skeleton. Function: Component of animal cell, regulation.i.e: testosterone,
estrogen, cholestrol.

-Waxes: Long-chain fatty acids bonded to Long-chain alcohol, solid at room temp,
waterproof, resistant to degradation. Function: Protection. i.e: earwax and
beeswax.

Structure of Nucleotide:
-Composed of three parts: a phosphate group, a pentose sugar, a nitrogen-
containing base.
-Five typed of nucleotides found in nucleic acids:
-DNA contains adenine, guanine, cytosine,
and thymine.
-RNA contains adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and uracil.
-joined together by a series of dehydration synthesis reactions to form a
linear molecule called a strand.

-DNA: Deoxyribose, Double stranded Helix. Has thymine

-RNA: Ribose, Single stranded, No Helix. No thymine

Chapter 4:

-Eukaryotic Cells are compartmentalized, they contain small structures called

organelles.
-Organelles have two classes:
-Endomembrane System
-Energy Related (Mitochondria and Chloroplasts)

-Nucleus:
-Command center of cell, usually near centre.

-Golgi apparatus, modifies proteins and lipids, resembles stack of hollow pancakes.

-Chloroplasts, used for photosyntheis, synthesizes from CO2 and H2O, makes food in
plants.

-Mitochondria, smaller than chloroplasts, involved in cellular respiration,

provides most ATP utilized by cell.
-Cytoskeleton, maintains cell shape, asiists in movement of cells and organelles.

Chapter 5:

-Plasma Membrane, function of membrane proteins:

-Channel proteins, allow molecules to pass through membrane via a channel in the
protein.
-Carrier proteins, combine with substance to be transported, assist package of
molecules through membrane.
-Cell recognition proteins, glycoproteins, help the body recognize foreign
substances.
-Receptor proteins,bind with specific molecules, allow cells to respond to signals
from each other.
-Enzymatic proteins, carry out metabolic reactions directly.
-Junction proteins, attach adjacent cells.

Chapter 6:

-Two laws of thermodynamics:

-Law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only
change from one form to another.
-Law of entropy, when energy is changed from one form to another, there is a loss
of usable energy, easte energy goes to decrease disorder.

Glucose: Carbon Dioxide & Water:

-More Organized -Less Organized
-More potential energy -Less potential energy
-Less stable(entropy) -More stable(entropy)
-Unequal distribution of -Unequal distribution of
Hydrogen ions. Hydrogen ions.

-Factors affecting Enzymatic Speeds:

-Substrate Concentration, enzyme activity increases due to more frequent
collisions.
-Temperature, enzyme activity increases with temperature, however, hot can destroy
enzymes.
-pH, most enzymes are optimized for a certain pH.

-Enzyme Inhibition:
-Reversible enzyme inhibition, a substance known as inhibitor binds to an
enzyme and decreases its activity.
-Competitive inhibition: the substrate and the inhibitor are both able
to bind to active site.
-Noncompetitive inhibition: inhibitor does not bind at the active site,
but at an allosteric site.
-Enzyme inhibitor can be deadly:
-Materials that irreversibly inhibit an enzyme are known as poisons.
-Cyanide inhibits enzymes required for ATP production.
-Sarin inhibits an enzyme located at the neuromuscular junction.
-Warfarin inhibits an enzyme responsible for blood clotting process.

Chapter 9:

-Cell cycle
-Before next division: cells grow larger, number of organelles doubles, DNA is
replicated.
-Two major cycles:
-Interphase(includes several stages):
 =Most of the cell cycle is spent here
=Cell performs its usual fucntions
=Time varies by cell type.
=Nerve and muscle cells do not complete the cell cycle (remain in G0 stage)
=Interphase consists of three phases:
-G1, recovery from previous division, cell doubles in organelles,
cell grows in size, cell accumulates raw materials for DNA
synthesis.
-S,DNA replication, proteins associated with DNA are synthesized,
chromosomes enter with 1 chromatid each, chromosomes leave with
2 identical chromatids (sister chromatids) each
-G2, between DNA replication and onset of mitosis, cell
synthesizes proteins necessary for division.

-Miotic Stage:
=Mitosis, Nuclear Division daughter chromosomes are distributed by the
mitotic spindle to two daughter nuclei.Metaphase and Anaphase stages.
=Cytokenesis, Division of the cytoplasm.

-Aptopsios: Programmed cell death

-Cancer Cells:
-Lack differentiation. are non-specialized, immortal.
-Have abnormal nuclei, may be enlarged,may be abnormal number of chromosomes,
often have extra copy of genes.
-Do not undergo apoptosis, normally cells with damaged DNA undergo apoptosis,
immune system can recognize abnormal cells and trigger apoptosis. Cancer cells are
abnormal but fail to undergo apoptosis.
-Form tumors, lost contact inhibition.
-Undergo metastasis, original tumor easily fragments, new tummors appear in other
organs.
Undergo angiogenisis, formation of new blood vessels, bring blood and oxygen to
the tumor.

Binary Fission: Splitting intop two, replicated chromosomes to two daughter cells,
producing two daughter cells identical to original cell- asexual reproduction.