r,r
rF*
f
-ia;it"i'r'trtil
F td
BOOK
DISK
Un rl{
Grbl rn
Eunson
a2a .34
i,ANE
!-irlrla !-arrtE
5*riv* I*i:*r: il" gti*gfl*t; iJri,r'*xrr
VOWEL CONSONANT
SYMBOLS EXAMPLE SYMBOLS EXAMPLE
Id rent, borrow
t
About the Series
English lan[iuagc teachers alwa)'s appreciare and enjov professional reference books with
prnctical classroonl approaches that are firmlv grouncled in current peclagogical r.escarcl.r.
Tips for:Ie.ching is a responsc to this demancl in the form of a series of books on
a varicty
of topics of pmctical classroom-centcred interest.
Designed for teachers of ESL in nativc Engrish speakinlr countries as welr as teacrrers
of EFL in non-native English-speaking countries, z?sfar r Teacbrng acrdresses aucliences in
secondarl' schools, colreges, and aclult education courses with students at var).ing levels
of prolicicncy. Each book in the series is a pftrctical m:rnual that provicles teachers with
clearly conceived firethodological ideas, approaches, tasks, activitics, anal,/or techniques
to
better accomplish their pedagogical goals. tlsers may be novice teachers seeking pr;ctical
guidelines for instfuction in a specilled area, or cxperiencetl teachers in need
of
relicshing new ideas.
Each book in the series is committed to offering soundli. conceived, realisric
approaches to classroon instruction. There is some treatment of r-lndedl,inla pedagogical
principles of language learning and teaching in clearr), comprehensible terms.These treat-
ments arc brief and concise but not rrivial.The metho dology of rips
I()r Teachitlg is based,
on communicative ancl/or. task-based language teaching foundations. Sftrclent centered,
interactive classroom activities fecciye primary fbcus, but not at the expense of appro_
priate tercher-cente|ed approaches or tasks fbr indi\-idual in class or homework :rctivit\r
We're very pleased to present the most reccnt vohrfire in this series, this time on pro_
nunciatiur.In Tips for Teaching pronu.ncicttion. .nuthor Lincla Lanc l.ras provicled rcaders
$'ith the best of cuttin€i edgc r.escarch on tlte acquisition of phonology, along with prac_
tical teclx qucs for inproving rearners' pronunciation. c)nc of the first things y'ti will
notice is that the sequencing of chapters does n ot begin witl] the more traditionxl con-
sonants lnd vowels. Recent research ancl practice have shown that adult learners of
English find significanrl-y greater bcnelit in a primary fbcus on the prosodic elements of
phonology. As thc author notes in hcr text, most misunderstendings of learners. speech
production stem from $ord stress, rlr{hln, and intonation.
Anothcr imporrant feature of rips for Tbaclsing pronunciation is its focus on intel-
ligibilit\', comprelicnsibiliq', acccnt, and voice quality. Recognizing that achieving a ffue
"nativelike" accent is an unrealistic goal for adult students, Lanc offers a common-scnse
Vi AboLt! the Se es
approach that encoumges teachers to work $'ith their students on the many aspects of
pronunciation that inpede a listener's clear understanding of the learner's speech
A third refreshing perspective provicled by thc author is her recognition of a myriad
of variables that can affect a learner's oral production, not al$'ays in sJ'stematic or pre-
clictxble ways. It is now well known that age, personaliq', motivation, learning style,
amount of exposure, native language background, and other factors can all affect a
learner's success in clifferent r.a_vs. ancl therefore eech inclividual may present a uniquc
set of circumstances for the teacher to address. The author provides readers with an
abunrlance of practical options to approach sr-rch variabiliry
Finalll', teachers will be pleased to see in Tips for Teqcbing Pronunciation an
emphasis on helping learners to become responsible for theif own linguistic der-elop-
ment, so that they can eYentually wean themselves from the teacher and classroom'
Exercises on selimonitorin€i range from the segmental leatures of speech to global char-
acteristics of speech in a context of natural discourse And, recognizing that teachers
cannot always be available for correction of student errors, Lane provides the feader with
options for self- and peef-corre(:lion.
Teachers who use this volume not only gain acccss to a multitude of pfactic:rl tech-
niques for teaching pronunciation, but also acquire awarencss of the rationale behind
such techniques. This unclerlying knowledge enables teachers to adapt techniques to
their own cofltexts. Teachers will also find Tips.for TeaclJing Pronunciation to be an
invaluable hamlbook of information that is easily accessed through chaptef headings, an
index, and a u\ehrl bibliogr:rPh1.
goals'
Best wishes as )'ou usc the tips in this book to help -vour learners achieve their
Dr H. Douglas l3rown
Professor Elneritus, San Francisco State Uniuersity
Series Edilor
I NTRO D U CTIO N
TEACHING
NUNCIATION
quality settll1gs are pronllnciatioll features that are present most of the
Voice
time in the speech of native spelll<ers some languages, for example, are tlpically
spoken at lower levels of pitch (e.g., Dutch) and others at higher lcYels of pitch (e g ,
Japanese) relative to a particular Lurguagc
(e g.' English) In one language, words may
be spoken with greater ovenll musclllar tension and witll less in another language;the
lips may be more olten spread (or roundcd), or speech may havc a generzlly "creat<yl'
"breathll'or modal (neutral) sound (see, for example' I'aver 1980, Esling and wong
1983, EsLing 1994, Keating and Esposito 2007). Esling a]1d Won€l suggest thxt ESL
studcnts become familiar with a broad model of voice quality settin€ls for Nofih
American Englisl.r (NAE), but note that not all dialects shxre these characteristics: spfead
(the
hps, open jaw, palatalized (fronted) tongue body position, retrof'lex articulation
tong.,. tlp ftrrns up and back), nasal voice , lowerecl larynx (lower o\'-erall pitclt, and
cfeakyVoice(1983,91)'The)'offbfsevel?lwaysinwhichStudentscanbecomeaware
of voice qriality settinlis;for exrmple, students speaking differert native languages can
say a shon phnsc in their native language and <lifferences can be conpared
(19a3,94)'
Although there is Iittle doubt that Yoice quali$ plays a role in accent, more
Stud-Yisneeded.Notonlyarethefedi-fferencesintheVojceqllalitySettingsof
speakers of the same language, there is also not alwa-vs agreement about which
pafriculaf settings are pfesent or absent (Keating and Esposito 2007). Mofe fesearch
using larger numbers of speakers is neecled befbre teachers can confidently apply
these findings in the classroom
unconsciously prevent the adults from fully adopting the norms of a new language
:rnd culture (catbontin, Trofimovich, and Majid 2oo5,Jenkins 2005, Leyis 2005). One
of my students was very conscious of the conflict between English anct his native
language (culture) and stated that he did not want to sound like a.fake American.,,
Another explanation of the age effect may be that adults'greater cognitive abilities
(cspecially anah.tic abilities) are less effective in learning a new pronunciation tltan
the mofe natural abilities found in young cl.rildren.
i Sone dialecLs of Korean conlr?Lst long end shofl vo,x€Ls, but l€ leatu€$ in lhei,ee et al. stud\ werr: not sp€rkeN 0f dtos€ dixlecll
(2006. 49r.
$ wra.toucnaN TeachingPrcnunciation
Glege 1987). The persistent mispronunciation of the vo$'els in sreet and beacb may
be the resnlt of classifying English /iyl (the \.owel it sheet alf.d beach) tl:le same as
the natiyelanguaEie pure vo$,'el /i/ (seeVowels, page 169). Classroom work can help
to make students aware of differences they might otherwise not notice.
Universals are features of language that afe in some sense easier, more natural,
more common in languages, or typical of children leaming their first language (L1).
The terms /ess marked and more marked are also u sed to descfibe the relatir.e ease
or clifticulty of rclated features of pronunciation. For example, open syllables-
syllebles that end in vowels (e.9., so, me, sta!)-^re easier (i.e., morc universal, less
marked) than closed syllables that end in a single consonant (e.9., dog, top, miss).
Closed syllables that end in one consonant (.e.g., dog, top, miss) are easier (less
marked) than closed syllables that end in a consonant cluster (e.9., beh, ask,
stoppe.l). Open syllables are found in every language, whereas closed syllables are
not; and both 1,7 and L2 learners have more difficulty pronouncing the final
consonants of closed syllables (Broselow and Finer 1991, Eckman 1991). For a
comprehensive review of natiyeLanguagc transfer and the fole of uniyersals, see
Eckman (200,i).
The native-language background(s) of students should influence the choice
of pronunciation topics addressed in the classroom. Difficulty with specific
consonants, for example, depends heavily on native language. Arabic students
confuse /p/ and /b/, sour]ds that do not contrast in Arabic. Spanish students haYc
problems with ,/b/ and /v/, which do not contrast in Spanish, while cantonese,
German, Russian, and Turkish students have problems with /v/ and /w/ .
Difficulties with English vowels, on the other hand, are widespread, and
difficr- ties v/ith stress, intonation, and drythm are even more widespread.
Appendix B summarizes typical pronrinciation problems of students from a
variety of native-language backgrounds.
Personality
Research has not shown a clcar link between personality characteristics and
sLlccess in L2 learning. Neyertheless, it is reasonable to suppose that outgoing,
sociable learners should have an adyantage over introverted, shy leafnefs in
acquiring oral-aural skills, including pronunciation. Outgoing students are more
likely to participate in conversations with native speakers and will therefore have
more opportunities to practice and to hear English.
A relaxed classroom atmosphere should also foster pronunciation learning. In
an oft-cited experiment on lowering inhibitiot]s, Guiora et al. found that learners'
pronunciation improved after drinking moderate amounts of alcohol (1972).
Fossilization
Vrith adult L2 leamers, pronunciation :rnd grammar learning seems to plateau,
perhaps pemanentl)', after a number of years. Selinker first described the cessation of
leaming as fossiLization (1972): it is also referred to as stabilization (Gass and Selinker
/NrfOUU( r/ON Teaching pnuutjci,lti()n 7
SYLLABUS
Pronunciation shour(l be taught to a revcls of strrtlenrs as tonla as intelligibiritll
distracting pronunciations, and lack of confidencc in speaking are issues.
Pronunciation improvements, like improvemcnts in grammatical accuracl,, occur
slowly (Trofimovich et al. 2007). According to wong, dramatic changes in stude'rts,
speech in 3 to 6 montlts arc rare', (l!g7, g). Because inprovcments are graclual ancl
often piecemeal, students benefit from reviewil.tg or recycling olcl topics.
Given that there are over fofty consonants and I,owels (segmcntals) and at
least as nany features of word stfess, rhtthn, and intonation (suprasegmcnhls),
curriculum planners, textbook writers, and cl;rssroorn teachers have a lurge number
of potential pronunciation topics trom which to choosc. The audiolingual approach
focused more heavily on the teaching of segmentals, r-Nin!! acti\.ities like nir.f'ral
$ t^-rroo,:rcaov TcachinEPranunciation
(see, for example, Dauer 2005, Levis 2005). Given that more research is needed and
that teachers cannot know for ceftain wl]ether their students' future inteflocutefs
will be native or nonnative Englisl] speakers, a syllabus that includes important
pfoblem sounds as well as suprasegmentals will serve students' needs better than
one that focuses on only one area of pronunciation. A balalced syllabus is also likely
to be nore appealing to teachers and more interesting for students.
Conffasls involving the first souflds in per, bet, fbte, uet, afid uet See page 124
Ftral consonants and consolant clusterc: bed, belt See pages 151- 162
should not be the end of the lesson. C)ur students are nor studying English to
become proficient readers of word lists.
Communicative actiyities push students to apply their new learning in more
normal speaking tasks and to deyelop self-monitoring skills. Thc_y establish a
context in which a particular feature of pronunciatioll is called fbr ancl allow
students to create their own language in that context. Al example of a
con nlrnicative ncti\Iit] involving contrastive stress is a compafison of two cell
phone plans presented in chart form (Plan A is CHEAPCT, but Plan ts has more
ANYTIME minutes).
Homework activities can take almost any form. In a pronunciation/speaking
course, homcwork can include short recordings of eithcr spontaneous speech or a
controlled warm-up exercise followecl by a freer speakin€i task. If str-ldents have
acccss to a compute! an inexpensive microphone, and the Internet, their recordings
can bc e mailed to the teacher xs atteched sould files.t The teachef can give live of
recofded feedback. Student recordings can also be used in class in peer feedback
activities (see Self-monitoring and Feedback, below). Instructions for recording and
sending a sound file are provide.l in Appendix E.
Homework in ESL settillgs can also include real-world speaking and listening
tasks, such as calling an 800 number to inquire about a product or seryice (1br
examplc, ayailability on a llight to San Francisco) or lioing into a store to get
information about a particular product. In these assilinments. the teacher can
instruct studcnts to pay attention to their use of a particular t'eatufe of
pronunciation (for example, question intonation) or simpl_v to speak as cleady as
possible. In tlre lbllowing class, students report on thc experience they had.
Listeninla tasks can also be used as homewofk. Students can listcn to a recorcling and
note how many times a reducecl w<)rtl llke can is used and how it is prurounced.
t lne4ensir,e r ormal
crophones fie prlerxble sinc€ thel lick ul less ambiert noisc. Built in micro loncs nrin olprolideclear
enough sound.
and onh later i stxtile (rr) and lLctility (rurlr) lerbs (Budoli Hdig ard Re|noLtls l99i).
TeachingPronunciation l]
--/Mo\
Gaad ing n I
--lyou*\
See ter I
Speak u p
Final sounds
Spea k expressive y
possible to coftect efrofs when the teacher knows what the student is trying to say.
'iyhen a whole discourse is unintelligible, the teacher must work with the student,
often using spelling and repetitions, first to determine what the student is trying to
say and then to identily the errors.
Teachers cannot possibly correct evefy pfonunciation effof, or even most of
them. Error correction during most class activities should be selective and directed
at unintelligible or odd sounding pronunciatiolls. During pronunciation activities,
feedback should also be provided on the topic at hand. The teacher should choose
a cue to signal pfonunciation errofs and explain it to students. The cue should be
as general as possible (for example, sa_ying "Pronunciation" or "Be clearer" a-fter an
error). The general cue allows a student to appb-his pronunciation learning and
helps develop self correction and monitoring skills. Sometimes students are
unaware of what the pronunciation erfor is and may need to hear both the incorrect
and coffect pronunciations to notice the error.
Peer feedback on student recordings is also effective and gives the
nonspeaking peef additional monitoring practice. Celce-Murcia rccommends that
peers listen for a particular feature of pronunciatlon (1996,352).
The next five chapters deal with pronunciation topics from word stfess,
rhythm, intonation, consonants, and vowels. Each chapter presents useful
background information and research, general teaching tips, and suggested
classroom acdyities for specific features of pfonunciation.
CHAPTER
WORD STRTSS
'17
1B olAPftR I w.nd stess
STRESS PI-A.CEMENT
Learning to lengthcn stressed vorl-els and shorten/reduce unstressed vowels
is challenging for most students. EquallY challenging is knowing which s-Yllable to
stress in a word.'fi'lte n lcarners are f:rced witll a ncw word they have never heard
befbre, they basc strcss placcment on many of tlle same strategies that native
' speakefs do: analogv to phonologically sitrrilar words. strcss patterns associated
witl1 classes of words or cndings, or s,vllable structurc (DaYis and Kelly l997,Guion
et aI.200J. (;uion ef aI.2004).
Misplacccl stress-stfessing the wrotlg sYllable-can make a wrlrd
nnrecognizable and co[rplctel,v clisftrpt the speakcr's message (Benrabal] 1997,
Fieltl 2005). Not all errors inYoh'ing misplaced stress arc equally serious. Field
(2005) reports that rightward misplacements of strcss in two-s-Yllablc worcls (c !a.,
stre ssinli the se cond syllable of a,ozrdr: I\'oMAN) impaire d intelliSibility morc than
leftward misplacemcnts (c.g., stressing the first svllable of enlof'ENjo)-). My
stndcnt's n.rispronunciation of consumln(Ite, descriLted at the beginninti of this
chapter, is an e'x:rmple o1 riglrtward strcss misplacement
The rules for English stress placement are con.tplex becar.rse English has
borrowed many words from other languages, cspecially Frcnch, Latin' Spanish, and
Grcek, with clifferent rules for assigning strcss (Jufis l99O) There arc, hower.cq
some general, teachablc principles which help students at all lcvels to predict the
stressed syllable. Teachcrs can also help students avoid misplaccd stless by working
with stress in reading and vocabnlar-v lessons.
t lf x \rold
Nol all l"uguages use str.ss to s\sl€ntdicitllt dilleruntiaft dre slllebles
/l/ is rhc lo{'el ir /l Scc dso \b\\els. CenLml\brtls. /a/ lLIrd/l/. |r)llL \b{'cls.
t.HAPTER I Wor.l Slress 19
Capitals and bold letters are yisuall_y strong and can be easily added by a
computef. It is difficult, however, to show mofe than two levels of stfess without
either changing tlpe size or combining bold ancl caps (tbr example, bold c:rps
coulcl be used lbr pfimary stress, plain caps for second:rry stfess and lower case fbr
unstressed). Cifcles afe also yisuallv strong but not as eas), to acld by computef.
Underlining is visually strong and exsy ro do bl. compute! but in some
pronunciation s'ork the teachef ma,\- want to use undedincs to show linking of
words of to indicate syllables. dcute and g.ave marks and verticals can be visually
strong when handwritten but are less notice:rblc when adclecl by conputer. The
teacher should not feel bound ro oltc tr?e of notation.When the meaning of the
notation is made clear, students are not tl.ouble d by mixecl notations. In my own
teaching, I choose the notatior which will nake the stressed s_vllablc mosr salient
to m)' students. In typed mater.ials, for example, I use capital lettcrs for tlte stressed
syllable because they are visually more salient than a typed acute mark; on the
board,I usually place a large acute mark over the stressed syllable, since switchinli
between capit:rls and lower case within a word slows clown my writing.
Curved undedincs are uselul f<rr showing the syllables in a word. They are
preferzble to slashes or hyphens within words (e.g., vilsit, vi sit) because they don,t
commit the teaclter to exact locations of syllable bounclaries, which are sometimes
difficult to determine.
visit listened
UU
In addition, dictionaries do not alwa,ys agfee on syllable b ()tlndafics. American
Heritage Dictionar!, for example, scgments .sofl,-)., as,.sof-eJ,' wltilc lte&stert has
"sor-re." It is more important tltat students know how many syllables a word has
rhln t xactly $ herc , )nc s1 llablc ends lntl r he ncrr hegins.
20 ]HAPTER 1 ward stress
ffi rrps
r, 1. Emphasize the leflgth of stressed vowels.
2. Presenl sets of words with the same stress patterns.
3. Pfonounce new vocabulary so studerts call hear which syllables are stressed.
4. Use pronunciation spellings to develop stlrdents' awareness of how unstresscd
vowels are pronounced.
5. Point out that unstressed ]rowels have a short, indistinct sound regardless of
spellirg.
5. Teach classes of words ahat have predictable stress patterns.
@FWoRDsTREss
1. Primaf),/Hea\T stress
2. Unstresscd svllables and yowel rcduction
3. Secondary stress
4. Stfess with two-syllable nouns antl verbs
5. Stress witlt compounds
6. Stress with verbs ancl nouns with prepositional prefixes
7. Stress with abbreviations
8. Stress with sulfi-\es
9, More on unstressed s)-llablcs
10. Stress switching
\ffe discuss I'hat the teachef should know about each of these topics and
provide sulillestions fbr teaching them.
Descr:ption This activity practices the stress patterns in the names of months
and seasons and in travel-related terms.
@ 6. Travel Trivia quiz. Pass the trivia quiz out to the class. Explain the meaning of
"trivia" if necessary, unimportant facts or pieces of information that most
people don't know. Most people guess the answers to trivia questions. Ask
students to read the trivia quiz. Answer questions about vocabulary. play
the aud io.
7. Studenis work in pairs to complete the activity as if traveling from the Unjted
States. Tell students to guess when they don't know the answer. When the pa rs
have finished, ask them about their answers. Remind them to make the
stressed voweis long.
Descliption This activity focuses students' attention on the stress patterns of new
vocabulary. The vocabulary sample is from "Imeline of Lindbergh's
Life" in Northstar Reading and Witing: lntroducto,:y (Beaumont 2009,
135), a reading text for beginning students. The procedure described
below can be used at any level to integrate stress with any reading.
a. Select several polysyllabic words from the reading (or vocabulary exercise) to
target for stress/syllable work.
welcome president receive kidnap invent
artiticial protect media factory cancer
animal environmentalist
(..tttinued on n$;t paRe)
24 ]HAPTER 1 worcl strcss
A ctiui ty l. 2 cotttinue.l
b. Count the syl ables in the selected words and mark the stressed syllable; ignore
secondary stress, Determine the syllable-stress patterns (the number of syllables
and the location of the stressed syllable) in the selected words. lt does not matter
if some stress-syllable patterns are represented by only one word. In the words
below, syllables are underlined and stress is marked with an acute accent (').
Stress patterns:
r.l_ 3. _l
2. t__
4. *l- 5.
---l--
welcome president ' receive artilicial environmentalist
2. tn class, make sure students understand the new words before they read Write
the preselected words on the board. Write the sy lable patterns as column
headings on the board and number them. Ask students to copy the words and
syllable patterns onto a piece of paper. Explain the notatlon: / represents a
stressed syllable; represents a syllab e without heavy stress.
-
3. IVlodel the words, lengthening stressed syllables. (To reinforce vowel length, use
the rubber band technique described in the Activity 1.1.) Students repeat
4. Draw students'attention to the first word on the list and model it again. Ask
students to count syllables in the word. Underline the syllables on the board. Ask
students which syllable is stressed and mark it on the board (e.g., w6lcome)
5. Ask students which pattern the first word should be written under and write lt
under that pattern. Repeat with another word.
6. Students continue the activity in pairs, underlining syllables, marking the
stressed syllable, and writing each word under one of the patterns. Circulate,
modeling words and helping students count syllables, as necessary.
7, When the class has finished, elicit from students the words that belong in each
column and add them to the board.
8. When all the words are in their appropriate columns, students practice saying
them, column by column. Students should notlce that words in the same
column have the same stress pattern.
CHAPTER 1 Word Stress 25
9. To practice these words in context, the teacher can ask students to make
sentences about the reading from which the words were taken.
I The vowevt (lhe !'owel in /1/) may also be used in unstressed syliables,
€s!€cially those spelled with the let tese (u in clectle) or i (u
in di,uide) rheprctise qrality of rcduc€d vowels is inlluencerl by tlie sunouniiing soundr (Biownan
and Gol*t"in iD2l ftr .naing"?
and -0,, in words likep,'el4'atird lrintlau) e ;iitsir.es$ed but not reduceri to
/a/. ihe vorvel in the -r'zgending is uruAiy p.noun..O ir.'
26 ]HAPTER 1 worcl stress
explaining and modeling reduced vowels in several words, I wrote the word
it
totnoffot! on the board and told my stuclents I would pronounce it itl two different
ways. Tlrey were to tcll me which wa-v was coffect. I pronounced totrTonou flrst ls
"toolnorrow" and then with thc vowel correctly reduced When I asked the class
which pronunciation was correct. no one said ar])'thing. I repeated the dcmonstmtion
ancl agnin got no response.I triecl once lnorc, extremely nervous by this time, ,!rld was
relicved to see one student timidl-l/ raise her hancl. She said, "'ifas the /f/ different?" I
learned two thinlas that day: first, that nl-v studcnts were very conccrned with the
pronunciation of /r/; ;!nd second, that students do not rlotice reduced vowels, even
when they are constantly modeled in the native English spoken around them. This
lack of awareness should not, pedraps, havc been surprising to me (although it was),
gi\.en the fact that reduced vowels are short, indistinct, and not reflected in spefling.
A fust step to learning to pronouncc reduced vowels, then, may be to devebp an
aw;Lreness for how they sound. Awareness is addfessed in the san.Iple actiYity below'
Activity 1.3 lJnstressed vowels and vowel reduction: Ioday, tonight, and tomorlow
1. Present vowel reduction. On the board, wrlte words in which unstressed vowels
are spelled with each of the vowel letters (a, e, i, a, u, y), underlining the
unstressed vowels. Below the normal spelling of the words' write the
pronunciatlon spelling (respellings of words that reflect pronunciation better
than the normal spellings do). lvlark the stress on each word.
2. Direct students' attention to the under ined vowels. N4odel each word,
pronouncing the underllned vowel letters as /a/ Be sure to reduce the unstressed
vowels to /a/; when you read words from a list, you rnay give more prominence to
unstressed vowels than you would in norrnal speaking lmagine how each word
CHAPTTR 1 Word Strcss 27
sounds toward the end of a sentence, spoken naturally (e.g., Ior physician,
"There's a job available as a physician,s assjstant.,') Use this pronunciation when
you model the words. Djrect students, attention to the pronunciation spellings
below the words and model them again. Have students repeat.
3. Ask the following questions:
. What letters in the normal spellings are underlined?
. Are these vowels stressed or unstressed?
. Do the underlined letters have different pronunciations?
Explain that unstressed vowels are pronounced /ai, regardless of spelling. point
out that the underlined letters represent all the vowel letters used in English,
but they are all pronounced the same, as /a/.
4. Add pronunciation spellings of several familiar words to the board. with a blank
below eac6 word. lvlodel the words.
5. Ask volunteers to come to the board and write the normal spelling of the words
in the blanks. Students practice saying the words, using the pron u nciation
spellings as gu ides.
6. lnformation gap. On the board write today, followed by its pronunclation spelling:
today taday
7. Say the word twjce, once correctly, using a reduced vowel (taday), and again
incorrectly, using a full vowel (tooday) in the first syllable. Ask students
whether your first or sejcond pronunciation was correct.
8. Add tonight and tomorrow Io the board, with their respellings: tanEht,
tamorrow. lvlodel the words, reducing the first vowels. Ask each student to say
today, tomorrow, tonight, reducing the first vowel.
9. Put students in pairs, giving each member of the pair a different TV schedule.
Tell students not to show each other their schedules.
10. Students complete the information missing in their schedules by asking
questions like What's on today at 1:00? Remind students to reduce the first
syllable of today, tonight, and tomorrow.
28 cHAPrtR 1 watd stress
Numbers: "teefls"' N'.rtive speakers use t\\() pattefns of stress with numbers
endin!! in -teen. Beforc a pause' ancl without special empllasis on dle number
(e .g., He\ sixtden), primarv stress usually falls ot7-teen ancl secondary
stress on the
(e g t'l/tien cdndles)'
number (s/D. Sefore a worcl whose flrst syllable is stressed '
primary
the reverse pattern is used;-/ee, receives secondarl' stress' and tlle number'
stfess. The number, rather f:nan -teen' also fecei]'es pfimary stress in counting:
thirtCen, J6urfuen, flftden, and so on
(e g
Numbers: "tens". With -ttl nun]bers, primary stress is always on the number '
s/xfy) and the -/if ending is unstressecl Another difference bet$'een -tee -ty
(1 ^nd see
,-r.,-b..l' is thc pronunciation of the lctter t In -ry numbers' t is a flap fast d''
Consonants, page 129): sixD! In -teet? numbers, I is a /t/: sixteen
Studentsaresometimesmisrrnderstoodwhentheyuse-teenaf'd.t!numbers;
intcndecl -teen numbefs are heard as Jt flumbers, and vice versa
lf students stfess
-leer numbers on the second slllable' there *'ill bc less confusion as to whether
they have said, sixtden or slxty
preposition
Verbs with Prepositionaf Prefixes. Seconclar-v stress occurs on the
in most verbs witll prepositional prefixes:
dvell6ok ilnderst6nd
Polysyllabic Words with prirna"ry Stress tovrard. the End of the Word.
Polysyllabic words with primary stress toward the end of the word often have
secondary stress two syllables in front of the primary stress. This use of secondary
stress creates a more even alternadon of stresses:
cbntribition
e4ft
As a pronunciation topic, secondary stfess is less important than pfimary
stress. Fof beginning students, the teaching of secondary stfess can be limired to
certain types of words, like compounds anr| -teen worcls.
If a beginning student's lack of secondary stress makes a word difficult to
understand (this sometimes happens withpdlitlcian, wlnere secondary stress is on
the first syllable), the teacher can address the error by instructing the student to
lengthen the first syllable of the word.
$i/ith intemediate and advanced str.ldents, secondary stress can be addressed
when working with the stress patt€fns of compounds, verbs with prepositional
prefixes, or suffixed words (see below).
, Activity 1.4 Secondary stress in nunberc; How nany people tive at /t4 Main S|rleet?
Description This information gap provides practice with -teen and -fy numbers.
Students have a map with boxes representing apartment buildings at
different locations. Each student has the number of occupants in
half of ihe bu itdings.
1 On the board, write all the -teen numbers in one column and the -fy numbers
in a second colu m n:
13 30
14 40
15 50
16 60
17 70
l8 80
19 90
2, lVodel the tee, words first, stressing -teen. Students repeat. Ask students
which syllable is stressed. Repeat with the -fy words.
(continuetl o next page)
30 IHAPTLR I word stress
3. Ask students to listen again, this time paying attention to how the fs in sixteen
and sixty sound (the f in sxteen will be a true l; the i in s/xiy will be a flapped l)'
You can explain the flapped fas a "fast d' (see Flapped lIl and ldl,
page 129)
Say one of the numbers on the board. Ask students to write the number
you
5,
said and check their answers with partners Then select students to choose a
number and say it to the class. The class writes the number they heard and
then checks with the speaker'
6. lnformation gap. lVlodel the information gap Draw a box on the board to
represent a OuitOlng on a local street Write the address below the box Below
the address write the question "How many people live at 232 lvlain Street?"
tl
232 lvlain Street
How many people liue aI 232 Main Street?
-ty or -teen
Ask the question and choose a student to guess the answer, using a
number. ilave the student write the number in the box, Repeat with a different
student and a different address
Put students in pairs and hand out a different rnap to each member of the
pair'
7.
Read the instructions on the maps to the class During the pair work, monitor
pronunciarton of the nu'nbers.
8. After the pair work, ask students how many people live in the buildings at
the various addresses. Provide feedback on the pronunciation of
-feen and
ty n umbers.
1lho Geflnmic \Lot& (e h ngJ', l/,itstl) ae strcssed on the ii$t s'\'ilable of fie loot;hvo
sylLable edjectnes $'hich are E l'eltau
(, lrhle ,rlrectrves lronowed fic,n other Lanlua::,es (e.g.', patite. tfnirl,' ttwf1 raay be slrcssed on either the lirst oL second s,vlLabLe
or sccond syLlable 6Ttrar[t, 6Jiict't pisible
.lr't)
i'i.i.. ,i""i".iri. i,,gol. inr"' uorr]..,.,,iualli sireiserLon the fint
'iLr"lr, t?'/'i'b]r 1tle slrcssed ol thc second svll$Le
AJtrl.," uttrtr,rr,.Ltr the lirsi s,rllabLe. lbl/0. ag irnettl ttptirhwnl tuid
CHA?TER I Word Stress 31
the percentages suggest, stfess placement is far more reglrlaf for two_syllable nouns
than for two-syllable yerbs.
Dauer presents ari altemative de for two-syllable verbs and adjectives: Stress
is placed on the root syllabte (1993,6D. This is a useftrl rule proyided thar students
can recognize the foot. syllable structure also influences stfess on two-syllable verbs
and may help students identis' the root. The last syllable of the verb is stressed if it
contains a long vowel (e.g.,repe.1t, decide, contain) or ends in a consonant clustef
(two or more consonants; e.g., elect, disturb). These rypes of syllables are hear,y
syllables, which attfact stress.While students cannot be expected to anatyze syllable
structure, hear.y syllables are olten graphically longer (i.e., have more letters) than
light syllables.
Noun-Vefb Pairs: a REcord-to feCORD. Noun-yerb pairs are two-syllable words
whose grammatical function determines stress.r#/hen sfessed on the f[.st syllable,
the word functions as a noun (e.g., a pdrmit)iwhen sttessed on the second syllable,
the word functions as a verb (e.g., to permit). These word pairs reflect the general
tendency for two-syllable nouns to be stressed on the first syllable and two-sdlable
verbs on the second.
Depending on both the speaker and the word, the stress slijt is not always
mandatory Some speakers, for example, pronounce lly'crease with the noun pattenl
whethef it is used as a noun or verb.
Group Ar Different stress patterns for nouns and verbs are mandatory for
most speakers.
record, conduct, addict, progress, perrnit, conflict, desert, object, convict, present,
produce, rebel, project, suspect
Group B: The noun pattern can be used for nouns or verbs.
increase, contract (business/legal agreement), protest, research, subiect, detail,
defect, insult
Group C; Nouns and verbs are stressed only on the first syllable.
ACcent, COMfort, PURchase, PROm se, REscue
Group D: Nouns and verbs are stressed only on the second syllable (many words
with the prefixes de-, dis-, and re- fall into this group).
conTROL, surPRlSE, deSlRE, deMAND, aRREST, reVlEW
When used as nouns,the words in Groups A and B often have secondary stress
on the second syllable;the verb forms have reduced vowels in the fust syllable: tbe
Pr6jact, to projdct /pfejtkt/ .
Because of the anount of new yocabulary this topic is better suited to
intemediate and advanced students.
32 aH \PrE^ / l4ordsre(r
1. On the board, write three column headings: Things in the room, Things in
your
pocket, and Things in your backpack or purse Explain "pocket" and "purse"
if necessary.
2. Ask students to work together and wrlte down as many things as they can for
each column. Help students by p0inting at obiects and by taking things out
of your pocket or backpack/purse. Examples of things !n the room include a
table, a chair, a blackboard, chalk, eraser, a door, a computer, a window, and
books. Examples of things in your pockets lnclude a wallet, keys, a cell
phone, tissues, and change. Examples of things n backpacks or purses
include books, papers, pencils, pens' iPods, laptops, water, sandwiches,
and notebooks.
3. When the lists are finished, ask students to volunteer words Write the words
on the board, circling two-syllable nouns Ask students to count the syllables in
the circledwords. Ask students if the circled words are nouns (names of
things) or verbs (names of actions). lvlodel the words, exaggerating the length
of the stressed vowel (ignore secondary stress in words ltke backpack or
blackboard). Students repeat. lvlodel the words again Ask students what
syllable is stressed and mark stress. Ask students if most two-syllable nouns
are stressed on the first syllable or the second syllable'
4. Add some unfamiliar, two syllable nouns to the board which can be easily
polnted out. Point to the objects without saying them Examples might include
(depending on the room or the contents of your pockets or bag):
Tell students the words are nouns Ask students what syllables they think are
stressed and add stress marks N4odel the words Students repeat'
5. lvlodel the pair work, Choose five ltems from the coLumn Things in your
backpack, including some two-syLlable words Choose a student and ask her'
"Sue, do you have a in Your backPack?"
6. Put students in pairs. Explain that each student will guess five things that his
partner has in his backpack, using the quest on "Do you have a in
-
-
]HAPTER 1 Word Sttess 33
your backpack?" The students can choose words from the board or words for
other things they know.
7. After the pair work, ask several students to report on the contents of thejr
partners' backpacks. Provide feedback on word stress.
"tL road
L dog
This is a topic appropriate for beginning through adyanced students and is covered
in most pronunciation textbooks.
Mispronunciations of compounds usually occur because students have used a
higher pitch on the second word or on both words. Most intemediate and
advanced students use the correct stress-pitch pattern on compounds Bke airport
ot subu)ay, written as one word (although Spanish students often misstress
boyfriend and girlfriend). They have more difficulty with compounds written as
two words, which are harder to fecognize (e.g., graduate students, post ofrice,
oflice bailding).Nouns and adiectives fomed from phrasal verbs (e.g.,tbe tAke\fr
my mdkeiq), have the same stress-pitch pattefn as compounds. phrasal \'erbs are
discussed in Rhlthm, page 69.
2. Select 0ne of the compounds and wrlte it on the board. Write the f rst word
higher than the second, to illustrate the pitch pattern. IVodel the compound
and the isolated stress pltch pattern (DA
da). Ask the class whether the flrst or
second word is pronounced on a higher pitch.
phones
4. In pairs, students decide which came first, guessing as needed. For example,
cell phones were in use before iPods.
5. After the pair work, ask students to report wh ch came first
Provide feedback
on the stress pitch pattern of the compounds-make sLlre students pronounce
the first word on a higher pitch.
Ilecausc of the new r.ocabulary involvecl with these I'erbs. this topic is bctter suitcd
to intermediate and advancetl students.
Nouns and acljcctives can be formed frottt some verbs with prepositionxl
prefixes. These constructions are stressed on the preposition, following the general
pattern for two-syllable nouns: 4 Positirc 6utldok' an psrLting in prices' 4n
6utbriqk of Jtu.The adjective outstanding can bc stressed either on the prefk or
on the root: vrhen the mcaning is 'exceptionally good," outstandirlS usually has
primary strcss on sland;when the meaning is "unpaidi' as h an outstanding bill'
stress is usu:rlly on out Note that witll outdoor(s), indoor(s)' outside' a\d inside,
stress can be on either syllable.
]HAPTER 1 Wotd Stress 35
Activity 1.7 Verbs and nouns with prcpositional prefixes: Why do wonen
outlive nen?
level Advanced/intermed iate
oescliption This activity uses paired dictations to practice the stress patterns of
nouns and verbs with prepositional prefixes, in the context of gender
differences. The activiiy can be integrated with work on longevity,
aging, or gender issues. This is also an opportunjty to practice the
pronunciation of the plural women, using the vowel hl (h/ is lhe
vowel in drd; see Front Vowels, page 169).
1. On the board, write some verbs with prepositional prefixes. Go over meaning if
necessary. Students may ask whether whelm is a verb. Explain that it comes
from a verb meaning "capsize" used in Old and lViddle English (it is listed by
itself in the American Heritage Dictionary with the meaning,,overwhelm',).
outlive oveldo undertake overtake
withhold overwhelm outweigh withdraw
2. Model the words, stressing the verb. Students repeat. Ask students whether the
words are nouns or verbs and which part of the word is stressed (verb or
preposition). l\4ark stress on the words. Explain that most verbs with
prepositional prefixes are stressed on the verb.
Hh Abbreviations
V/hat the Teacher Should Know
The last letter of an abbreviation has heaviest stress and highest pitch:e.g.,
ATI\4 (automated teller machlne).
Ievel lntermedlate
Worksheet Page 207
Description This activity combines practice with the stress pattern of common
abbreviations and the use of premodifiers (articles and possessives)
with abbreviations. Students maich abbreviations 1o definitions and
supply a modifier in front of the abbreviation.
& 1. Students listen to the abbreviations on Worksheet 1.8 and repeat them
2. Ask students which letter of the abbreviation has the heaviest stress and which
has the highest pitch. (The last letter has the heaviest stress and the highest
pitch, which then falls.) Ask individuals to read some of the abbreviations.
Provide feedback on stress and pitch.
5
3. Explain the use of articles and possessive adjective premodifiers if necessary
4. Students work in pairs to match the abbreviations with definitions and write a
modifier in the blank before the abbreviation.
5, After the pair work, ask students to explain what each abbreviation stands for
(e.g,, the U/V stands for the United Nations), monitoring stress on the
abbreviation, as weli as premodifier use.
6. Abbreviated phrases such as IGIF (thank God it's Friday), AS,4P (as soon as
possible), and FYI (for your information), and texting abbreviations such as BFF
(best friend foidver), IOL (lots of laughs or laughjng out loud, also little old
lady), and /DK (l don't know) can also be presented. These abbreviations are
used more in writing than speaking.
t
The artlcLe /re is used when the abbreviation refels tc a specific (or kno$n) rcferenl (e g.,lbe Ul\), a\d4 a is usedwith a
nonspeclfic (or unknown) relercnt (e.g., an ATlti): no article is used when lhe abbrevialion is a prcler nalne (e.g., IBtr{). Possessives arc
used when re rcferent "be1ongs" to an individual (e.g., ll'r D0B, date of bitlh)
aHAPTER 1 Ward Stress 37
Many suffixes do not cause stress to change from its position in the base
wor<l: -zess OrAppiness-bAppy), -! (sldepiness-srcel4l), -ment (g6uernment-
g6uern, tndasurement mdasure), -ful (b€au ful-bdau4), mAsterfut-mAster). See
Appendix C for a more complete list of suffixes with associated srress patterns
and exceptions.
3B CHAPTER 1
Level Advanced/intermediate
Worksheet Page 208
Tip Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns.
Desclipt:on This activity practices stress associated with suffixes used in words
that describe leadersh ip qualities.
@ 1. Students listen to the words on Worksheet 1.9 and repeat them. Ask students
to identify the stressed syl ables and mark them (for all of these suffixes,
primary stress is on the syllable before the suffix: presid6ntial, intell6ctual,
controv6rsial, politician, muslcian, academician, l6gical, identical, ecol6gical,
idealistic, realistic, energetic, responsibllity, integrity, passivity, luxirlous,
ambitious, couriigeous).
2. Students volunteer other words they know with these endings. Add the words to
the board, marking the stressed syllables.
3. 0n the board, write the question "What's presidential?"
4. Group work (3-4 students). Ask students to discuss the qualities ihat a good
president or leader should have. Students can use words from the board or
choose other words.
5. After the group work, ask a member of each group to report t0 the class.
Provide feedback on word stress.
In classrooms with mlxed native languages, this error is best dealt with
thfough effor coffection.
5
Parentheses arcund a letter for exampLe, a(r)tko(l)-indicate fiat the sound corrcspondirg to lhe lett€r mal not be prcnounced or
ma-v be pronounced very weakly
|:ItAPTER 1 Word Sttess 4"1
Worksheets Pages208,209
Tip Use pronunciation spellings to develop students' awareness of how
unstressed vowels are pronounced.
1. Give each student a copy of the list of words on Worksheet 1.10A. Explain ihat
native speakers of English often drop one of the unstressed syllab es in these
words.
@2. Students listen and draw a line through the unpronounced vowel. Then they
listen again and repeat.
lAnswers: asp/tin chocy'late ev/ning tur/ly
temp/rature vegfable led/ral gen/ral
int/rest m is/ra ble sep/rate (adj) eufry
laby'ratory bevfrages lavfrite comlort/ble
nat/rally pracric/lly accident/lly awt/ltyl
3. Collect the handouts.
4. Divide the class into two teams. Give Team I the questions in Set 1 and Team
2 the questions in Set 2 of Worksheet 1.108.
5. Explain the game. Each team has a d fferent set of questions; the two teams
take iurns asking the opposing team their questlons. First, a member from
Team 1 asks a member from Team 2 a question. Encourage readers to say the
questions as clearly as possible so the opposing tearn understands what's being
asked. The Team 2 player must answer with a dropped syllable word. Then
Team 2 asks Team l a question.
El t,"."" switching
What the Teacher Should Know
The strcsscd syllable is fixed in most worcls. Howeveq in some rvords where
secondary stress is followccl b-v rvord-final primar'!' stre ss, the two stresses can
switch syllables. For example, in citation form (the word in isolation), TdnneS.9EE
has primxr_y stress on the last s)'llable and scconclary stress on the first syllable.
42 ]HAPTER I word strcss
Howevet in TEnnessAe RIae4 native speakers switch primary and secondary stress
on knnessee in order to avoid the two adiacent, heavily stressed syllables that
would result in TbnnessEE Rlrer (a stress clash). Stress switching creates a more
eyen alternation of stresses and a more eurhythmic (rhlthmically pleasant) phrase
(Liberman and Prince 1977, Selkirk 1984). Stress switching also occurs in the
pl.rases on the right, below.T
Primary stress on lasi sy lable Primary stress shifts back
l'm slxTEEN. in 1610 (Slxtden TEN)
Ndw YORK NEW York Clty
Natiye speakers may also adtust timing or lengthen final sounds to separate
adjacent stressed syllables (Selkirk i984). For example, the rhlthm of 'Jine sings
w6ll" sounds slower than the rh)'thm of "The w6man is singing beautifully.'In both
sentences there are three stressed s]4lables. However, in the first sentence, all three
stressed syllables are adjacent, causing speakers to slow down to put space between
the stresses. In the second sentence, there are unstfessed syllables which prevent
adjacent stresses, and therefore there is no need to slow down.
Stress switching is not a high-priority pronunciation topic but can be added to
work on stress with advanced students as something new
Bescription This trivia activiiy practices the stress patterns in -teen numbers
used in years. lt can also be used to reinforce the use of the and
plurals with names of decades (e.g., the 1990s). Students guess
the decade in which historical events occurred-
' slre$ s$jfhing is onl,! a bacxw-ards" process: a finaL primary strcss exchdges pLace with x preceding s€condary stress. T]rus, lor
exenple, stress s$jtchirg does not occlr r $ith compound! a conpound like /i/Rphre (wllh pdmary slRss on lhe lint noun) never
bccom€s,ri?l4rw Strcss s\\'lrhing ls ar oflionaL rule and occum mo$ hequen ) in "lightlr bound" phm-\es Like 761r. Sxtie. TEN,
at NllW 1l), Cij, (.Li'betman md Pince l gl7, 320).
1HAPTER 1 Wotd Sttess 43
stressed on the number in years (this is a more general tendency which occurs
when the next word is stressed on the first syllable). Otherwise, students
should stress -teen.8
Elicit from students the names of the decades of the twentieth century. (There
is no agreed on name for the decade 1900 1909; it is sometimes called the
nineteen aughts or the 19-lowzl; the decade 1910-1919 is called the nineteen
tens.) Write the names on the board, including the article fhe and the plural
ending. Model the decade names. Students repeat.
Pass out Worksheet 1.11. Students work in pairs to identify the decade when
the event occurred. Ask students to guess if necessary.
Following the pair work, ask students when they think the events occurred.
Provide feedback on their pronunciation of numbers and the use of fhe and the
plural with decade names (e.g.,. the 1920s\.
CONCLUSION
When students leam to lengthen vowels in stressed syllables and shorten
vowels in unstressed syllables, they not only pronounce individual words more
cleafly, but also are primed for one of the keys to natural English rhythm-the
altemation of long (stressed) and short (unsffessed) words.
In addition, appfoaching the teaching of word stress through specific classes
of words like compor:nds, where stress is predictuble, helps students avoid one of
the single most serious pronunciation effors-misplaced wofd stress.
8
Natilr speaken may also stres the number (rather than -/aara), even when fhe number is followed by a pause, ai in 1 rz
19 (ninetren).
CHAPTER
Korean (po nt ng with his index f nger to the counter): Todav ater?
This misunderstanding rel]ects a problcm with both rl]1.thm and word stfess.
two closcll' relatcd areas of English pronuncialion. English rhlthm is characterized
b.v an eltcrnation of meaningful words (like lu)o ot tlq.!),wt.\ch are long in dlu.ation
and stresscd, and grammatical words (likc the preposition to, or the lrtrticlc ttJe),
which ale short and unstressed. The same altcrnation of long-stressed :rnd short
unstressed is found within words; f<rr example. the sccond s,vllable of todaJ), the
stfessed syllable, is lol.rger than the first syllable (tocl.q),111e unstressed svllable..l.he
Kofean customer was apparently unaware of the diffcrcnce berween strcssed and
Lnstressed rvords and si4lablcs.In Enlilish, the first svllablc of today does not sound
like lz,o; becausc it is unstressed, the \.owel is reduced and pronounced likc the first
von'el in algo. In the Korcan's speech, todat- sovnded like tun cla1t. The Korean
appilfently also did not notice the Pakistani's use of the plurul da-trs. The fact that the
ncsrsstand owner was not a native speakef of English may also have contributed to
thc conftrsion, although the Pakistani's Englislt was vcry good. Ir is inpossible to
kno$- wltether the Korean was generall]. unaware of thc clift'efent pfonunciations of
lod.t)t ancl tun daJ,6), or n4tether he clidn't expect anotltef nonnative speakef to
make this distinction.
45
46 cHAt'rLR 2 Rhythnl
Natural English rh,vthm requires the use of length and loudness to distilr€luish
morc promincnt worcls liom lcss prominent wortls, as wcll as thc abilitv to link
words together smoothly and pronounce thcn in meatingftll units.\tronli calls thc
length-loudness distinction "the ke,v to the rhlthnic s)stem of English" (19U7, 2l);
the ability to link words together and group thcm effectivel_y into units of meaning
is no lcss ifilpoftant.
The seven tips listed below proviclc some gcneral sulagcstions for helping
students to speak English with a clearer, nore natural rhlthm. The tips are based
on the characteristics of Englislt dtythm and on the problems studcnts encountcr
with rh\-thm.
tnps
'1. Model phrases using
nonsense syllables to make rhe dlthm partern easier to hear
?. Teach beginning students the rh).tltm patterns of communicatively uscftll
language at their level.
3. To help students distinguish meaningful groups of words, teach them to
lelgthen the end of one group before saying the following group.
4. Teach students to link the final consonant ofa word smoothly to the beginning
sound of the next word.
5. Teach stlrdents predictable rhltlxn patterns of phrases.
6. Teach students lo recognize the reduced pronunciations of gramrrrar wor<ls.
.7
Teach the reduced pronunciltion of can to help studerts pronounce the
difference between can and. can't,
Thc rcmaindef of this chaptcr prcscnts spe cific featt-tres of rh_\-thm. l'he seven
tips above are explained lifiher in the contcxr of the followinla fcarures.
48 .HAPrtR 2 Rhvthm
we disclrss what the teacher shoul.l know about each of these topics and
pfovide for teaching them ln some cases, the sullgestion is a classroom
-activinr suggestions
In other cases, it is efror correctioll. Suggestions for error corrcction are
short enor,rgh to use when studen$ are engaged in nonpronunciation actiYities'
They are also useflil fbr adclressing pronunciadon problems that only one or two
students in a class experience
Fh stress-Tirned Rhlthn
unstressed syllables axe of approximately equal length; the variety of syllable types
is more limited; and vowel reduction in unstressed syllables is unlikely. r Lloyd James
likens stress-timed rhlthm to Morse code signals (long dashes and short dots) and
sfllable-timed rhlthm to "machine gun" or staccato pattems (1940). Learners whose
native language is syllable-timed have difficulty learning English rh)'thm, but with
exposure and increasing proficiency, they will acquire some of the characteristics of
stress timing.
Infomation about the stress-timed nature of English rhlthm is included in
many pronunciation textbooks and helps students understand and become aware of
the genefal nature of English rhlthm. It is presented here in a similar spirit, as
"rh1'thm appreciation" and as an introduction to more focused work on specific
fe atures of rhlthm.
1. Direct students' attention to the pictures of the two tree lines on Worksheet 2.1.
Ask students to compare the tree size and spacing of the two tree lines.
2, Model the sentences below the tree lines. Ask students which words are longer
and louder. Ask students if the rhythm of English is more like the natural tree
line or the apple orchard.
J. lvlodel the sentences again, following each with its isolated rhythm pattern: Ihe
birds abandoned the forestAa DA da DA da da DA da; They built their nests
in the orchard 4a
DA da DA da da DA da, Students repeat the sentences and
rhythm patterns.
I
inslrumenlal bsdng hrs failed to confinn some of lie perceptuai charact€ristics of strcss-ti.oed languages (Dauer 1983, Ramus et al.
: ll9) . In$rcss timed languag€s, slrcsses arc heard as occuring at equal inl€Nals in lime (isochrony) ; in syllable{imed larguages, the
befteen $resses is more variable. llowever, instrumental measur€ments rcveal that stre$ses in English (e $ress-tined language)
=e
n0 more rcgular than those in syllable{imed Languages (Dauer 1983).
=
50 ]HAPTER 2 Rhythm
4. Ask students to read the limerick silently and then go over questions
about vocabu lary.
@ 5. StuCents listen to the limerick and repeat. Ask students which words are
stressed (i,e., longer, louder). lStressed words: once, man, beard; said, just,
feared; owls, hen; larks, wren; build(tng), nests, beardl
6. In pairs, students practice the limerick. Then, on the bottom half of the
handout, the pairs write a new third and fourth line; lines 3 and 4 need nOt
rhyme but the rhythm (i.e., the number of syllables and location of stressed
syllables) should be the same as in the 0riginal. Each pair presents its limerick
to the class, alternating the lines.
Ueths (watk, eat) Auxiliary verbs (an, is, has, can, will)
Adiectives (big, beautifut) Short preposilions (to, at, in, for, with)3
2
Inng prepositions Like d&?e/t or undemeath h,we cleNer mexning (comp'lred to /0 or d/) and ,.lre often strcssed
3 nan, lhue bctohs) ts functior Notds alid denorstrative Ponouns aj
Celce ]lurciaet al. list demonstrative adjectiles (e.g , that
content words (e g , lDr, r/ /rpre) 0 996, I 53) .
)HAPTER 2 Rhythm 51
Worksheet None
Tips Model phrases using nonsense syllables io make the rhythm pattern
easier to hear.
Teach beginning students the rhythm patterns of communicatively
useful language at their level.
Description This activity links the stress patterns of familiar words to the rhythm
pattern of phrases" The sample is a short dialogue about shoppjng.
Reprinted lrom Top Notch: English for Today's World, Fundamentals
by Joan Saslow and Allen Ascher, Pearson Longman, page 49.
Used with permission. The activity in Top Notch taryets shopping
language, including clothing and color vocabulary.
Q 1. Students listen to the dialogue oir the Audio CD, track 8, and repeat the lines.
T, LET'S GO S HOpping.
3. lVode each line, followed by its isolated rhythrn pattern. Emphasize the
stressed syllables. Students repeat the dralogue lines and the rhythm patterns.
4. Ask students which words are longest and loudest (the cap talized words).
5. Select pairs of students to perform the dialogue for the class. Provtde feedback
on rhythm: The capitalized words should be long and loud.
6. 0n the board, list related questions from the textbook un t (or from units
previously covered) n one column and possible answers in another column,
with whlch students can create new dialogues. Capitalize the stressed syllab es
of content words.
Most students understand the notion of a thought group and arc able to dividc
a written sentencc into appropriate liroups. They may not, however, know how the
yoice conveys this information. In English, both rhlthm and intonation provide cues
for the Lstener The rhlthmic cue is a lengtlleninti or holding of the end of a thongltt
group betbre the ncxt begins (Selkirk 1984,Wightman et al. 1992).The lengthenir.rg
may be heard as a pause, although within an utterance, the !-oice "lingers" rather
than stops irt a thought group boundary In addition, words within a thought group
are linked more closely than words across thouliht gror-lp boundaries.
Thought groups also have thcir own intonation patterns.* At thc cnd of an
internal (nonJinal) thought liror-lp, intonation usually rises a little, a signal that the
speaker has more to sa)', but may also fall a little. The sentence above is repeated
below, showit.tg the drlthmic and intonational cues that mark its thought groups.
a
Thought groqts are dso cxLled inlor)ation units (Gilhefl 1981, Cclce NlrLcie et el 1996). int0nnti(Dal lhrdes or inteDnedilte
intoretional phm-ses (Pierehun )efi 19t0, Picrchlmbert xlld HiNchbeql 1990). and k)lle Lrnils (Bnzil 1994a)
.H^prrR 2 Rhvthn 53
Because thcse nonfind intonirtion changes are difficult for students and teachers to
hea! the main tcacltinla focus should be on the rhrthmic cues, the lengtheninla or
palrsinli at the encl of a thought group.
'l'hcre are no fixed rules for determining in adyance what
tlte thougltt groups
in a given sentence should be. Me:rninli is a factor, but so, too, are rate of speakinli
(ftwcr thought groups ;uc used in fastcr speech) and stvle of speaking (morc
thoulaht gfoups are used in public speakin€!). The senrcnce above, for example,
coultl also be broken into two of thfee thought laroups:
It's not too late to f nd a room at a fattona oarkthsseason
It's not too ate to flnd a room at a nationa oark this season
1. Introduce the activity by asking students what kind of exercise they do. lvlake a
list on the board (e.g., walk, run, work out at the gym, play soccer).
2. Wrile a sentence about yourself on the board, including frequency (e.g., once
in a blue moon), the activity (e.9., I walk), place (e.g., around the block), and
with whom (e.9., wlth my dog).
Once in a blue moon, I walk around the block wrth my dog.
3. l\4odel the sentence, ho ding/lengthening the ends 0f thought groups. With your
hand, rnake sweeplng underlines corresponding to your thought groups (move
your hand from right to left, which will be your students' left to right).
4. Ask students which words you grouped together. Underline the groups. I\4odel
the sentence again, holding/lengthenlng the end of each thought group.
Students repeat. Explain that the end of a thought group is held briefly and
lengthened a little before the next group starts.
5. On the board, write four headings: "How often," "What," "Where," and "Wlth
whom." Ask one or two students to describe their exercises, providing the four
pleces of information.
6. Elicit from the class questions for each of the four pieces of information, and
write the questions on the board ("How often do you exercise?" "What do you
do?" "Where do you exercise?" and "Who do you exercise with?").
7. Elicit expressions for each iype of information (e.g., for "How often," ellcit
"every day," "once a week," "occasionaLly," "maybe once a month," and so
on). For the last category, "With whom," add "by myself" if students don't
know the expression.
8. Students interview another classmate, take notes, and then report to the class
about their partners. Instruct students to group words clearly and provide
feedback on grouping.
consonants in laeneral (that is, with English sl'llable fi,pes), difficulty with rhe wa,\.s
in which wofd final consonants are linked to following words. or with both.
Learners whose natiye langualies limit of do not allow final consonants use
several strategies to deal with them (see also Final Consonants, page 153). The final
consonant may be deleted (e.g., "re color" for "red cokrr',); it may be changed (e.g.,
''pockctboot" lbr "pocketbook"); or a vowel may be adclcd to separate it fi.onl the
following word (e.g., "redr colof) (Weinbergef 1987; Maior 1987, 1996; Hansen
2001). Chinese learners may substitute a glorral stop (phonetic s),mbol ,/?/, a sound
found in the warning Uh Oh /?a?ow/ and in Cockney English): too& a ualk, for
example, ma1, sountl like "too? a walk."
Specific final consonants mav also have distracting, odd-sounding
pronunciations. One example is the pronunciation by Korcan students of linal /4/ es
in ubich). /(13/ @s ln agg), [/ (as in catlO, a1:.d B/ (^s tn Derge). In connected speech,
these wofds may sound as though the bpe.Jker hlLs rrd.led r short J/ ending to the
word: nhichy one. a1cy limit. r.ashr pa1 nrenr. r
Difficulties may also arise because English and tl.re learncr's natir.e language link
words in different ways. In English, final consonimts are not strongly rcleased unless
the following word begins with a vowel (Catfbrd 1987, Ladefoged 1993). The lack of
release makes final consonants less audible than when the)r occur a1 the beginning
of a word or syllable. In contrasr, in Russian, a langualae wl]ich also allows a large
number of Rnal consonants and final consonant clusters, final consonants are audibly
released, and Russian ESL learners carry this pattern into English (Zsiga, Z0Ol). An
English listener may hear the released llnal consonant as an added vowel or.syllablc.
The way in which worcls are linked in English depends on the nature of the final
and beginning sounds. The information below describcs dilferent tlpes of linting.
Unreleased stop consonallts are short, altd students have ditTiculty ltearing them.A
cue to their presence is the cutoff sound of the Yowel preceding the final stop.
Consider the differcnce betwe en tl.te vowels in rzaAe and rla./ in the phrctses make
dinners and May dinnersBxamples like this help "convince" students that the hard-
to-hear final consonant is inde€d present.
2. Other Final Consonants + Different Consonant
In general, other final consonants are kept short when fbllowed by a diffetent
consonant. Ilecause the air is not completely cut olf with n()nstop consonants, they
are easier fbr students to hear even though they are short.6
give) money nose) job beige) pants both) cars
Linking Final Vowels to Beginnirrg Vowels. ri/hen words ending with the
vowels ,/iy, eyr ow, uw aw, av, o1',/ are followed by a word beginning with a vowel
(e.g.. see Ann, sa! it, go in, ckt ouer, bout eas\, my uncle, to! engine). the glide
ending (/)'/ or /w,/) of the final vowel links to the following vowel, creating the next
syllable (see also pages 170, 183, and 191). The glide souncl is not always written.
seetlAnn say_it c{!n do "over
The same hlking of a glide cnding to a following \.owel occurs inside words:
uide ro, ponetr!.
and voiceLess ftlcalives requires uoLe knowledge ofphonetrcs fian studerrls hal'c or need ?urd s|orld nolbe laught.
7
Slntilar final and begin|ing consonants aft dso linked as onc long sormd: Drg.?r The tonguc p0sition 0i the bold consonants in &tg
./l/ h fie sanlei tlle hvo soulds dill€r in ioicifg (see Consonants, f4e 1i9).
cHAprER 2 Rhythm 57
When a word ends in a vowel without a glicle endjng (e.g.,l.tto, sp.t, sof., and.
the next word begins with a vowel, the two vos/els link smootl y togither-
law_of nature spa_entrance sofa_arrangement
Pronunciation work on the linking of words in connected speech is impoftant
at all levels. The topic can be divided into two lessons, a lesson on linking
consonants to consonants (e.9., dot com), whete many effors occut and one on
linking consonants to vowels (e.g., fresb 4lr). Vowel-ro-\.owel linking is discussed
on page 191. Unking can also be addressed in pronunciation of the past tense
endings (see Consonants, page 159). Simplifications of final consonants made
by
native speakers iLre covered in Final Consonants, page 155.
Pfesefrting Linktng Rules to Students. The rules above are too complex to
present to students. The following rules are simpler alternatives.
1. A word ends in a consonant; the llext word begits s/ith a vowe l:fresb .tir
Join the consonant clearly to lhe vowel:fresb a.h pickJtp.
2. A word ends in a consonant;the next word starts with a different consonant:
cloN 9om.
Say the final consonant but keep it \-ery short. Say the next word inmediately:
doP com, Wel) site.
3. A word ends in a consonant; the next word starts with the same consonanr:
big_girl.
Say one long consonant. Do not say the consonant twice: bi{girt, nic{'smile.
Blends like tbislreer (this year) and dMia (did you) xe palatalizations,
assimilations of one sound to a following palatal sound. In the examples aboYe, the
palatal sound is /y/.8 The palatal soutTd /y/ i7 lear attacts the final /s,/ of tbis to the
/y/ position, producing /[/ (the first sound of sl:zp).
s+ /- becomes 4/ I /grJa/ (guess you) know.
The nasal consonant ,/n/ also assimilates to the place of articulation of some
following consonants (Avery and EhrlicF. 1992,4-D.
I I karl I go. (l can go.)
Many students learn words in their citation (word list) pronunciation and
expect to hear them pronounced in the same wa1'. They need to be aware of how
words sound when blended together, especially blends involving pllatalizatiorrs,
which are common.
It is not necessary to teach blends for production (i.e., for students to use in
ordinary speaking). Like fast-speech reductions of function words (discussed
below), blends are associated with high levels of fluency and accur:rcy (i e., with
native English). Less proficient students may sound less clear if they use these
blends than they would if they had used the unblended forms. For a recognition
actiyity involving blentls, see the Activity section for Fast-Speech Reductions of
Function words, page 84.
3
Palanl sounds, such as the lirsl sounds in j,01l end srf, arc produced $ hen the frcnt of the ton il e approachs the h ard laLate Mosl
palataLizations involve assimilations of aheolarsounds likc /yor/s/ to the palatalsound (for alveolar consonants, see page 129)
.HAPTER 2 Rhythm 59
level Intermediate
Wo*sheet Page 272.
Description This activity reviews compounds and practices linking final conso-
nants to words starting with different consonants. The activity can
provide a pronunciation focus for other lessons on jobs or employ-
ment. ln the sample matching exercise on page 212, all of the final
consonants are stop consonants (/p; b, t, d, k, el), a group of conso-
nants that is among the most difficult for students to link in con-
nected speech. This pronunciation topic can also be added to an
activity on the stress patterns of compounds (see page 33).
2. Model the compounds. Students repeat. Direct students, attention to the final
underlined consonants. Explain that final consonants must be pronounced but
they are short. The next word follows immediately.
5. ln pairs, students match the phrases to the definitions. Then they create short
dialogues using the model below.
A: What's a
B: IS
dA DA dA DA dA DA dA DA dA DA
The noun object of the preposition may be separatcd from tlle preposition by
other words, some stressed (strong), some unstressed (weak).
in JUST a Mlnute on a Sultry, SUMmer DAY
'\atiye sp€alre$ sometimes use the morc ftduceilfom s ol of Va\/) Md to (hel) even when fie following word begjns witli a yowel.
62 CHAPTER 2 Rhythm
1. 0n the board, write a list of items the students in your class might need io buy
and businesses where they can buy them. Write the preposition for in front of
each item. Write the preposition to in front of the businesses, The items should
be ones that fit naturally in the sentence f'ame l'm looking for a. . . . Head the
list of items with "l'm looking . . ."; head the list of stores with "Go . . . ."
2. Add to the board a short dialogue, capitalizing the stressed syllables of
mean ingfu I words.
4. Model the lists on the board. Students repeat. Ask students whether the noun
or preposition is stressed strongly in the forand lo phrases. Ask students what
each store sells.
:HAPTER 2 Rhythn 63
5. lVodel the dialogue on the board, lengthening stressed words and grouping
words. Students repeat and then practjce the dialogues in pairs.
6. ln pairs, students create their own dialogues, replacing the underlined words
on the handout with other words. Students read their dialogues to the class.
level lntermediate/Advanced
Worksheet Page 2I3
tip Teach students predictable rh!.thm patterns of phrases"
Descripfion This activity practjces the rhythm pattern of prepositional phrases
. and infinitives in the contexl of manners and courtesy.
1. Establish the context. Ask students to read the paragraph on table manners on
Worksheet 2.6 to themselves and underline prepositronal phrases and
infinitives. Students check their underlining with a classmate and then with
the teacher,
I2. Students listen to the paragraph, paying attention to the pronunciation of the
prepositional phrases and infinitives.
3. Elicit from students and/or explain the pronunciation: The preposition is not
stressed; the followrng noun (verb in infinitives) is stressed. The words in the
phrase are grouped together.
| 7. Ask individual students to report some of the tabie manners to the class, giving
feedback on prepositions that are pronounced too strongly.
8. To extend the activity, the class can also discuss which manners they think are
universal and which are specifrc to a particular country or culture.
64 :HAPTER 2 Rhythm
da 0A da DA da DA
The definite afiicle tbe has two pronunciations, depending on the first sound
of the following word. It is usually pronounced /6V before a vowel, and the glide
en<hng /y/ linki the article closely to the following word lt is pronounced /da/
o
before a consonant.l
6iy_air 6iy authol 6a3log 6a sun
The indefinite article 4, pronounced /a/, is used before words beg rning with
a consonant so lfird an, pronounced /3n/, is used before words beginning with a
vowel sound.
Students may choose the wrong form of the indefinite article before words
beginning with the letter 4 or lr. In unit, unique, uniuersity, ^nd union, fot
example, the first letter of ttre wotd is a Yowel, but the first so'lnl is the consoflant
tyt G.5., unit /\'uwnetD. The article a is used before these words because they
begin with a consonant sound Strldents need to understand that the choice
betweenaandazdependsonthefirstsorrldoftheword,nottfi.]firstletterThe
opposite problem occurs with words that begin with silent lJ (e g,honest, bono4
niir hour). Students often choose the article 4 rather than '7'? because the first
letter of the word is a consonant tetter (b). The correct ?rticle, however, is at',
because the first sound of the word is a vowel (e.g., honor /onet/)'
Teaching the rh''thm pattern of articles not only addresses rhlthm and
reviews a very difficult area of English grammar, it is also an opportunity to reYiew
the rlJ pronunciation (as in tbe) ttle joining of final consonants to Yowels (e g '
^nd
an-appIe).
Worksheet Pages2l4-ZI5
Tip Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases.
Description This information gap reviews food vocabulary and the use of the
article a with first-mentioned singular count nouns. The activity
reviews countable food nouns, container expressions (e-g., a box of\
and utensil/d ish ware nouns (e.g., a gtass of). Students should be
familiar with this vocabulary as well as with the expressions on the
right and on the left.
1. 0n the board, draw two numbered boxes. Wrjte the question ,,What,s jn Box
1 ?" on the board.
A
Mft v
"What's in Box 1 ?
2. Choose a student to ask you about Box 1. Answer the question with ',an
apple," and write the answer on the board, underlining the joining between
"an" and "apple"; mark stress on ,,apple." Students repeat.
aLiippte
3. Ask a student to come to the board and draw an apple in Box 1.
4. Cioose another student to ask you about Box 2. Answer the question
with
"There's a c6rton of milk on the left. There's a p6ar on the right.,, Write
the
answer on the board, underlining noun phrases with a and marking the
stressed syllables of "cadon" and ,,milk.',
5. Elicit (or explain) pron unciation:
. The article is unstressed and the noun is stressed.
. ,4n is used before a vowel sound. ,4n joins closely to the noun. 4 is used
before a consonant.
6. Put students in pairs. Give one member of each pair Grid A and the other
member Grid B of Worksheet 2.7. Students ask each other about their empty
boxes and draw the missing pictures. When their grids are complete, they
compare them (and laugh at each other's drawings).
7. After the pair work, choose students to describe the pictures in the grid. Give
leedback on p'onunc,ation.
8. Alternate versions. For high beginners or low intermediates, prepare two
completely filled in grids, with some cells identical in both grids and some
different (e.g., five identical cells and five different cells) For example, in Grid
A, the first cell might have a banana on the righi and an apple on the left; in
Grid B's first cell, the banana is on the left and the apple on the right.
Students describe their grids to each other to find the different cells.
E] r.tsontl rronouns
v€rb + Obiect Pronoun. Verbs and obiect pronouns are almost always grouped
together. The verb is stressed, and the object pronoun is unstressed Native speakers
link pronouns very closely to the Yerb, pronouncing them as if they were an ending
to the Yerb.
The same type of reduction occurs in the auxiliary verb s haue, IJas, and had (see
pagc /b ).
Jackad (lack had) already gone home.
]HAPTER 2 Rhythm 67
l'lsendam the papers tomorrow. (l'll send them the papers tomorrow.)
V/tren common words encling in /t/ or /d/ (e.g., ubat, did) are followed by
J)ou, the final /t/ or ,/d/ combines with the /y/ of you to produce a blended sound
/t[/ ot /d3/ (.see also Fast-speech Reductions of Funcrion words, below).
I'll leiJa know. (l'll lei you know)
Did3a see the movie last night? (Did you see the movie last night?)
Reductions of Pronoun Vowels befote 're and'll The contractions 're arrd 'll can
alter the vowel quality of I /^y/, be /f]jii/, she / jy/, lou /]ruw/,ue /wiy/, and ttrey /6ey/.
All of these pronouns end in a glide somd (/w/ ot /yD. When '/e or 7/ follows these
pfonouns, they weaken the glide ending and the vowel (see also pages ss, tt, and uu).
I think l'l go. (/7i sounds very close to "all.")
We'll call you when we're ready. (14le7l sounds very close to "will" or
/wall: we're sourds like /Mr/ or
lwar/.)
Pronoun vowel weakening before 're and 'll i.s of minor pedagogical importance,
but native-English-speaking teachers should be aware that they may be using these
reduced pronouns.
Students should be aware of the reductions of 11 pronouns because they will
encountef them in the connected speech of native speakers. Even beginners enjoy
leaming about these reductions in common, leyel-appropriate contexts, for
example, in questions like "What diddy (did he) do?" or "Where diddy (did he) go?"
Indeed, through exposure to English, some students pick up these reductions in
high-frequency expressions.
Because the joining of ,less pronouns (lge, lsim, +is, +er) to the preceding
word is mandatory, studcnts who lack the proficiency to join words together easily
and smoothly are unlikely to be able to use these reductions in spontaneous speech.
68 cuAPr[R 2 Rhythm
The teaching focus should be the de-sressing of pronouns, not their ,-less
pronunciations. Taylor found that nonnatiYe speakers judged to have good
pronunciation and rhlthm made appropriate length and stress distinctions between
stressed and unstressed words but used few redr.rced pronunciations (1981).
Worksheet None
Tip Teach students predictable rh)'thm paiterns of phrases
1. On the board (or in a handout), write the question "What can you do with a
ball?" Elicit answers from students, write them on the board, and add other
verbs. Verbs like pitch or bounce are likely to be new vocabulary but are easily
demonstrated. The verbs bel0w cover ball handling ln baseball, soccer,
basketball, and American football. Write the pronoun ltafter the verb, mark
stress on the verb, and underline the joining of the verb and lf. Ask the class if
they know how to play any of these sports. Those who do can help demonstrate
new vocabulary and serve as experts on the rules.
4. Demonstrate the activity. Choose two students. One selects a sport, and asks
the other the question on the board. Repeat with another pair of students.
5. Students work in pairs. Each student chooses a sport and asks, ,,What can you
do with a ball in (sport)?" The partner answers the question with one of the
verb phrases. The partners should make a list of legal and illegal ball actions
for the sport. Note that for some sports a ball action might be illegal for some
players, but not for others. For example, in soccer, the goalie can carry the
ball, but other players can't. Circulate around the room and make sure the
questjon includes the word "ball" so that the student answering the question
can use it. Give feedback on pronunciation and help students with vocabulary.
Native speakers link the words in phrasal verb phrases ll1tre pick it up closely.
In many cases, the linking is between a final consonant and a beginning vowel.
Pfonunciation wofk with phrasal verbs then also provides practice with consonant-
yowel linking.
picak i!_up try them on ask herJut (askef out)
Phrasal verbs are grammatically more complex than single-word sy,nonyms and
may not be semantically transparent (e.g., the meaning of put off as,,postpone ', of
figure out as "sol\.e"). Several studies have shown that students avoid plrrasal verbs
in favor of simpler and clearer one-word synonyms (e.g., leaae instead of go
out/aua!; enter of come in; confuse instead of mix up). Howe\ler, natiye
instead.
speakers in large numbers pfefer phfasal yerbs over their one-wofd synonyms
@agut and Laufer 1985, Hulstiin and Marchena 1989). pronunciation practice of
phfasal verbs, therefore, also promotes the use of more natural, idiomatic English.
rl
Trarlsil.ilt !t$s hale dircct ohjects; s€pxrable !€rbs arc trlursitilc phra5alve s Intrensitive vebs do not have dircct obiecb.
70 ]HAPTER 2 Rhythm
Phrasal Verbs + Prepositions: Get au)aJ) lritb. Some phflsal Yerbs are followed
by a true preposition that is unstressed. The true preposition has a noun obiect.
He gr6t awSy with murdel! G6t 6ut of the taxi.
Nouns Formed from Phrasal Verbs: a takeoff' Nouns and adjectives formed
from phrasal verbs have primary stress on the flrst word and secondary stress on the
second, the same stress-pitch pattem as compounds (e.g.,tlre tAkedfr, my md.keiQ).
They can be included in a lesson on the word stress of compounds or as a contrast
to phrasal verbs in a lesson on rhlthm.
Activity 2,9 Phrasal verhs: Don't put off until tonortow what you can do today
ffi conjunctions
Students may not group coniunctions in the same way that native speakers do.
Bada found that Turkish ESL students gtouped tlrat more closely with the words
preceding the coniunction than with the words following it, whereas the pattern for
native speakers was the reverse (2006).
Citation form Reduced (connected speech)
when /wrn/ /wan/ Did someone come /wan/ you calLed? (someone
and come when rhyme)
lhal l6eIl l6all, l6aDl12 | don't belreve /6aV Tom would do that. I
rr
The svmboi D represents the flapped sound of / in z,4ler flapjng of a final I belbrc r,o$eh occuN in comnon \\,ords like a.'/ial and
u| as in trlhuddt thel uant? (Whdl da lhel tlant?). See page 129 lor flals.
72 1HAPTER 2 Rhythm
$ 1. Pass out Worksheet 2.10 to students. Students listen to the passage once or
twice and fill in the blanks. They check their answers with classmates and then
with the teacher.
2. Elicit or explain the pronunciation 0f conjunctions by modeling one of the
sentences from the passage and directing students' attention to the
conjunction. ls the conjunction grouped with preceding or following words? ls it
stressed or unstressed?
3. Ask students to read the passage again, breaking longer sentences into
thought groups.
4. Students read the passage to a partner. The partner checks for unstressed
conjunctions and clear grouping of words.
5. The discussion questions can be answered as a whole class activity or in
groups. Students' pronunciation focus for the discussion should be speaking as
clearly as possible and grouping words together clearly and smoothly. lt ts
difficult (if not impossible) for the teacher (or students) to monitor
pronunciation of a potentially large sei of words like conjunctions. lf the
teacher notices a heavily stressed or inappropriately grouped conjunction, she
can give feedback on that. But she should explain that sometimes a speaker's
meaning requires that a conjunction be stressed (for example, "l think ihe
doctor should tell the patient-lF the patient's family agrees").
The reductions covercd in this section are not colloquial; they are used in
formal as well as inlbrmal speaking. Reductions r4rich are more colloqui.al or
informal (e.g., pfonouncing the question Wbat did lou do? ,WhaJe do?',) are
discussed below, in Fast-Speech Rcducriol.ts of Function Words. ^s
When students learn about the reductions and blen(ls used by native speakers,
they may try to speak faster than they are able to in order to sound more English
like (Rine)', Takegi, and Inutsuka 2005). Teachers should advise sh.rdents not to race
throu€ih the weak words, but rather to €iroup words and lengthen the stressed
s)4lables of the strong word(s) in each group.
There haye been few studies of nonnative speakers' abilities to reduce
function words. They suggest that while proficient learners are able to pronounce
ftrnction words with shorter length than content words (Trofimoyich and Baker
2006, Setter 2006), they rarely use reduced yowels in function words (Taflor 1981,
Setter 2006).
Studies of the reduction of unstressed vowels within words reveal similar
findings. Proficient lcarners are able to make an appropriatc length distinction
betwecn stressed and unstressed vowels, but vowel reduction to schwa is unlikely,
especially for those who haYe learned English as adults and whose natiye language
does not have vowel reduction (Tlege and Bohn 1989;Lee, Guion, and Handa 2006).
Although these studies have not looked at the effect that pronunciation teaching
mi€iht l.lave on students' abilities to pronounce rcductions, they suggest that
function word reductions should be talrght primarily for recognition, as an aid to
understanding natively spoken English, mther than as a goal for pronunciation.
ESL teachers, however, would disagree with this conclusion for at least some
function words. rwhen students fail to pronounce can with a reduced yowel, they
are often misunderstood as having said "can't " In addition, some students "pick up"
reductions of ancl and o/ in l.fgh-frequency phrases (such as "milk'n sugar," and
"onear two," for one or h.uo , evcn at low le\.cls of proficienc_v13
'When new grammar is taught, function words are introduced in their citation
form (fcw teachefs will introduce a grammar lesson on czrx by saying,"Today we 're
going to stud)' /kn/"). Thus, the first prollunciation rhat classroom students hear is
the full, unrecluced fbrm. It is understandable that tltis is the pronunciation they
continue to usc.
In addition, although thc reduced form is modeled in the speech of native
speakefs, it is difficult for students to notice how these short, unstressed words are
pronounced.v4ren Iistenirrli to English, students pl'ocess speech semantically; they
pick out the mcaningful (content) words,which are also acousticnlly salient because
they are stressed (Swain 1!85). Using these words, they are able to undersand the
message without attending to tlte le ss meaningful, less clear ftlnction words, which
are difficr t to notice (Van Patten 1990). At lower levels of proficiency,
understanding is effortftll, and students have little time to notice the subtler
meanings and modalities that function words carry when listening for meaning.As
rr
Thcsc urightbe learned er |hythm idio[]s, $herc dre pronunci^tim ol th€ phmse as a \r,hole is hx red
74 ]HAPTER 2 Rhythm
And,or Reductions of and and or can be taught to beginning level students for
comprehension. Some students may already be using them in common phrases.
Citation lorm Reduced lorm Noticing
Cary C&n't. In connected speech, can is reduced to Aanl when a verb follows.
Sue can /kan/ come.
The negative can't, like other negatives, is stressed and pronounced with a full
vowel: /krnt/.
I can't /kanv come.
The reduction of can should be taught at the beginning level, simply because
there is so much confusion as to whether a student has said can ot cdn't.The natiYe
listener's most important cue for detemining whether the positive or negatiYe has
been said is the vowel. lf the vowel is reducetl Ua/),lhe listener hears can; tf the
yowel is ,/r/, the listener hears can 7 Thus, when students pronounce caz with the
full vowel /rl the listener is likely to hear can't; the negatiYe Ycrb, however, doesn't
make sense in the context, and the listener may ask,"Did you satt can ot can't?"-a
question all too familiar to students. Because of this con{ilsion, students sometimes
use the lrncontracted cannot ]l]-f'te dof can't. The use of cannot does not solve the
problem, howe!'er, because the problem lies with the pronunciation of &zz.
Aftef teaching the reduction of can, students may not be able to use it at first
in connected speech, but they will be better able to understand sentences where it
, d \t tt R 2 Rh,,thrr' 75
is reduced, the teacher will have an easier time drawing attention to confusing
pronunciations, and students will be better able to self-cofrect.
Citation form Connected speech form Noticing
After nouns, some auxiliary verbs lose their initial consonants and are reduced
to a syllable, which is pronounced like an ending on the preceding noun. For
exarnple, tn I think Nick tuill go, the underlincd words are likely to be pronounced
like "nickel." The auxiliary u)ill has lost the initial /W, its yowel has been reduced to
/a/, and what remains ioins closely to the preceding word, like the -el ending in
nickelIn Tbe land bad been used as a park, the \nde ined words are likely to be
pronounced like "Ianded": bad loses the i tial /h/ and is pronouncecl like zn -ed
enrJing on land.
Be
I'm He'YShe's lt's You're We're They're
here.
Josh's The rose is beautiful. The judge is wise.
"Johner" "studentser"
Hate
He's She's lt's I've You've We've They've
Tbe a\xiliary baue is also reduced after nouns: The iflitial /h/ is dropped, the
vowel is reduced to /a,/, and what remains joins closely to the preceding word. The
reduced pronunc iatiot]' of baue sounds identical to the Pronunciation of of /aY/.
The students have linished. Where have you been?
"studentsav" "wherav"
"shouldav" "couldav"
The reduction of baae may be caffied even ftlrther with the loss of fi|Lal /v/.
This pronunciation is sometimes written, " shoulda, coulda, wouldal'
lshould have known. You could have come.
"sh6uldantev" "c6uldantav"
Students should be aware of the reduction of baue after negative modals but should
not be expected to use it in spontaneous speaking.
Hacl, Would The past perfect auxiliary rad and the modal ulould are contracted
to fin l /d./ pronouns:
^ ^ft.ff
I'd already done it. I'd like coffee. You'd better study.
Because the past perfect is a difficult and advanced terise, students do not make
much use of it and rafely use contfactions when they do. ln the expression ,I:ad
bette4 which is used spontaneously by some students ,lr.td Is also ruely contractecl.
Part of the reluctance to contmct ,a d in bad better may be the difficr t cluster that
arises at the boundary of the rwo wotds (baAl^effer). Alrhough this cluster will
be present whether bad is contracted or not, students might feel their speech will
be clearer if they use the full form of bad.
In the expression utould. like, common at all levels, students also avoid
contfacting uould. Again, as with. bad betteli a difficult cluster arises at the
boundary of uoukl and, like (/d/ + M. I3ecause uould like is a cofirmon
conyefsational form, students should be encouraged to use the contraction with 1
in Id like, for example. Students will need practice linking the final /d/ to the
following word.
The negative contractions lJadn't and xuouldn't are not used frequently by
students. Higher priority should be giyen to the contmction of utould, especially
after the pronoun 1, than to hadn't ancl, ttouldn't.
After nouns ending in consonants, Edd is pronounced as a syllable,like the ,ed
ending in started. The if:'iti^l th/ is dropped, the vowel is reduced to /a/, and what
reo]' ins of bad joins closely to the preceding word:
wiry Won't Students are reluctant to use contracted //, perhaps because they do
not hear it cleady. In English,t}j'e frnal A/ of 1rll/ is a "dark l" (see page 741) an<l may
sound unfamiliar to students. In connected speech, the dark I of contllcted u)ill
alters the vowel of the preceding pronoun, weakening the glide ending of the
vowels in pronouns. Consider the pronunciation of the contractions in the following
sentences, spoken normally:
Te I me if he'l be there.
(sounds close to "hii ")
Students should be aware that they may sound imperious or rude when they use
uncontracted forms of loill a1J.d uill not.
After nouns endiflg in consonants, z/i// is reduced to the syllable /ay, $/hich
joins closely to the preceding word; it is pronounced like an -al, -le, or -el ending on
the preceding wofd. Native speakers pronounce the two sentences below neady
the same.
The cat will drink water. = The cattle drink water.
Students should be aware ofthe reduced pronunciation of ?r/// after nouns, but
should not be expected to use it in spontaneous speaking.
Like other negatiyes, the negative contractions d6n't, d6esn't, and dldn't are
stressed. The contracted forms don't and didn't are more common in student
speech than doesn '/, perhaps because ofthe third-person singular present -s ending,
which is frequently omitted by students. Students shottld be encouraged to use
negative contractions of the simple present and past tenses.
cHAPrtR 2 Rhythm 79
1. Read aloud these words for some foods that often go together. Repeat the
phrases. Pronounce and as [an]. Join it to the first word.
a. surf and turf f. salt and pepper
b. turkey_and stuffing g. cake and ice cream
Your phrases:
3. Work with a partner. Read your phrases to your partner. your partner will write
what you say. Then listen to your partner's phrases. Wrjte them on the lines.
Partner's phrases:
4. Work in small groups. The foods in Part 1 are eaten by different groups of people
or in different situations. Complete the sentences with ihe foods in part l.
a. ln the caribbean, it's rice and beans
1. ln England, it's
5. Write down other foods that go together. Then te I your group about foods thai
often go together ln your country.
We eat a lot of shrimp and vegetables.
Activity 2.12 Can and can'|. What difference can an individaal nake?
level Intermed iale/Advanced
Worksheet None
ra
lhis quote is fron John n Kennedl s iraugural add.css ir Jarllrari i961.
CHAPTER 2 Rhythn 81
ActiuiU' 2. I 2 co.ntinued
5. Write the sentence below on the board. Ask students how they think J.F.K.
would complete this quote. Ask students how they would complete the quote.
Each student should say the quote so that it reflects his own opjnjon. Explain
that the negattve can'f is always stressed.
An Individual do a lot to help the envjronment.
(can/"an l)
6. Ask students what an individuai can do to help the environment. Elicit a few
answers with can and monitor pronunciation (e.g., you can walk to school or
work, you can use a fan instead of an air conditioner). Write the suggestions on
the board as verb phrases (e.g., walk to work, use a fan instead of an air
cond itioner).
7. Students work in pairs, continuing the list of things a person can do to help
the environment. Ask students to write sentences starting with ,,you can.,,
Circulate among the pairs, helping them with vocabulary or giving suggestions
(e.g., recycle, vote for "green" candidates, reuse empty coniainers).
8. When students have written several sentences on their lists, ask the pairs to
read their sentences and add new ones io the list on the board. Help students
with pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
9. Choose a suggestion from the list on the board (e.g., ,,walk to school") and ask
a student, "Sonia, can you walk to school?,' Sonia should answer for herse'f,
"No I can't because I live too far away.,' provjde feedback on the pronunciation
of can and can't. lf students use short positjve answers (e.g., ,,yes, I can',),
write the short answer on the board and tell students that can isn,t reduced in
short answers.
more often than they do formally, our students should be aware of the informal
reductions they will undoubtedly hear.
Fast-speech reductions should be taught for recognition rather than
production. Indeed, there may be a "style clash" if students attemPt to use fast-
speech reductions when they lack fluency: The use of gor1r1a, for example, by a
student with little fluency, can sound incongruous. In addition, less proficient
students who use gonna m?y 2:dd to (.e .g.,I'm gonna to do it) or \rse utanna when
the subiect is rels be/it (e.g.,She utanna do /t), errors that heighten the style clash.
On the other hand, through exposure to spoken English, some students do pick up
some fast-speech reductions on their own and use them accumtely. If the reduction
sounds natural, the student should not be discouraged from using it.
Some fast-speech reductions should probably be viewecl as a continuum of
reductions, rather than as discrete fixed forms; the continuum involves a blending
together of more and ntore wotds and a loss of phonetic material that can be
extreme. Reductio trs of be Soing to are an example Years ago, my father planted the
seeds that later set me to listening for these reductions when he chided me for
saying "Imanal"'Imana?" he asked."Whafs Imane?l" Since then,I have heard the full
range of reductions shown below, in my own speech, in my father's speech, and in
the speech of other native speakers.
l'm going to go to the bookstore after class today.
I'm gonna go to the bookstore after class today.
lmana go to the bookstore after class today.
lt The last vo$el ol mel lo (/a/ or /u\t), depends on the iint sound of the following $ord. Thc /ury' pronunciation occuN beforc
\o\\, d to pnjq ,'"' r (l
^eo
lrp 0 '. .s'.010. ahu
' pag'
1HAPTER 2 Rhythn 83
The reduction of going to to goww occurs only when going to is used as the
futufe auxiliary, not s/hen it is the main verb of a sentence alrd to is follov/ed by a noun.
l'm gonna study. (l'm going to study.)
NOT: l'm gonna school. (l'm going to school.)
The reduction zr)anna. is .used, with the subject pronouns I, you, ue, ot tbq) rc
repl ce uant to or uant a, b1ot not u,ant tbe,
I wanna study. (l want to study.)
The atx:hary did may be reduced to a single consonant /d/ .lI you follows did.,
the sing]e consonant is /dy.
Wherd they go? (Where did they go?)
16'lhe
synrbol D repruents the flapped sound of /, ,s i n water (w page 129).
84 LHAPTER 2 Rhvthm
0escription This activity helps students recognize da, did, and you in their fast-
speech pronunciations. Students listen to sentences and wriie ihe
full forms of the sentences in the blanks.
CONCLUSION
Most classroom topics involving Englisli dlthm larget the linking or grouping
of worcls or the dillerence in length and loudness between stressed (content) words
and unstressed (function) words. Research shows that these aspects of English
pronunciation can be learned by students. It also sl]ows that native listeners of
English rely as heavil]', and possibly morc heavil]', on rhlthmic cues as they do on
appropriately pronounced consonants and vowcls Therefbre, as students gain skill
with the lbatures of r\thm, they inProve thc conlpre he nsibiliry of their own
speech.At the same time, their comprehension of native speakers impfoves as the]-
gain familiarity with how words are altcrcd or emphasized in connected speech.
CHAPTER
INTONATION
DEFINITIONS
Pitch on a word. Ever1. s,vllablc is spoken with a particular leyel pllcD
of (a note).
I)ut onh. pitches thar are noticeably highcl or lox.cr than
'fhese occur on dte stre.ssed o,fr... ir= in for,r"r.
sy,llables of w.or.tls that the speaker wants to meke
prominent and highliglrt l In the dialog'e berorq most speakirs
wourcr highright thc
wo(l "doctor" as the most import;rnt information in a stiaightf<rrward
answer to the
B5
86 ]HAPTER 3 lntonation
question "If/hat's your day Like?" High pitch,length, and loudness combine to draw
the listener's attention to this word.
Ar What's your day I ke?
In the example aboye, pitch "steps down" from the srressed syllable of
"doctor" to the following unstressed syllable. Pitch "glides down" on single-syllable
stressed words and in words stressed on the last syllable. Glide patterns are more
difficult for learners to hear than step patterns because the pitch change occurs
over a single syllable.
=-
rot sL,e. athink ,1=4
_
B: In 6n, *"N
RESEARCH ON INTONAIION
Final Intonation Patterns and Pitch
Final falling and final rising intonation patterns in English are traditionally
linked with diflerent rypes of sentences: Declamtive sentences and information
questions tlpically end with falling intonation, yes-no questions end with rising
intonation. The dialogue below illustrates the three sentence types and their
typical intonations.
B: I thlnk l'll just watch TV. (dec arative statrnent, falling intonation)
The same intonation patterns are used with the same sentence types in most
languages (Cruttenden 1986). Because of this similariry Kenworthy maintains that
"teachers can assume faidy safely that in many cases learners will use intonation in
English appropriately" (1987, 85). The use of salient pitch to make information
prominent is also found in many languages.
J
In Pienehumbefi and Hi$chberg, mtonational phrdJes corcspond rou$ll to sentence length ultermces; thought groups $ithin the
intonational phrases arc refeffed t0 as "intennediate phrases' (1!!0,277).
88 aHAPTER 3 lntonation
On the other hand, languages also djffer in the ways in which pitch and
intonation are used, ancl these differences can be difficult fof students to learn. For
example, although both English and Portugnese use pitcl.t to highlight important
information, in Portuguese, the prominent word occupies the fi11al position in an
intonation phrase. In English, the prominent word is usually the last content word
(stressed word) in an intonation phrase but can also occupy nonlinal positions, as
in the following example (Cruz-Ferreim l9tl7, 105):
Gravy?
may be creating The fact that some students $ ill not take our advice does not mcan
that we shor d not make tlte effort.
In othcr cases, speakers of languages \vith a wider pitch range than En1;lish, tor
example, Sweclish learners, ma1. speak English with a sinEi_song intonarion (Cclcc_
Murcie et al. 1996, 185).
Langua€ies differ not oni. in rnn€ie of pitch bur also in average leuet (t pitch.
Natiyc Geman speakcrs of English, for exaLmple. arc regartlccl as speaking wirh a
rather low flat intonation that mal' souncl ot erly serious or pedantic to a Nortl.l
American English listener; the rangc of pitch in German is also nafrower than in
English (Trinrm 1988, as quoted in Mennen 2006). A study of the level ancl range of
pitch used bv aclvancecl Gernnn spcakers of Englisl] showed that while most a
'sed
higher average level of pitch in Engrisl] (closer to the Engrish nomr), rhey continued
to use a narrower rxnge of pitch, (closer to the nom for Gernun), sufiElesting that
level ofpitch ma)' be more casily learned than range ofpitch (Mennen 2006).
'''.-
A: Finished?
B: Almost.
A: Five m inutes?
B: No.
A: When?
B: Later.
The difficulty of hearing whether the yoice is rising or falling can also be
reduced by replacing words with nonsense syllables to isolate the tune. For
example, in the dialogue above, students may have difficulty hearing the falling
intonation on "When?" because the fall is rapid, occurring over a single syllable.
(Students may also be confused by the question mark.) However, when a nonsense
sllable is used in place of"When?" the fall in inronation is much easier to hear.
authentic discourse as models, wl.rich are a better feflection of actual intonation use
than scripted, isolated sentences.
To reduce the complexity of intonation, teachers can combine both geneml
and specific approaches. Ta-vlor suggests that teachers shoultl focus on "broad
geneml principles, mastery of which will have a high pay-off for leerners and
teachers" (7993, 2). For example, a general rneaning of final rising intonation is
uncertainty or lack of finality or completeness. This explains its common lrse in JLle.t-
no questions (uncertainty), its use in "holding the floor" in conversation (lack of
finality-the speaker is not finished yet), its use in lists of infomation (lack of
finality-there's more to follow in the list;see Listing Intonetion, below), and its use
in discourse to signal that what came before is to be interpreted with what follows
(the preceding is unfinished).' Each of these rtses of final rising intonation can be
practiced in separate lessons with a specific communicative fuflction.
A: Did yo- wa., h lto 1ci{ tor gnll (},es no qJesl o.li
B: I wasn't hoib. (declarativel wfrat r,fien-dl (inforrnat on question)
Another rule states that items occurrinfa in the beginning of a list are
pronounced with rising intonation;the last item ofthe list is pronounced with falling
intonation if the list is complete, or with rising intonation if the list could continue.
---'/J
red, white, and b ue
.-'-/._--...-/._-/
red, wh te, b ue, green (. . .)
General meanings ofintonation patterns are usually presented. Rising intonation, for
example, indicates uncertalltF or lack of finality/completeness.
The association of intonation patterns with grammatical structllres (sentence
types, phrase rypes) is both teachable and learnable. The intonation-structure
associations reflect the intuitions of natiYe speakers and may also reflect the most
frequent intonation pattern used with a particulaf structure (e.g , falling intonation
with declaratives).
The traditional approach to teaching intonation, however, has been criticized
as overly simplistic and inadequate because the rules it presents are not always
5
The nreanings of "uncefainq and " lack ol cotnplcteness are xrgueblv rclabd. Il a spelker ols a co rvorket lor extuDpl€, 'tut the
(HAprER 3 tntonation 93
reflected in natural speech (see, for example, Cauldwell and Hewings 1996, Levis
and Pickering 20o1)-rn addition, the use of isolated sentences does not reveal the
coffmunicatiye role that intonation plavs in connected speech. Levis and pickering
conpared natiye speakers' intonation on sentences fead first in isolation. ordered so
the sentences were unrelated to each other (200,1). The final intonation on these
sentences, mostly declamtives, was falling, conforminli to the tmditional rules (i.c.,
most declaratives end in falling intonation). Howevef, wlten the same scntences
were reordercd to cfeate a coherent paragraph, the native speakers used more rising
intonation, even where the rules would predict falling intonation. pickering (2001,
cliscussed above) found sinflar results in her comparison of the intonation used by
natiye-English TAs and ITAS when deliverinFi a lecture. pickering sug€iests that rhe
native-English lAs'use of rising intonation when deliyering new inlbrmation (where
the expected pattem would be falling intonation) allowed them to ayoid sounding
as if they were alwa)'s infofming rheir students (2001).
Discourse Intoflatiofr
A more recent alternadve for teachin[i intonation is discourse intonation.
Discourse intonation has irs roots in the work of Halliday (1973) and, as a
pedaliogical approach, is most associated with the work of Brazil (1991a,7994b).
Brazil's framework was developed to introduce advancecl students to the role of
intonation in structuring discourse. The outline that follows is a simpliJication of
discourse intonation; interested readers should see Brazil 1994a,1991b.
The basic building block of discourse is rhe ton€ unit (an intonational phrase
or thought group). There are three malor features ofintonation that speakers choose
within tone units: prominence, proclaiming/referring tones (final intonation
patterns), and high and low key (changes in pitch level at tlte first pfominent word
of a tone unit).6 In the example below the tone units of a message are indicated by
thc s) mbol //.
//the bus stopped//we'd got to the termlnus//and everyone got ouvl
Tone units have at least one ptomineitt word (shown below in capitals), and
the last prominent word (underlined) is defined as having tonic stress. Speakers
decide which words to highlighr (make prominent) as a means of guiding the
listener to the most important information.
//WC'd GOT tO thE TERN4INUS/i
Intonation patterns (tones) that end a rone unit (thought gror-rp) are chosen
accordinli to wherher the speaker believes the information in the tone unit is new
or shared.T When tlte speaker believes the information is shared, a rising tone
' rredke$ nlake lrolher piLh leveL choice, cnlled tennin ation. at the begin njn g or e d ol a tone Llnit wh ich rcLafts t0 ke! choices ol
-
-...1r.''np ib,ro \,al llo, D-r/ ,cou^pLou(coerlrorco,pt tr't. i .,rt.o D.. l(\(.rl^r a
lrliels about shared information rlepend on sharerJ a$arcr€\s,rj t rc Jng!age, nf$hxi hxs bcensaidbefore, antlolprll and locaL
: .rrs (Chapman 2001).
94 .HAPTER 3 lntonation
is xioth€r tone'
s lall tone is efolher rcl€rdng toneilhe rist hlLlone lloclainillg
Then: are hvo othet comple{ tones:The Lise
aHAPTER 3 lntonation 95
use of rishg intonation on comprehension checks (e.g.,Rigtnn and the use of rising
intonation to hold the floor some of these are addressed in nondiscourse intonation
textbooks. chapman also recorimends that students listen for tone units (thought
groups) and prominent words in recordinlas of natural discourse in order to develop
a "realistic and generalized view', of the communicative use of intonation (2OO7,
rct.
ffi rtps
The remainder of this chapter presents specific features of intonation. The tips
are further explained in the context of these features and activities suggested to
practice them.
1. Highlighting
2. Contrastiye stress
3. Final intonation patterns
4. Comprehension checks and tag questions
5. Intonation with lists, choice questions, nonfinal intonation pattems
6. Appositives and parentheticals
7. Intonation, emotions, and attitudes
We discuss what the teacher should know about each of these topics and
proyide suEigestions for teaching them.
96 cIAPTER 3 lntonation
El "isr'righ.i"g
V/hat the Teacher Should Know
The following conversation between my claughter and me took place in our
living room, as I was reading the newspaper:
Son a (walkine n, exasperated, accusing): can't find my GLASSeS.
Sonia (bitterly, since t's l\4orn's fau t): 've LOST them.
Even though I wasn't paying attentioll to what my daughter said,I was able to
pick out the word "glasses" because shc made that word prominent. She replied to
my abscntminded question, highlighting "lost," the information she wanted me to
know about her glasses. After tl.rat, wc got up, did a searcll of the apartment, and, as
usual, I found her glasses.
Highliglrting involves the use of salient pitch (usually high, but not always),
together with length and loudness (drlthmic prominence), on the stressed syllable of
a word that the speaker considers to be more important than surroLrnding words.
Highl.ighting is also referred to as informatioll tbcus, sentence stress, primary stress,
pitch accent, nuclear stress, and toric stress.'l'his usc of pitch (as well as length and
loudness) provides "a funning conmentary on the newswofthiness of the various
items of infomation" (Maidme nt 1990,22).Daltofl and Seidlhofer describe prominence
(highlighting) as "the most important function of intonation, and alnost certainly the
most teachable one" (1994, 81; see also W'ennerstrom 1998,Jenkins 2000, Hahn 2004).
Highlighted words are often the last content word of a sentence, where new
information is wpically pfi: I bougbt a neut CAR, I'd like some COFFEE. In
discourse, highlighted words prcsent new, foregroundcd, or contrasting information
Ttre example below shows the role of Prominence in signaling new information.
Speaker B first gives prominence to "partlt'new information that answers speaker
A s question. In the seconcl part of speaker B's answe! the new information is "loud";
"party" is now olcl information and is pronounced with a lowered pitch
A: Why do you look so tired?
B: There was a PARTY in the bu dlng last nlght, a very LOUD parly.
Highlighted words also presertt information that contrasts with previously
mentioned information. In the following dialogue, speaker B is contrasting
information about his new car (see ContrastiYe stress, below):
A' How do you like your new car?
The fact that highlighted words are often the last content worcl in a phrase
provides a straightforward approach to teaching this intonation lbature to beginning
students. There are also general, teachable exceptions to the last-content-word rule
CH^prER 3 Intonatian 97
(Cruttenden 1990). Nouns tend to be focused more often than verbs, acliectives, or
advefbs. In presentational sentences, the noun following tbere is/are tencls to be
focused eyen if there arc otlter following nouns which also present new infomation.
There was a PARTY in my bui/ding.
Final adverbs are not usually focused, unless they present contfasting information or
the speaker wants to emphasize the specific meaning of the aclverb.
I'm going to B0ST0N, fortunatety.
I finished the BOOK yesterday.
Employee: Sorry. I don't know WHO you spoke to. l'M the manager and we don't
HAVE next day service.
1. Before class, plan t0 go with your students to a local restaurant for breakfast,
lunch, or dinner. Bring copies of the menu to class and go over them.
2. In class, after explaining the restaurant trip, pass out menus to students and
ask them to choose what they will order. Go over vocabulary as necessary. lf
the menu is long or includes a great deal of new vocabulary, ask students to
go over it as homework, choosing the items they will order. In this way, class
time can be used for speaking and pronunciation praciice raiher than
vocabulary development.
3. Write the students' choices on the board. lvlodel the pronunciation
and ask students to repeat. IVake sure students can pronounce their
choices u nderstandab ly.
4. Write a dialogue on the board, using one student's choices, or use the sample
dialogue on Worksheet 3.1. To keep the practice natural, do not insist that
students always use complete sentences. Capitalize highlighted words and
mark intonation.
1. lntroduce the topic of housing. Ask the class what is irnportant when they look
for a place to llve. List thelr answers on the board, recasting them as much as
possible as nouns (e.g., location, size, rent/price, privacy, noise).
2. lntroduce pronunciatlon. Check two of the items on the board and contrast
them in a sentence Iike "For me, loCAtion is more irnportant ihan SIZE.',
3. Ask students which words you contrasted and how your voice shows the
contrast (the contrast words are heavlly stressed, pitch is higher on these
words). Repeat your sentence and ask students to repeat, using their voices to
h ghlight the contrast words.
4. Ask a student to choose two items on the list and compare them for
importance. Provide feedback 0n pronunciatlon of the contrasted words.
Choose several other students to do the same.
5. Find out if anyone tn class is living tn an apartment share. Ask the class why
people choose apartment shares.
6. Put students rn pairs, giving one member Chart A, and the other Chart B. Tell
the class that each student has half of the information about two apartment
shares. Each member of the pair tells (not shows) her partner the information
on ihe chart, stressing words that contrast (not all of the information on the
sample charts contrasts). The listener writes the missing informatron to
complete his chart. When the charts are complete, the pair discusses which
apartment share is more desirable.
7. After the pair work, ask students which apartment share they preferred and
why. Provide feedback on the pronuncia on of contrasting words.
100 :HAPTER 3 lntanation
A: A. Chandaha nathan
A: C'H-A-N-D-A-H-A-N-A-T-H-A-N.
Thl] use of rising intonation with 1f11 questions is a useful one for ESL
students, who frequently need to ask for repetitions or clarifications, and is also
addressed in a number of textbooks.
In discourse intonation, fisinE! intonation at the end of a tone unit (thought
group) signals that information in the tone unit is shared between speaker and
hearer It can also be an invitation for the listener to make a conment (i.e.,
indicating the end of a turn). Brazil explains yes-n o questions plonounced with
risin!! tones (e.g., Is tbat tlre titleX as "making sure" questions, questions whose
answers the hearer knows and the speaker assumes to be true (1994a,20).
about seeing John yestefday. Similarty, commands do not reflect doubt about what
the speaker wants to happen.
ls Sonia here?
102 IHAPTER 3 lntonation
A low-rising iJrtonation, where pitch is low on the prominent word and then
rises to a high note, is also used and appears to differ little in meaning from the high-
risirg t ontour Oevis 2002).
tl'
ls\r9fiere?
A more exaggerated use of this rising pattern with lFI1 questions can indicate
disbelief or increduliry
A: A taxi hit my blke today.
B: What?
I know .
cnaprrn 3 lntonatictn "lf)f,.
Worksheet None
]lps Teach intonation patterns that occur at the ends of utterances.
Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language ihat your
students know how to use.
lsolate intonation patterns usjng nonsense syllables to make them
easier to hear.
Description ln thjs activity, students practice the rhythm and intonatjon
paiterns of common questions used for asking about names and
spellings in order to discover the name of a famous person. The
spelling questions also provide practice with the pronunciation of
letter names.
1. Before class, prepare cards with the names of famous people your students
will recognize (actors, poljtlcians, musicians, school officials).'prepare as many
cards as there are students.
(continLted on next page)
1O4 :HAPTER 3 lntonation
2. ln class, write the following questions on the board, varying the size of the
words to show their relative prominence. Draw intonation lines. (Do not write
the isolated rhythm patterns shown in parentheses on the board.)
DA
wHAT',S your FIRST NAtVtE? (On ou Dn)
DA
HOW do you sPELL it? (DA oa oa oa)
6. Famous people. Put students in new pairs and give each student a different
card (see step 1, above). Students ask each other the four quesiions on ihe
board and write their partners' answers. When pairs finish thelr cards, they
pass them to another pair and repeat the activity with cards from another pair.
Repeat the card passing and questions two more times.
7. Following the pair work, ask several students to ask a classmate (not their
partners) the same questions about the names on the classmate's current card.
Provide feedback on rhythm and intonation.
::s\e expressions are easy for students to use and afe communicarively usefi-d, as
--.11. Pickering suggests that ITAS include comprehension checks in their lectures in
:iier to break up the preponderance of falling and level tones that haye been
:.::rn-ed (20O1).
Tag questions llke isn't be? or can !ou? end in either falling or rising
::Dnation.When the speaker is asking for confimation, the falling pattern is used.
-:-r€n the speaker is expressing rincertainry
rising intonation is used.
_ ''-,
You're from Mexico, aren't you? (expressing uncerta nty)
A tag question alone with falling intonation can also be used to express
.rgreement.
B: lsn't it.
Tag questions are among the last question types to be used accurately by
students. They are granxmatically difficult, requiring mastery of the verb system as
well as subjcct-verb inversion (Lightbown and Spada 1999, 79). Because they occur
with either rising or falling intonarion, tlteA pronunciation is also difficr t. In
addition, they are pragmatically difficult. Levis suggests that before students are
taught how to pronounce tali questions, they lear-n the situations in which they are
used appropriately (1999,52). As an example, he imagines e help room situation in
which an ITA is working through problems witlt an undergraduate student who
seems to be having difficulry Levis asks how the I'I'A knows whether to ask about
the difficulty with a direct question or a tag question. He presents several possible
questions, shown below, and concludes that only thc first is cleady appropriate
(1999,53).
Because of the difficulties with tag questions, they are better left as a
pronunciation topic for high intemediate and advanced students.
106 (HAP\IR i tntanatian
Level Most
Worksheet None
:ip Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language that your
students know how to use.
Description Students write a recipe for their favorite sandwich. The recipe should
be simple and easy to make. In pairs students listen to each other's
recipes and take notes. The listener checks his understanding by
reading back his notes and adding the confirmation check right?
with rising intonation. (Alternatively, students can give each other
directions to their homes, a favorite restaurant, park, movie theater,
or library. lTAs can define a term or concept from their field to
someone who isn't in their field.)
ngred ents, a slice of good bread, I c ove of garl c, ol ve oil, salt and pepper,
your favorite cheese
2. ln class, give the sandwich recipe to a student who will read the instructions
while you write them on the bOard. Tell the student to read at a normal pace.
3. As the student gets ahead of your writing, stop him. Repeat the last part 0f the
instructions he read, ending with the comprehension check rghtZ
4. Ask the class what word you added to check your understanding. Ask whether
your voice rose or fell over that word (i.e., rightn. lf necessary, repeat the last
part of the instructions with the comprehension check.
5. The student continues to read the recipe instructi0ns and you continue writing
them on the board, stopping the reader from time to time to check your
understandl ng, using rteht?
.HAPTER 3 lntanation "l07
jsts, Choice
IStoTlior,rfyith I
Non-Final-Thought euestions, and
Groups
----''/--''''/
We visrted Beijing, Shanghai, Ho-ng Kong.
. .
, cauldwelr and Hewings point out that this intonation rule,like all others,is not
always observ-e<l in natural speech (1996) and that ,fr" ,.rf., should not be
presented "hard and fast.,'They cite an example from an introduction
as
prog?m g: th: poetry of Phillip La&in (1996,3]8).In to a radio
describing his poetry, Larkin
uses two lists;the first (a) follows the pattern
clescribe.l above while the second (b)
does not.
Choice Questions and Questions with o/. Choice questions are often phrased
with or: They look tike -lLlesr?o qllestions, but the speaker expccts them to be
answered with one of the choices, rather than with./es or zo. 'l'he choices are in
different thought groups;pitch rises on the first choice(s) and lalls on the last.
'-'-,'-'--'-
A. Do you want to go on Friday, Saturday, or Sunday?
B. Saturday.
Some J,es-no questions with or are trucJes-/lo questions, qr,restions that can be
appropriatel) answefed with J€s o!: ,?o. In this case, both items in the or phrasc arc
in the same thought group, ancl intonati(.,n fises as with other l.,es-7?(/ questions.
A: Can you corne on Saturday or Sunday? (the speaker doesn't care wh ch day)
In a discourse intonation fi?mework, final and nonfinal phrases (tone units) afe
not differentiated from eaclr other tbrmall_\.. A risin€! tone at the end of a phr.rse
inclicates that the inlbrmation in thc phflse is slrared betn'een the speaker and
hearer'. A falling tone shorvs that the speakcr believes the informetion is new (or
chooses to speak as if it were new). In Pierrehumbert and Hitschberg's framervort,
nonfinal phrases and clanses are callcd intermediate pluascs. high tone at the encl
'\
of rln intcrmcdiatc phrasc indicates that it is to be interpreted $,-ith what follows. A
low tone is used to show that the phrase is independent of $.'hat follows ( 1990, 287).
Neither explanation of the differencc in meaning bet$-een nonfinal rising and
falling intonation is concrete or clear enough to appll in the classroom. Cllxssroom
studies ha\.e shown that the shared-ne$' distinction is frequcntly unclear to tcachcrs
and students. It seems likely that the distinction bet$ een informrtion that is to be
interpreted with $'hat fbllows and information that is indepefldent of s.'hat follows
cHAprER 3 lntonation 1Og
will be as unclear, leaving the teacher with no ready explanation for why intonation
on one nonfinal clause falls but rises on anothef. In my own teaching, I address the
pronunciation of nonfinal clauses (phrases) as part of rhlthm (thought groups) and
do not focus on the co-occuffinfi intonational changes, which are especially difficult
for students to notice.
Worksheet None
Tip lntegrate intonation work wilh classroom work on other English skills.
Description Students practice listing intonation in the context of a game. After
presenting the intonation patterns associated wiih lists, students
play the game in groups of three. The group chooses a vocabulary
category that your students have learned (for example, family
words). One student starts by naming two types of family members,
using listing intonation (e.g., mother and father). The next student
repeats the two items and adds a new one (mother, father, and
sister). The third student repeats the three items of the second
student and adds a fourth (mother, father, sister, and brother).
' When the group can't think of any new words in that category (or
remember all the words that have been said before), the last
contributor to the list chooses a new category (e.g., colors, animals,
rooms in a house, or means of transportation).
1. On the board, write category headings. Choose familiar categories that students
can expand (e,9., animals, colors, family words, months). Ask students for
words that belong in each category and add them to the board.
2. Demonstrate listing intonation when the lists are complete. Ask the question
What are the first three (colors) in the list? Choose a student to answer.
3. Write the answer on the board, adding intonati0n lines, and model the answer,
Students repeat.
-----/.'''/ \
red, blue (and) yellow
4. Then ask What are the first four (animals) on the listT \Nrite the answer on the
board, showing the intonation lines. Students repeat.
5. Elicit intonaiion: l\4odel each item on the lists and ask students whether your
voice goes up or down. (Alternatively, explain intonation: 0n the first words,
your voice goes up. When the list is f nished, your voice goes down.)
(c xinued on next page)
1 10 I LAPTER 3 lntonation
6. Erase the words in the categories, leaving only the category headings on the
board. Choose two students to demonstrate the game with you.
7. Choose one of the categories on the board-for example, colors. Ask a student
from your "group" to say two colors. Give feedback on intonation. Ask the other
student in your group to repeat the first student's colors and add a third. v,ou
repeat the three colors and add a fourth. The student who chose the first two
colors repeats your four and adds a fifth, and so on. When someone forgets a
color word or can't think of a new one, a new category is chosen. The student
who is the last to add to a category (i.e., has produced the longest list), gets to
start the new category.
8. Students work in groups of three and repeat the demonstration.
Pai:entheticals. Parentheticals are expressions that are set apart from the main
utterance . Examples include direct address forms (e.g.,Mr Smitb, can I ask lou a
question?), comments thnt exprcss how the speaker feels about the message (e.9.,
He's late ag.in, I suppose), politeness expressions (e.9.,I'd like an application,
please), of final reporting expressions, (e.g., I'm la4t, be said). Parenthetical
CH^prF,R 3 tntonation 111
information is pronounced in its own thought group,e with low pitch and low
volume. This rather monotone delivery sets the parenthetical information off from
the "livelier" intonation ofthe main message.weaker le,,els of stress are also involved
in parenthericals (Dickerson 2003).
The intonation on sentence initial parentheticals can end in either a rise or
a fall.
Students use parenthetical expressions, but they may not use appropriate
stress, grouping, and intonation to set the expression off from the rest of the
utterance effectiyely. If students give a parenthetical word too much prominence,
that word may be interpreted as part of the main Lrtterance rather than as a
pafenthetical, leading to a possible confusion between Ilozr,.s our (Jncle Cha es?
J,,
lbr example, and Aou.t's lour uncle, Cba es?
'l long pa1€nthetical may consist olmore than one thought group:for example, lo ur uark. ln
facl, all the aot h )nu'ue darl thit
eek b.$bee letific ln lhis sentence, the parenthelic l is long (ii1.bct, aitlhe aork
:.onounced in firce thoughl gto.lps o/l.t'act/all the aorhl,ou l,p
la
'rc t1atrc tbis zr,ee*) altl would likelv be
76r, 6i, ,,rrU, Regirilles of Length. a lou"pitched, monoton'e
-lir€ry \I'ould chffecteria the entiN p tnthetical
l0l
his a.tivitvls nodcled after Dicke$on (2003)
112 ]HAPTER 3 tntonatian
(infomational and affecti\.c) of jr]tonarbn are belieyed to clerive from biological codes
(Ohala 1983, Gusshor''en 2(X)4). One biological cocle, rhe ficc1uenc1. code, associates
conrotatioos of "small" with high pitches xnd "big" with low pitches. .Ihcse
associations come from the fact that larger vocal cords and yocal tmcts, such as those
of men (or large animals), ploduce lo\rer pitclted sounds;smallcr r,'ocal corcls ancl \,ocal
facts procluce higher pitchcd sounds, slrch as those of childrcn (of small animals).
Afltcti\,'e interpretntions of intonation arc believcd to havc developed from thc
big-small meirnings of low and high pitch. Low pitch is assorliatcd wirh
assertivcness, confidence, dominance, aggression, finalitl', and thrcatl hi€lh pitch is
associated with lack of certainq', fricncllir.tcss, lack of confidence, politeness,
vulncrabiliq', and submissivcness (Ohala 1!t3J, Gusscnhoven 2004).
Another code, the effort code, maintxins thxt lireatef articulatory efloft results
in clearer, more explicit speech contfirsts. In intooation, greatcr ellbrt produces a
wider ranlle of pitch, wliile less effort produccs a narrower rarlle of pitch. Affective
interpretations of a widcf range of pitch include surprise, enthusiasn, authority, and
helpftrlness. Interprctations of a narrowef fange of pitch (less effort) ir.rclude lack of
interest, lack of commitment, less surprise, ancl so on.
ln intcrpreting others' emotional states, we r.ely not olly on vocal cues (level
or range of pitch), but also on r.isnal cues (facial gestur.es, posturc, or body
language); on context cues (the situation in which a particular conversatiolt takes
place or the felationship between speaker and listener); and on linguistic cues (the
specific wolds used ancl their connotations). An emplo,vee who takes offensc at l.ris
boss's criticism, for example , mav say nothirg but srill rcveal his rlnlier in a stiffening
of the lace ancl body. An onlooker to the exchange rnight latcr sa,.\r, "I know he was
angry I conld sec it in his face."
Research on nativc speakers' abilitr,' to recognize ernotions in audio recordings.
where there are no visual cues;rnd therc may be no context cues, shows agrcement
as to what emotion is being portrayed, alrbougb there afe diff'efences in rhe degree
of agreement. When listeners arc asked to choose among a small numbef of
"prinary" emotions (anger, fear, sadness, jolD, agreement is highef than when
"secondafy" cmotions (hate, nervolrsness, or timidity) arc also included among the
choices.r 1 Disa€ireements usuallv inyoh-e distinctions between closely r.elatecl
emotions such as sadness and depression.r2
Graham et al. (2001) studic.l the abilit]- of lrati\.e and nonnatiye speakers of
Englisl] to idcntify emotions portm,yed in English in an ar-rclio recording of fbur
professional actors. The nativc English listencrs $,'ere Alnerican college students;the
nonnative listeners werc Japa[ese and Spanish ESL studcnts at different levels of
ilor extnple. leer leads to flighl) S€condan cmolions nll'be mo|e culture specilic. \lOst firchologists
flace rngc1 1iu, sadness,
io hapliness xnrurg lhe frrnaN e.roLions but nto' not aqLe€ 0n lhe lull set Stc l0r criLNllc. ElnDm (1999)
rccitations ol ihe iLlphabet |ead with diliercnt emotiors (Deurz lnd DlriL 1959) t0 te\ts rcad bl actors.
114 (H^PIER 3 lntonatiott
proficiency. They found that although the ESL learners identified emotions at better-
than-chance le\.els, they identfied them less accuratell than natir e EngLish listeners.
A rnore surprising finding was that the more-proficient ESL srudents wefe not bctter
able to identify the emotions than the less-proficieflt students. Gmham et al. suggest
several possiblc explanations fbr their results, including the tact that students are
not likely to be exposed to certain types of emotion in the classroom. Indeed, the
clzssroom is not an appropriate place for tlte expression of man] strong emotions;
neither teachers nor chssmates welcome the genuine expression of erupting ra€!e,
deep despaif, of scathing sarcasm.
The attitudes and emotions we want our students to express more
appropriately are tamer: confidence, interest, ffiendliness, and so on. These are
positive attitudes that are likely to extend conYefsation, create more opportunities
for practice, and, ultimately, lead to greater learning. We can expose our students to
the expression of more extreme emotions and attitudes vicariously by bfinging
emotion into the classroom through Yideos and movies. Because the affbctive
interpretation of intonation is highly dependent on context, it is difflcr t to make
teachable, generalizable statements about its use (LeYis 1999) As a result, intonation
teaching should focus preclominantly on features of intonation that ha\.e broad
informational value in discourse (e.g., making words prominent or turn taking)
father than on the expression of emotions.
Students can, howeYer, without explicit irlstruction on the use of specific pitch
levels or pattems of intonation, be given the opportunity to "stretch their Yoices" in
role plays and skits, where they ffy expressing different feelinp;s and attitudes and
try on different persoflae.
level l\4ost
1. Students read the dia ogue and the situations on Worksheet 3.8.
2. The teacher explains that the class wlll use the dialogue to act out the
situations in the handout. Since the words in the dialogue do not change,
students must use their voices to show the different situatlons.
CHAPTLR 3 lntonati.)n 115
Actit) y 3.8 mnttnued
3, The class creates the script, which the teacher writes on the board and
students copy at their desks. New characters and actors are added as
necessary. As the scene is being written, the teacher provtdes needed language,
gives feedback on grammar and word choice, makes suggesttons about the
direction in which the scnpt is going, and decides when the scene is finished.
4. The script is rehearsed by the actors and the class as it is being written. The
director and audience provide feedback to the actors to make them more
expressive. For examp/e, they might say, "that doesn't sound angry enough" or
"that sounds too angry" or "say that louder."
5. Once the script is written and on the board, the actors rehearse again,
receiving direction from the ciass and director,
6. Then the script rs erased. The actors act out the scene, improv sing as necessary.
7. After the performance, the actors and director stay in character. The rest of the
class asks probing questi0ns about the characters.
CONCLUSION
The role of intonation in both structuring and interpreting a speaker's meaning
makes it a crucial component of pronunciation. It is also the most colrmunicative
aspect of pronunciation: Alone , withot-lt words, it can communicate meaning. Native
speakers, for example , may "hum" common utterances lilFie I don't knott) ot yes,
A: ls l\4ax ready?
(l don't know.)
Fr
B: ff ['l (Yes. )
There are only a few Engrish consonzurts v/hich afc difficr t for most
studcnts
(e.g. thefirst sounds in thing and tDlO. Since many English consonants ha\'e close
counterpafis in other languages, studcnts may fi.rd consonants. at least
at the
heginnings ('l w(,rd\. easi(.r to lcffn lhrtn vowcls. Ted(.herr
-r1
easier to tcach than vowels (Daucr 2005). corsonrnt contmsts are not
,f.,n iUlO.on.rnrn,r
as clitlicult
perceptually as vowel contmsrs (Tench 2003), ancl the spelling of consonants
is nore
consisteflt than the spelling of vowels. ln addition, because consonants
involve
touching one part of the mouth to zu.lother (or moving one part of tlte
mouth close to
anothcr part), the studcnt has fixed refefence points, which are often easy
to visu;tiize
and control;instructinli a student ro touch the rop teeth to the bottom
lip, for example,
is usually sufficient to enable l.ler to pronounce tlte first sounds in
,s/J ancl uan.
Pronouncing consonants at the cnds of words or sylleblcs, on the other
hancl, is
challenging for most students, even when the same consonants pose no problems
at
1'17
118 cuAPrtR l Cansanants
the beg rnings of words. A student who has no difficulq' pronounclitg th.e /t/ time
'1l].
may nevertheless have a great deal of difficulty pronouncing tbe /t/ it migbt.
Consonants that occrr in consonant clusters Groups ofconsonants, as in train or test)
are also rnore difficult than consonants which occur singly (Hancin-Bhatt and Bhatt
199D. A student, for example, may be able to pronounce /r/ in rou), but not in grozl
Problems with consonant clusters and with finxl consonants generally are tied
to the dilferences between syllable structure in the learner's native language and
in English.
SYII-{BLE STRUCTT]RE
A syllable is a "beat" in a word. For example, dog has one syllable, urslt has two
s_yllables, and u)onderful has three syllables. The center (nucleus) of a syllable is a
r'owel. In English syllables, vowels may be preceded and/or followed by one or more
consonants. Every language places restrictions on the type and location of
consonants that can occur in syllables. The word tlack, for example, is not a
permissible English word because /tll is not a permitted cluster (although it is in
some languages). Trlrs4 which doesn't happen to occur in English, is a permissible
word because it does not violate English s_vllablc strucLrre (the beginning cluster in
the nonword t /rst occurs in tbree altrd tbrift).
Syllables are either open or closed. Open syllables end in a vowel;for example,
the word see is an open syllable, and soJn? contains two open syllables ("so" and "fa").
Closed syllables end in one or more consonants; r/og for example, is a closed
syllable, pictule.s (pic-tures) contains two closed syllables.
^nd
Open syllabtes, found in every language, are simpler oi more ufliyersal than
closecl syllables (Jakobsen and Halle 1956, Greenberg 1965, Tarone 1980). Students
whose natiye languages are predominantly open-sllable languages Oapanese,
Cantonese, Portuguese) often have difficr.rlty pronouncing the final consonants and
consonant clusters of English s-vllables, like those in dog, felt, or utaltz.
Thus, the teacher can assume that pronunciation work with a few generally
"difficult" consonants. with consonant clusters. and with final consonants $'ill
benefit most students, regardless of nativc-lanlauage background. For other
consonants, howe\.er, the teacher will need to cliagnose the speech of his students
and base additional consonant work on those assessments.
ARTICIIIATION OF CONSONANTS
When two parts ofthe vocal tract (the areas where souncls are produced) move
close enough to€iether to obstruct the air streem, consonants arc produced. For
example, the fust sounds ln path llnd batb in'.r'olve a brief closure of the lips, an
obstruction that completely stops thc airflow. If snrdents cannot pronounce a
CtlAprER 4 Consonants
_i,19
Nasal Cavity
Palate
Palatal consonants
J ("hip),
(front roof of the g (pleasure),
mouth) tf (chair),
q CazT-)
y (ves)
I
The tem'Ljquid" is a perceptual ternr 'lhe c0ns0nanls // and/l/ heve a liquid sornd.
]HA?TER 4 Consonants 121
You can test voicing by placing your fingertips alongside the yocal cords (the
Adam's apple) nnd pressing gently while 1'ou alternate between a long /y/ arrd a
long /f/:
wvrrffflfi'vwffffff
'When you say A'l'v\.v/, )'ou should be able to feel the vibration ifi )'our fingertips.
When yotr say /ffff/, th.e yibration "switches off." It is difficult to feel rhe difference
in voicing between /p/ and /b/ n ttls way, because these sounds can't be prolonged
and /y/ can. Howerze! if you close youf e;rrs with your fingers and then say"pa"
^s/f/
and "ba," keeping the vowels as short as possible, you can hear the vibration in your
head with "ba" but not with "pal'
Alveolar ridge Td)th ridgc;flat part behind the top teeth (this can be felt with
the tongue)
Palate Front part of the top/roof of the mouth (this can be felr with the
tonglre)
Vchul Back part of the top/roof of the mouth (this cannot be felt with
the tongue)
Vocal cords No substilute , but tl.le teacher can point to tlle Adam's apple
ry
Stop Stop: the air is completely stopped
Affricate /t/ + /J/ prcnounced together (4/ is lirst soturd in s/rrp). Students
will not hear the two parts as separate sounds (see Sibilants,
below);
/d/ + /3/ ptonouncecl together (/3/ is the middle sound in
pleasure).
Students will not hear the two parts as separate sounds
Nasal Nasal;lhe eir comes out thc nosc; 1/, tn, or "en[a"
Liquid rorl
Retroflexion The tip of thc tongue poil.rts/cu s I'rp
Lareral l; air passes over the sides of tl.tc tongue (refetence to this term
is rarely necessarl,
voiced Voiced; vocal cords \.ibrute; morc "sound" than voiceless consonants
cHApT[R,i Consonants "l2i
ffirps
improve their
W'e discuss what the teacher shor d know about each of these topics and provicle
suggestions for te;Lching ttrem. In some cases, the suEigestion is a classfoom activity.In
other cases, it is effor coffection. Suggestions for error correction are shon enough to
use when sh.rdents rre engaged in nonpronunciation actiyities. They are also usefij for
addressing pronunciation problems that only one or two of your students experience.
The remainder of this chapter presents the following consonants and lbatures
of consonant ptonunciation. The slx tips aboye are explained further and reflected
in the context of specific consonants.
pandb fandv
Coflsonants nnde with the lips, the labial sounds /p, b, f, v, w/, are the source
of variety of pronuncintion problems. The protrlems clepentl on the native
a
language of the student end usually involve specific pairs of souncls:
. /p, b/: These sounds are problems for Arabic students. The problem is onc of
voicing. In Arabic, /p/ and /b/ are variants of the same sound.
. /p, f/: These souncls are confused by Koreart-speaking students
. /i v/:These sounds are problems lbr Japanese-spenking students
. ,/b, v,/:These souncls are problems for Spanish-speaking studcnts
. /y, w/: These sounds are problems for native speakers of a wide rangc of lan-
guages: Chinese, Vietnamcse, Thai, German and other Germanic languages,
l'urkish, and Russian and other Slavic latlguages
. Consonant clusters with /w/, especially /kw/ (e.g., question, quiet, Ian-
guryq hoin):These words are problems for Korean sttrdents, who often omit
/w/ (or fail to round the lips enough to make ,/w/ cleady heard;scc also Initial
Consonant Clusters, bekrw).
. The sequence /wo/ uroman, uoulD: 'Ihis is a pfoblem for natiye
(e .g.,
speakers ofJapanese especiall)', as wcll as Korean. See Glides, page 148.
CHA?|ER,4 Consonants 125
Few students ha\'e problems with the articulation of all five labial sounds (/p,
b, f, v, wD. In classes where students speak a varietF of native languages, the ftrll set
of sounds can be presented, and the teacher can be confidenr that the lesson will
address problems that each student has. Because labial consonants are pronounced
at the front of the mouth and ctifferences between them are easy to see, students
have good control and awareness of articulation. These souncls are easv to teach and
eas) lLr letrn.
In a classroom where all students speak the same natiye language, the teacher
can focus the lesson on a specific pail (or pairs) of problem souncls. For example,
with a class of Spanish studenrs,the teacher can fbcus on /b/ and /y/.In Spanish, the
stop pronunciation [bl occurs at the beginning of a word; a bilabial fricative
[p],
which sourlds very close to English ,/y/, occurs after vowels.2 Thus, in Span ish bebir,
"to drink", the first "b" will probably be pronounced [b], brjt the middle consoflant
will be tpl.3 Followin!! the Spanish pattern, Spanish students may pronounce
Englislr words Iike aery as "berry,"while words like rob arrd, table mav sound like
- rop and -
t:rvcl.'
1. On the board, write phrases containing words with lvl andlu /b/ that can be
used to d iscuss problems.
Square brackes (l ]) aLe used to indicate that the sound in bmckets is a va anl
'z
frununciation of anothff sound, rather than a
diflerent sound. lror example, natile speake$ lronoxnc€ the / rn ,r e/a dlfferertlf ham thc t i.t mehic. rhe t tt nieta,
aflzp, is a
va anl |ronunclalion ol /L/ (se€ fla|s, /t/ llnd /d./, beloq,).
r
A [i]rbial frcJtrre t[p] r rs made $h€n lhp air
l.L$es thLough the lips, rfiich an alnost, but not quitr, closed. The labiodental
lricali\ ' .I
\ l i. -r...1' ,\' hF ,o t"prh t.. . p buLlo.n rrl.
, t
126 IHAPTER 1 consonants
Actiuit:y 4. 1 contlnuecl
2. lvlodel the phrases. Exaggerate the visible articuiation of /v/ and explain
articulation if necessary (the top teeth touch the bottom lip). Students repeat.
Provide feedback on /v/.
4. Group work (4-5 students per group). Each student in the group chooses two
or three problems that he or she thinks are very important and explains them to
the group. Remind students to pronounce lul carelrlly in words like rery.
During group work, provide feedback on pronunciation
5. After the group work, ask several students which problems they chose and why.
Provide feedback on pron unciation.
contact with native speakers, the)' shor-lld be aware that some substitutions for ,J
sounds (for exarnple, "wif, for .,with.' ,,dem,' for .them,', and ,,tink,'for .think,,) are
stitimatized and associated with nonstandard, English. Students can and
do learn to pronounce these sot-lnds accurately, 'neducated
so they should be adclressed in
pfonunciation wofk.
Students usually learn quickly to percei\.e the clifference between the ,/,
sonnds and their common substitutions (as in think-ti11k_sink, tben_den_Zen),
dtltough preceding sounds can influence rhe degree of perceptual similarity
bctween the tl, sounds and natiye,language substitutions.i
The intetdental articulation of these sounds is the most.lifficult tbature of
their pronunciation. Students need to be taught that the tip of the tongue protrudes
a bit between dte teeth and d1e aif passes out o]/er thc tongue. The sounds are
easiest to pronounce at the beginnings of worcls (e.g., tbanks, tbink, thing, tbis,
tbat) , morc dlfficLt lt when t is in me dial positi on (e .g. . otlzef ueather, autt\or) , and
most difficult when t ends a word (.e.g., utitb, batb, breatlJe, fourtb). In fin I
position, students may have less difficrjlty with voicele ss /e/ eB in uitb) than with
voicecl /6,r (as it1 breatbe) (see also Final Voiced and Voiceless Sounds).
Native speakers sometimes simplify final t sounds when an _s ending follows.
This is very common in the word clothes, which most Americans pronounce like
the yerb "(to) close," and ln months, which most Americans pronounce as ,,munts,,
Umants/). These simplfications in common words should be taught to students.
(See also -s endings and Native Simplifications of Final Consonants).
Students may express embarrassment about pronouncing t/, sounds as
interdentals, worrying rhat they will look rucle if they.stick out,,their tongues. The
teachef should addfess this reluctance. With stuclcnts in academic programs, it is
often enough to explain that incorrcct pronunciations of tD sounds may lead native
listenefs to conclude that the student is not wcll educated.5 Teachers can also take
the "gafden path" appfoach and ask students to clescribe what the q,pical American
or Canadian tongue looks like-is it long or short, fat or skinny? What color is it?
Since native speakers use the t sounds very frequently (jfi the, tbis, tbat, thing,
etc.), students should have a cleaf picture of how thc tongue looks if it really is
"hanging out" of the mouth. In fact, the tip of the tongue protrudes only a little, and
it doesn't "hang around" outside. Students will not look rucle if they pronounce ,/,
coffectly, but they may sound uneducirted if rhey don,t.
Pronunciation of tb citn be included with the teaching of the fbllowin[i
grammatical poiltts:
arltcle: the
demonstratives: th i s/that/th ese/th ose
ntrod ucer: there i s/a re/was/we re
a
Trciinovich, Gatbontin, alrd Segelowiu (2007) report that the /d/ oi 1re wits casicst for frcnch canedian ESL lexnrexj to h€er{,hen it
wrs preceded by a yojced fticatjre (e.g.,rutds the barr) or l,otced affricate (1lr\t.t
iudge the man).
t onll the I 1 slLbstitution is stigm.tized Th€ J-.; sub\h tu tior | \ | [,c hc.r I d Js romrlt| e. not noutandard.
128 cH^PrER 1 Consanant
wo.ksheet None
L Elicit from students the ordinal numbers from 1-20 as well as 30 and 31'
Write the ordinals on the board, using their standard abbreviations (1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th). Provide feedback on the pronunclation of th Model all the ordinals
from 1-31. Students rePeat.
2. Elicit the months of the year and write them 0n the board. Model each month
name. Students repeat.
3. On the board, write "When is your birthday?" lVodel the question. Students
repeat. Provide feedback on the pronunciation of "th" in birthday'
4. Students copy the months of the year as a ist on a piece of paper, leaving
enough room after each rnonth to write classmates' names and birth dates
Students circulate and ask each other about ihelr birth dates, wr ting the
information on the paper (in a room too smallto move around in, interviewing
can be restricted to smaller groups).
5. When the interviews are finished, ask students about their classmates' birth
dates. Provide feedback on pronunciation. In a class of 23 students, for
example, there is over a 50 percent probability that two will have the same
b irthday (month and date).
cHAprER 4 Consonants 129
Itges l1/ a-tl /!/ (e.g., tie, die);Flapst (e.g., uetting, ueddins);
Glottalized /t/ (e.9., utritten)
V/hile the pronunciation of /t/ and, /d/ in words like tie afld. die is
difficult, both /r/ and /d/ har.e variant pfonunciations (for example, the'?lely
t in
uater), which can make words hard for students to undefstand. Variants are
discussed below
Flap* uetting, uedding. The middle consonanF in u.)etting aruI wedding are
pronounced as flaps in North American English (NAE). The tip of the rongue
quickly "slaps" the top of the mouth behind the teeth; the yocal cords yibrate.
Inside words, flaps occur when /f/ ot /(l/ follows a stressed vowel (or a stressed
vowel plus /r/, as in party) ard then is followed by an unstressed vowel.Inpotdto,
for example, there are two ,/t/ sounds; the lirst "t" is not flapped because it does
not follow the stressed yowel; the second /t,/ is a flap (phonetic symbol [D])
because it follows the stressed vowel. Compare the flapped prol.lijnciation of /t/
and /d/ In column A below (where stress precedes) with the sound in column B
(v/here stress follows) :
A c
Attic taDtw aTTACK latav
(an) Addicr /aDlkv (to) aDDiCT /adlkY
FAtal feyDay laT Alily ltelateciyt
Adding lal.lqt aD0ition /adfan/
130 cHAPrtR I Consonants
Sincc flapped /t/ and /d,/ are both yoicecl, homorryms occur in \\ ords llke latter and
lqddet; putting pudding, and u)etling xnd ueddings
^nd.
Fittal /t/ car. bc flapped in common words when the ne\t \l'ord begifls with:r
vowel (even if the vowel precedinti thc flap is not stressed):
at a movie /aDa/ movie
The flapped pronunciation oflt/ and /d/ is charactcristic ofNorth American En€ilish
(NAE) but does not occur iil British English, thc dialect that man)' ESL students
learned when they lirst studied English. Bccause flaps can make worcls clifficult for
students to understand, they sl.rould be taught for recoflnition. Teachers whose stu-
dents are living in the United States or Canacla may want to teach f'laps lbr pronun-
ciation in some comtlon words or expressions, such u)ater and What's the
,ncttter? h1 thesc words, thc unfhpped pronunciations can ^s be difficult for natiye
speakefs to undefstand. For most words, however, substitutions of"regular",/t/ and
/d,/ are acceptable, and the flap need not be ta'.iliht for pronunciation.
i In /i,/ \asah
these \\'ords. is Uonour.ed N 1 slllabic nNxL (see page I 36) .
in Cockne) lhglish, Dr1ltu is b0?1." \{ost NAfl spexkeN llxf /y ln ,0/l1e hoDl ' or "boDal.
'
fuurnced the
CHAPTIR 4 Consonants 131
L Write matter and material on the board, underlining t's. lvlodel the words,
asking students to listen to how the t's are pronounced. Ask student if the I's
in the two words sound the same.
2. Explain that the I in matter is pronounced like a fast d. Ask students to say
matter, pronouncing the underlined consonants as a fast d. Explain that in the
United States and Canada, f's and d's have this pronunciation when the
preceding vowel is stressed. Students can use regular lll and ldl in their own
speaking, but should be able to recognize the flaps.
3. Add other cornmon words wtth flaps to the board, capltalizing stressed syllables
and underlining flaps. l\4odel the words.
WAler WRIling pRElly tEACer ( !er) tomAlo
4. Ask students to volunteer words they have heard where t or d has an
unexpected pronunciatlon.
/s/ a'rd /z/. The sibilants /s/ and /z/ are tiicatives ("hissr" sounds), produced by
bringing the tip of the tongue close to the alyeolar ridge Oehind thc top reeth). /s/
js voiceless and /z/ is yoiced.
Sue! Zou
w7;4
Y2
Y_-4r-^{//
The consonant /s/ occurs in maq'languages ancl is a familiar sound for students.Its
voiced counterpart /z/ i,s less common.Vietnamese, Thai, Korean. and most dialects
of Chinese lack /z/; in Spanish, /z/ occurs only before voiced consonants (e.g.,
misrnr.t) ,tncl, even in this context, may be weakene d in some dialects. Voiceless /s/
is a common substitute for ,/z/, althoLtgtr /l'/ or /dz/ may also be substituted.Japanese
and Korean students may pronotnce /s/ as /[/ in words like see, sit, sue, and pursue
(that is, before higlt vowels; see Vowels); /s/ does not occur before these \.owels in
Japanese or Korean.e
/l/ ft1 pleasure. The boldface sounds rn sbip and pteasure ([/ and /3/)
s}ei:p and
are plonolrnced by pulling the tongue back f.rom the /s/ /z/ positiot] (ro the palate)
and rounding the lips slightly. The boldface sound in sbrp is voiceless; in pleasure,
it is voiccd.
m
ship . pleasure
Y2
With the exception of a few l-rench words (e.g., gen rc'). B/ does nor occur at the
i)rgirln ing ol English word..
The specific problems involving /l/ B/ clepcncl on the student's native
language. Chincse students may pronounce ^ndthe bold consonants in usualll
or
measnre (BD too weakll', 5s that tltev sound like "uwlally" or "mayor" Greck
studcnts may substitute /s/ for [/ before high front vowels;sbaep for example, may
sound like "seep," and garage like "p;araz.'
/tJ/ Gheck) /q / (jeep). The lip diagrams for the affiicates /t/ (as in clreck')
and
encl /4/ jeep)
@s 1n iclcntical to those for /[/ a]nd /3/ ahovc. /tl/ is voiceless and
^rc
/Q/ is voiced. The affricates /tl/ (.^s it1 mucb) and, /Q,/ (.as in major) e complex
'Korqu sludenb mar suhstitllt€ /torl 3 / for /s/ or /z/ bcforc nrid-io\rcls irs $ellllor cvnrple. r'r,r'rz1l ntal sound like rezhult.'
CtAprER.tr Consonants 133
sounds which start as stops (/t/ or /dD and arc released as fricatives (/t or
/3D.The
stop is not heard as a separate sound but must be articulated lbr the affficate to
be
pronouncecl coffectl)'. In words witl.r flr]al /tJ/ and /S/ (for examplc.
muclJ aIILl
age), tl.e stop can be heard as a brief silence before the last sound. say tnuch vew
slowly and notice that the vowel sounds "cut off" and is followed bv a Lrief silence.
Tl.ris Occurs becluse the /t/ (.of /t[D briefly stops the airflow (ancl ihus
'Vtith musb, the vowcl is not rhe vowelJ.
cut off because [/ is .d fricati.ve (the air flow is
obstructed but nor stopped). The same is true for /e/ and
B/, as in tnajor afld.
measure. Pronounced slowl),, the first \.owel in tnajor sounds ',cut off,,; the first
vowel in ,neasure does not.
Many students confuse pairs like much afl(l mush or major and mea.sure.
The phonetic symbols /tl and /Q/ are uscful reJchi|g ajds since they show both
pxrts of the sounds. which ordinary spellings sometimes fail to do. A Spanish
or
Victnamcse Student is less likely to n spronounce matclz as r?as, because, iS
part of the spelling of tnatcb. It words like mucb, u,lticb, and ectcb, hower.ef, it
is not.
Korean stndents nny add a vowel souncl :rfter final
[/ (as tn u,ist'), B/ @s itr
b.eige),,/t[/ (4s in uthiclt), a;nd /$/ (as in e d.ge). Vt:]ich ma! sound like .witciy,,'edge
like "edgyi'lisD like "fish).i' and Derge likc ,,beig ,
Description This information gap practices final ltll in How much questions
about countries that import and export oil. The substitution of f/
tor ltl is a problem ior Spanish, Vietnamese, and Thaj siudents;
Korean students sometimes add a short vowel sound after hY (e.g.,
"muchy," "wh ichy").
1. On the board, write minimal pairs contrasting lll and ll. Underline the target
sounds. lvlodel the words, Students repeat,
watch-wash much-mush
catch-cash which-wish
2. Explarn pronunciation: The last sound in the frrst word of each pa r begins
wlth a /t/ sound. In watch and catch |he /t/ is written. ln much and which iI rs
not written, but it must be pronounced. Students wil not hear the /t/ as a
separate sou nd.
3. On the board, write questions about the price of oil, using Haw much.
. How much is a gallon (4 llters) of gaso ine (in the United States/in
your country)?
. How much was a gal on of gas two years ago?
6. Eljcit from students the names of oil exporting countries and wrlte them on the
board. Ask students if their countries are o I importers or exporters.
7. Put students in pairs. Give each member of the pa r a differeni chart of oil
importers and exporters. Students complete the nformation missing from their
charts by asking "How much oil does import/export a day?"
B. When the pair work is finrshed, review the information with the class. Provide
feed back on pron u nciation.
CH^PIER 4 Consonants 135
ERR0R C0RRECTI0NT Your student sa'.s "race" wh€n he wants to say ,.raise,,' or
uwass" when he wants to say'kas."
"lell the student to lengthen the vowel in "raise" and keep the last sound shoft (see also
FinalVoiced andVoiceless Consonants, page 155).
Youa Spanish, Yietnamese, and Thai students say "mush" when they want to
say "much," and "sheep" when they want to say "cheap."
Introduce the phonetic symbol for "cln"t /tl/.E\plai'f, that "t" is paft of the
pronunciation even wheil it is not shown in spelling (though it is written in matclJ aj:'d
ccttch, fot example). Students y/ill not heat /t/ as sepanate sound, but it must be
pronounced. Encoffage students to make "mental" " respellings of"ch" as "tch."
Your Chinese student says "uv/ally" when she wants to say "usually."
Tell the srudent to keep the tip of the tongue up in the mouth. The tongue lighrly
touches the top of the mouth. Contrast "uwally" and "usualry Direct students' adention
to th€ "noisier" middle sound in "usually'
Your Korean student says "whichy" or "edgy" wh€n he wants to say '.which"
or "edge."
Tell your student to keep the last sound of these words very short. Work with the
pronunciation of final consonants (see Final Consonants, page 153).
136 ( HAPrtR,+ Cansonanrs
I:L
rf l N-.It, su rt. sorrre. su,,g
Students have few problems with ,h/ and /m/ at th.e beginnings of words or
s)'llables (e.9.,fl /ce, dinnet; mice, dimmer).The Chinese conftrsion of beginning
/n/ and /l/ (pronouncing ligbt as ^nd "right" and vice versa) is discussed ]D A/ /t/- "Dd
/l/,below.
nllmay be mispronounced as /r)gl or /lk/ by Polish or Russian students or as
/n/ by Spanish students.lr) This problem can reflect a difficulty pronouncinli /!/ or
a spelling confusion, since the r?g spellitg represents both /\/ (as in slrrgel) and
/\g (.as n s/ngle). Students should be made aware of the spelling pattcrns of the
fwo pronunciations.
10
The pronurciation ol /4/Ls /q g/ also occuni in son€ netile EngLish didects in fic lofih€estelr United States, especixLl! $hen the
nexl word begi$ wth e vo\\'el Long ls[and rtty be prL\rounced l,oncu\'land.
cHAprtR I Consonants "137
At the ends of wofds, two Wpes of problems occur. Spanish speakefs may
substitute one nasal for anotheq prono\lncing someone, for example, as,,sungwung',
(Avery ancl Ehrlich 1992). These stLrdents should be instructed to pronounce nasal
consonants as the). are written. Final nasal consonants may also be .dropped,, by
Chinese and Portuguese stt-rdents and realized as a nasalization of the prececling
vowel CJuffs 1990, Averl and Ehrlich 1992). the Chinesc student who pronounces
solrleone as/s3w;/ (- indicates a nasalized vowel) needs to le,J'In to lengthen iinal
nasals oL pronounce them as consonants rathef than as vowel nasalization.
Although Spanish and Chincse students mispronounce final nasal conson,rLnts
in cliflbrent ways, the Spanish problem of nasal substitutions ard the Chinese (or
Portuguese) problem of vowel nasalization can be dealt with in the same lesson.
Correcting both problems involves getting students to pronounce worcl or syllable-
final nasals as they are writtefl:the lips close for /m/, the ton[luc tip touches behind
thc top teeth for /n/, and, the back of the tongue rises fbr /rll. Spelling is alnost
always a reliable cue for promnciation of linal nasals.r i
In unstressed syllables,like the last syll^bl.e of taken, /n,/ may be prolongecl and
pronounced as a syllabic nasal-(symbol [n]). The vowel virtually disappears and the
nasal i$elf is the last syllable.12 In connected speech,and is usually pronounced as
a syllabic nasal black and utlr/te (pronounced "black 'n white;,,see also Reductions
of Function Words, Rh]'thm). This is not a topic that needs to be coyered in class.
Bescription This activity adds pronunciation work with /1/ to course materials for
the present contin uous.
1. Before class, choose a picture (or cartoon or picture story) from course
materials showing people engaged in a variety of activities.
2. ln class, on the board, write the progressive form of two or three verbs which
can be used to describe the picture(s) (e.9., walking, studytng, sleeping).
l\4odel the words. Students reDeat.
(continue.l olt nexl page)
l'?
0ther consonanh ae also p|onounced i]s srllabics: in ,11r1c forere ple,Lhel t$lllablcisprcnoltncedir.sxs,vliabic'1,"widtt€ry
littLe voncL (slnbol lll)r rn ,r1lr,r. for exalnple. fie lrt srlhble is a sllLabic frtll.
1 3B . HAPrtR :4 Consanants
3. Present the articulation of /n/ and /q/ on Worksheet 4.5. Explain that with /n/,
the tip of the tongue is up, behind the top teeth. With /q/, the tip of the tongue
is down, behind the bottom teeth.
4. Using the textbook picture (or cartoon or picture story), ask students to describe
what is happening. Provide feedback on the pronunciatton of lnland lql.
Description This activity practices a variety of final nasals: lml and ln/ in
someone and /11 in thinking. Students provide clues about someone
until their classmates can guess the ideniity of the person.
1. On the board, write "l'm thinklng of someone . . . ." Underline the nasals.
lModel the sentence. Ask each student to say the sentence, pronouncing the
underlined sounds carefully.
2. l\4odel the activity. Tell students they are going to use the sentence on the
board to play a game about famous peopJe. Choosing a famous person that
everyone 1n class knows, give a hint (e.g., "l'm thinking of someone who lives
in Venezuela"). Classmates guess the person's name (e.g., Hugo Chavez) or
ask questions to get more informatlon until they can guess the person.
lnstruct students to begin their questions with "Does/ls the person you're
thinkingof...?"
3. Ask a student to choose a person whom everybody in class knows and give a
hint about that person, starting with "l'm thinking of someone. . . ." The rest
of the class asks questions until they can guess the person's identity. The
student who guesses the person's identity chooses a new person. Provide
feedback on the pronunciation of nasal consonants in the phrase I'm thinking
af sameone.
CHAPTER I Consonants 139
coat, goat
Most problems involving /k/ and /g/ occur when the consonants end words,
and they can be addressed in a lesson on final consonants or on final voiced and
voiceless sounds. In Spanish, /g/ is pronounced weakly (as a fricatiye) at the ends of
words and between vowels; Spanish stlrdents may tfansfef this weakened
pronunciation into English words like beginning (which may sound like
"behinning") or dog Korean students haye difficulty pronouncing /wil (or
pronouncing it strongly enough) in the consonant clusters /kw/ and ,/gV; question
(/kfl) often sounds like "kestion" and language egwD Lke,,langidge', (see
Beginning Clusters, below).
The letter x inyolves difficult clusfers with /k/ or /g/.The pronunciations of r
are largely predictable and should be taught to students.
1. On the board, write ta4, e4am, and 4ytophone, underlining the letter x in each
word. Explain Ihat xylophone is a musical instrurnent'
2.|Vode]thewordsontheboard.AskstudentsWheihertheletterXispronounced
the same or differently in the three words.
3. Explain that the letter x has three pronunciations (ks, gz' and z) and write them
on the board.
4. Pass out the first handout and go over new vocabulary'
65. Students listen to the words on the handout and repeat them. They listen again
and write each word under the appropriate pronunciation column'
6. ln pairs, siudenis check their work. Ask the pairs to figure out ihe
pronunciation rules for x. lnstruct them to consider the position of x in the
words, whether a stressed vowel precedes or follows x, and whether a
consonant follows x. Pass out Worksheet 4.7B
7, Elicit from students other words spelled with x. Ask students how x is
pronou nced.
(.e.9., bead is pronounced "ead") and add it when it should not be pronounced
(.e.9., air is"haij").
In function words that are typically unstressed (such as he, bim, lsis, lse4 l:aue,
lsas, and baD. native speakers pronounce /b/ afler a pause (e .g., ,,He ,s tall,,), but
frequently omit it inside a sentence (e.g., Is be tall? is us:ual]ry pronounced .Izzy
tall?"). Students should be taught when /h/ is always pronounced and when it is
never pronounced. They should also be able to recognize the /:-less pronunciation
of function words (see Pronouns and Reductions of Function Words, Rhlthm).
Whtitial/t/t Rigtrt
righr
W'v.r^
Wffi
r4
W
The body ofthe tongue a1s0 moles b11!k. som€ narive spea[elx do not rehofler //, but insllad "bunch" the longue. rorFdagogical
purposes, explalning articuiation as rclrcflexion, atuniing up and back of the tongue, wiliprobabl,v
produce th€ b;t (A;riand
resuli,
Ehrlhh 1992,23).
15lhe
lips xre also sllghtly rcunded for //. How€ver, jnstructing students to rcund their lips sometimes produces misprcnunciations
llke
"whjte" for "ght ' In ny own teaching, I ignorc lip mundjng.
142 :HAPfER I Consonants
Level lntermediate
1. Present the diagram of /r/ on Worksheet 4.8. Model the words right and wrong'
Explain that the tip of the tongue starts up and back and ihen lowers The tip
gesture below
of ihe tongue does not touch the iop of the mouth' Use the hand
to reinforcle articulation and for feedback. ln the gesture, the hand represents
the tongue; the fingertips represent the tip of the tongue'
\
( HA?TER I Consonants 143
2. Model right and wrong again. Students repeat together and then individually.
Provide feedback on articulation (Japanese, Arabic, and Spanish students may
ircorrectly touch the tip of the tongue to the top of the mouth; French and
German students may use ihe back of the tongue, rather than the tip).
3. On the board, add other words containing beginning /r/ for practice. lnclude
some of the answers to the guessing game questions. Ask students to volunteer
other words with beg nning /r/. l\4odel the words, using the hand gesture to
reinforce articulation. Students repeat.
4. The guessing game. Divide the class into two teams. Team members should sit
together, facing the opposite team. Give the teams different sets of questions.
5. Team members first decide the answers to their questions.
6. Play the game. Team A starts, wjth each member in turn choosing a player
on
the opposite team to answer one of Team A,s questions. The team member
asking the question must pronounce it clearly enough for the opposing team
member to understand (this is the most challenging part of the game, and
several repetitions of a question are often necessary). The Team B player
answers the question with a word containing /r/. The answering team earns a
point for a correct answer, with a correc|y pronounced /r/.
like
144 ;HAPTER 4 Consonants
Light and Dark /V. English /l/ has two pronunciations. depending on its position
in a word. "Light," or "clear," /1/ occurs at the beginninE! of a word or syllable, as in
like, loue, aliue."Dark" A/ occufs at the end of a word or s,yllable , as inatl, cold,
^nd.
andll. With light ,/l/, the back of the rongue is relaxed and down;with dark /I/,rhe
back of the tongue is nised. Perceprually, dark /V sounds as if it is preceded by a
short /a/ sound (e.g., coalr/).
Different pronunciation problems occur with beginning (light) /l/ and final (dark)
/U, and the two types of /l/s should be addressed in separate lessons. Native
speakers of Japanese, Korean, and Mandarin may conftlse beginning /r/ wirh /l/.
These two sounds may be both difficult to hear (especially for Japanese students)
and difficult to pronounce. funeJ', Takada, and Ota suggest that teachers point out to
Japanese sb,rdents that they are more likely to mispronounce A/ thafi /r/ t]:rat
pronunciation work with /l/ be addressed bcfore work with /r/ (2OOO,731,). ^nd
Howeye! the /r/ l/ contrast should also be addressed, since students for whom it is
difficult invariably ask about both sounds.
A common substitution for final (dark) /l/ is clear Oeginning) /l/. This
" not need to be corrected.
substitution does not interfere with inrelligibiliry and does
A more serious problem is the pronunciation of dark /1/ /o/, /u/, or /w/
^s
(vocallT,ation of /1/);old l)eople,lbr instance, sounds like "ocle peopo," beautiful
sounds like "beautifo." This mispronnnciarion is common with native ^nd,
speakefs of
Brazilian Portuguese and Chinese, but may occur with other students, as well.16 The
most impoftant goal fof students wh<t yocahze A/ is to pronounce it as a consonant
(light or dark), rather than as a vowel.
/U and. /rt/ (Ctrtnese). In some Cantonese dialects /l/ ancl /n/ can be substituted for
each other at the beginning of a word, and Cantonese studcnts may make the samc
substitutions in English words: /as, may be pronounced lil<e "nast" or n lglr, like "light"
16ln
Br^zilian Po uguese, final/y is Iocxlized 10 a /$y' 0r /u/ sound. ln Chinese, /1/ do€s not occur ln find losjtion. \bcalizeuon of/y
isalso common.nrong chiidrcn leallrirgEnglish aJ aliNtl guagc (who ln a,v s,ry 'lilto peopo" instead of littie people') andh2l
occuned as asoundchange in other lalguages.
CH^prER I Consanants 145
(Avery and Ehdicl.r 1992, 1 15). t - Mosr students are not aw2lre that
they are making this
substitlrtion. Even if the conirsion of /1t/ and A/ does nor fesult in uninteligibilitl
it is
odd sounding to listeners (nati.!.e and nonnadve) and draws attention away iiom
what
the student is saying. This is a persistent but impor-tant problem, since
there afe manv
minimal pairs in English involving ,i nl .Lnd A/ (-Atfotd 1987).
t7
Aldlough ,/-1l subsuluti0ns afir relofed t0 be uoblens l0r cantoncse stu.lerb. I har,€ had studeDb tl,ho idertif, then]sei\es es
natir,€ sFake.s of l\{xndarin u'ho hare the samc problem.
13
This is the llNt half of a tongue t$isler
foem thal cm be folrnd on htDi//$$'$i.dfs org and other tonglre hvisier \feb sites.
146 :HAPTER I Consanants
right light
W----
/*-\
rc
: t/2
u?7a-d
\zt</1
Activity 4.9 Practicing the /r/-/U contrast. How do you spe tight?
Level Low lntermed iate/lntermed iate
Worksheet Page 231
Description This activity focuses on the perception and pronunciation ol lrl and
/l/ in minimal pairs.
:HAPTER 4 Consonants 147
1. Direct students' attentjon to the djagrams on Worksheet 4.9. Model "right" and
"light, " and explain articulation:
. "L" is a contact (touch) sound. The tip of the tongue touches behind the
top teeth.
. Use the hand gesture below to show the articulation oI Al. fhe upper hand
represents the top of the mouth. The tips of the fingers of the upper hand
represent the teeth. The lower hand represents the tongue. point out to
students that the tongue tip touches behind the teeth.
. "R" is not a contact (touch) sound_ The tip of the tongue does nof touch
the top of the mouth.
. Use the hand gesture illustrated on page 142 and explain:
The tip of the tongue starts up and back.
The tip of the tongue lowers without touchlng the top of the mouth.
. Write two sentences on the board, one containing only words beginning with
/l/ (e.g., "Lovely Lisa loves Luke") and one containing only words beginning
wilh lrl (e.g., "Ray Rivers reached Rome"). Ask students to say the
sentences slowly, focusing on the different articulations.
2. Minimal pairs. lvlodel the /l/ words. Students repeat. Ask each student to choose
three /l/ words and say them out loud. provide feedback on pronunciation. Repeat
with the /r/ words. Then model the rows. Students repeat. Ask each student to
choose three pairs and say them out loud. provrde feedback on pronunciatjon.
Read one word from each pair. Students circle the words they hear.
4. Go over each word on the card, asking the class whether you read that word
and how ii sounds.
5. 0n the board, write a model dialogue for pair practice of the minimal pairs.
B: R-l-G-H-T
6. In pairs, students take turns choosing one member of a minjmal pair from the
second part of the handout and asking their partners how to spell the words.
148 cltAPrtR I Consonant
]'es way
The glides pose few difficulries for students generally, although students from
certain native-language backgfounds malr experience pfoblems with some wofds.20
Spanish students mal,' pronounce let and J,tolk like "jet" and "jokej" a srereot\ped
pfonunciation which shoulcl be addressed in class. Japanese and Korcan srudents
have difficult]. pronouncing / ,v/ in year and J,,edst when the following .i.owel is /I/
or /iy/; year ma.v sor.rnd like "ear" 2Jtd least like "east." There are very few words
with this sequence Q)i.eld is nnotlj'ff example). Since the onl1. comrnon problem
word is leaI, its mispronunciation can be addressed through error corrcction.
A similar problem ifl.olves the pronunciation ot /w/ in uould/uoo4 u.nman,
uo$ and uool.This is a problem primarily for Japanese and Korean speakers, who
find it difficult to say /w/ when the vowel /u/ follows, pronoun cing ruoman and
Loould llkc"'omarl" and "'ould." Again, since there are yery fbw Entilish words where
this difficult sequence occurs. the problem can be dealt wirh through error
coffection. The confusion oflw// and /v/ (pronouncing ,e?, as "wiuy"), cliscussed in
Labial Consonants, eadier, is more widespread.
(as in zzr1)
'0 !'or Chiiese studentr prorunciation ofrir?simil,llto lbnt, sec liphthongs, page ]90.
CHA?TER 4 Consonants "l49
For Spanish students, the pronunciation of /y/ in yesterday a:nd, yet can be
added to work on the past tense or present perfect.
2. Alternative feedback:
. Tell the student to imagine he is stretching a rubber band as he says the first
sont\d of uould.
. ?ell the student to prepare to say u,ould wil}] the lips tightly rounded. As he says
tlle word, he unrounds his lips.
3. Add these words for practice:
21
The /t in rd. diffe$ fmm lhe /V tn atta& \r al\alhet way: Illdtlic, /tJ \sirPped bccause stres precedes jl The flapped
buildup of air is closest to the paper;with /t/ /W,tlae buildup occurs farther
^1td
back in the mouth.
4. students repeat ttre demonstration in pairs. Remind students to hold the sheet of
paper up, about 2 inches away from the mouth, so that the bottom edge is just
below the mouth (if the lower edge of the paper is at neck level, aspiration is not
sroog enough to move it). One student watches for movement of the paper as the
other student says the words. If the paper doesn't move, the speaker has not aspi-
rat€d the consonants sufficiently.
). on the board, add minimal pairs that contr.rst voiceless and yoiced sounds. Explain
that there is no aspiration v/ith the second word in the pais. Stud€nts repeal the
words, strongly aspirating the flrst word of each pair
pay-bay too-do coat-goat
pill-bill tie-die c0me-gum
pack-back town-down card"guard
words (e.g., "eschool") so that they conform to Spanish patterns. Some languages
Oapanese, Cantonese, and Vietnamese, lbr example) do not permit any be€iinning
consonant clusters.
Adding a vowel to separ4te the consonants in a cluster or deleting one of the
consonants also occurs. Japanese students may pronounce s/,tss like "tiurassl'
Egyptian Ar':rbic students may pronouncefZoor as "filoor'."Vietnamese students may
pronounce problem vs /pabam/ ot Sreet 'd:s "geetl' As mentioned above, Korean
students have difficulty with /kw/ and /glw/ in words like cluestion language,
^nd
pronouncing ,/w,/ too weakly of not at 2ll.
There afe a yariety of techniques that can be used to correct beginning
consonant cluster effors, depending on the type of error, but none works in all
cases. Students who add vowels in front of clusters (e.g., "eschool" for "school") can
be instructed to prolong the flrst consonant of the cluster ("ssschool"); this helps
them avoid starting the word with a .\rowel. This tecl-mique does not work when the
first consonant is a stop (/p, b, t, d, k, g/) because stops cannot be prolonged.
When studei.lts separate the consonants in a clustef (e.g., "filoor" fot flootr
"gurass" for grass) or delete a consonant fiom the cluster (e.g.,"geen" for green),the
first technique to attempt is tbe simplest. Students who pronouncefloor as "flloor"
should be instructed to pronounce both consonants close together Students who
pronounce green as "geen" should be instructed to prorloullce /r/. The simple
approach sometimes works.
If the simple technique tails, teachers c2!r1 tell students to prepare to say the
second consonant in the clustcr (n/ ir floor or /r/ n Sreen) ?'nd then say the whole
word. This technique works well in words like grc?r?, Jloot pla!, break, afld cloud.
In these clusters, the tip of the tongue is inYolved in pronoLrncing the second
consonant (A/ or /r/) but not in the first consonant (/p, b, f, k, g/). The vocal organs
can therefore be in position for the second cor.rsonant as the first is pronounced. This
technique, howe\.e! does not work when both the fust and second members of the
cluster involl,.e the tip of the tongue (in words like tee, clriue, three, snou, d sleet).
^
Worksheet None
1. Elicit from students words or phrases used to describe the weather or effects of
ihe weather and write them on the board (not all of the words need to contain
beginning consonant clusters). Underline beginnlng ciusters. Add a few new
CIIAPTER 4 Consonants 153
Actiuit! 4. I 0 continaed
words, The words below cover a range of weather conditions; the teacher
should choose vocabulary that is appropriate for the studenis' level as well as
for the types of weather they are lrkely to talk about.
Weather Words
4. Following the pair work, ask students to volunteer words from their lists.
Provide feedback on pronunciation of consonant clusters.
5. ln small groups, students use the words to discuss questions about weather.
. Have you ever experienced extreme weather? Explain.
. Has the weather in your country changed with global warmjng? How?
. What type of climate do you prefer?
6. Following the group work, ask several students to answer the questions. provide
feed back on consonant clusters.
'?3lfhen 4y' aud 4t occur in iiialposition, the! arc considered pert olfie vowel.
154 (H^PILR4 Cansanants
gfeeter restrictiolts on fi]lal consonants than English does. errors;rre widespreacl and
less depcndcnt on the stlldent's native language than those il]|olyinla bcgifliing
consonants (and beginning clusters). Japanese, for example. permits only /n,/ in final
position; Sparish permits or.rly /d, s, n, r. l/. Languages F'hich do permit a Lu.ger r4nge
of final consonants ((icrman, Russian, and Polish, for examplc) ma| not allow the final
\.oiced stops and fricatives that are :rllowed in English: (e.Ei.. rr1re, lJafld, rttb, dog).
Universal factors ancl narkedness (linguistic naturalness) interact with and
feinlbrce natiyelangu:rge festrictions (see krtroductior], page 5). Final voiced
obstruents (stops and fricatives, ns rn dog or bate) are more clilficult than final
voiceless obstruents (as in dock antl half). They occur less tiequently in the
$'orlcl's languages, and in langurges where they do occur', like English, thcy are
acquired later by cl.rildren learning their lirst lan1 uage.
Most errors involving final consonants have the eflect of making English words
and syllables more like thosc in the speaker's native languagc, thereby simplifiiing
pronnnciation for the leaflrer 'l'wo common rypes of errors afe delction (e.9., big
pronounced as "bi") and cpenthcsis (thc addition of a vowel; e.g., rrg pronounced
as "bigo").2t
.Pronouncing
final voiced stops ;mal fiicatives as their yoiccless collnteryafts
(i.c., clcvoicing) is another comrnon error (e.g., Drg sounds like "bickl' lsr.tue sounds
litri:e "half'and u6ts sounds like "wass"). Less fi€quently, final consonants may be
changed to other consonants (e.9., pocketbook pronounccd as "pocke(t)boor").
The tvpe of efrof studcnts make depends on native language, the level of
formality in speaking. the learner's level of proficiencl', the specilic final consonant
or cluster. and the soun':ls preceding or folk)wing it (Tarone l980,Weinberger 1987,
Hansen 2001, Hansen 200.1).weinberger found that his Mnndarin EsL lcarners r\.ere
more likely to pronounce lrlt as "bit)" (adding an epenthetic vowel) when they
were feading wofds in a list, out of context (1987). When thc same words were
used in context (such as in paragraph reading or speakiflg), both deletion (c.€1.,"bi"
for bit) epenthcsis (c.9., "bit'") occurred. In list readinli, clcletion of the final
consonant ^ndintroduces ambiguity-is "bi" big, bit, or bid? 'flre addition of the yowel
(as in "bita") allows the listener to "rccor,'cr" the $'ord more easily than deletion of
the final consonant.
Both types of errors (deletion and epenthesis) shoulcl be a.ldfessed in
pfonrnciation work. Whilc deletion cxr difectly lower intelligibility of a word
(because part of the wold is missing), cpenthesis (addition of a linal vowel) can
lowcr it inclirectl_v, by creating an unnatural rh1-thm; sl.llablcs that should not be
present are pfesent. Epenthesis efrors can be addressed by teaching the
pronunciation of final consonarts as part of linking (scc Linking Words Togethe!
Rhythm). Deletion can be addressed throu€lh error corrcction by focusing students'
attention on missing final consonants, and in lessons on -el and -s endings.
consoliadls, lle unrcle.Lsed ir nixnr contc s in llnglish (scc Linking [rords lbged]er Rh\1hln).
cHl\pfti I ConsDnants 1Ss
Final Voiced afrd Voiceless Consonants. Students may clevoice final voiced
stops and fricatiyes, pronouncing them with theif voiceless counterpafts; for
example bag may sound like ,,back,,' and peas may souncl like ,,peaci.,, Some
?t
Temperley cites some crses $herc th€ slof is oj)litted even $hen it i, a grammdicaL
etding 0987. 80).
156 cH.\PrtR I Consonatlts
languages, like German or Russian, do not permit voiced obstruents (stops 'ind
fiicatives) in final position; in these langualacs, devoicing is r rule. Cliltlren leaflring
their first language also have more difficulqv with final \ oiced obstruents. Stampe
describes the de\.oicing of final obstrucnts as a natural process of language (1979).
Eckman describes linal voiced obstruents as more marked (diJ}icr-rlt) than final
voiceless obstruents (1981).Thus,there can be both universal and language-specfic
reasons lbr a stuclent's pronunciatioll of Drzg as 'back" or /:al e as -halJ. "
Researchers have invcstigatecl several issues involving tinal voiccd :urd
voicclcss obstments. Yivas reports that his Portuguese, .Japanese. :rnd Mandafin
learners werc more likely to devoice final /<I/ and /g/ than linal /b/, bid antl big
were more likel]-to lle pronounced as "hit" and "bick," and r/1, s?s less likely to be
pronouncecl like rip (1997).2'; M.rgcn rrl')rtcd thxt devoicitrg errors did not appear
to bc an impoftant contfibutor to accent (1998).
Tcxcling students to voice final obstruents is diilicult tbr r$o reasons. First,
students have little awareness or control over the articulator responsible for
voicing the vocal cortls. In general, articulatory awrrcncss is higher with
articulators closcr to the front of the mouth (for example, the lips, the teeth, the tip
of the tontiue); thc vocal cords, howe\rr, arc the articulators lArthest fiom the tiot]t
of thc nouth. Sccond, devoicing errors are rnost cornrl1on when the obstruent
occurs in fiml position, an already difficnlt position fbr consonant pronunciation.
A pedagogical stratclay thet sidesteps these dilliculties is teaclting the vowcl
iength clift'erencc that occurs betbte final voiced and voiceless cousonants, rathef
than Voicing (or together with \.oicing).Vowels before voiccd cOnsonants are longe;'
than vowels bcfbre voiceless consor]ants. In thc mininal pairs beloq the vorvels in
the first column (coming before voicecl sounds) are longer than the vowels in thc
seconcl column (coming before voiceless stLtnds).
feed feet
pig pick
When studcnts learn to lengthen gowcls befbre voiced consonants, the finxl con-
sonant sounds mofe \-oiced, even if it is not.
26
l)clolcing 0l linrl /d/ flrd /g/ w,r\ nost Likely wh€n dre consonlnt \rr€ lteceded b! high r o$'eh
CHAPTER I Cansonants 157
@ 2. Students ljsten to the pairs in part 2 and repeat them. 0f you model the
words live, exaggerate the length of the vowel in the first member of each
pair and pronounce the final consonants normally_do not overpronounce
the final consonants.) Ask students to describe the difference jn vowel
length in these pairs. Explain that the fjrst words in part 2 end in voiced
sounds (the vocal cords vibrate), and the vowels are longer. The last words in
Part 2 end in voiceless sounds (the vocal cords do not vibrate), and the
voweJs are shorter.
@ 3. Students iisieil to one word from each of the pairs in part 2 again and circJe
the word they hear.
4. ln pairs, students practice the words in parl 2. Then each student reads a word
from each pair and the partner identifies the word.
5. After the pair work, ask each student to select a pair and say one of the words.
The class will decide which word was said.
6. Ask each student to choose a pair of words from the handout and write a
sentence containing both words. Students read their sentences to a partner.
158 ]HAPTER I Consonants
Activity 4.12 How woultl you use 2.7 tti ion dollars?
Level Advanced
Description This activity targets final voiced consonants, such as in advise, (to)
use, and raise (faxes). Students work in small groups io decide how
best to use money in a budget. The sample shows how U.S. tax dol-
lars ($2.7 killion) in 2OO7 were spent (and overspent). Any budget,
however, could be used, such as a typical lamily's yearly income,
your school's budget, or your city's budget. The budgets of many
organ izations are available online.
1. On the board, write minimal pairs ihat contrast final voiced and voiceless
consonants. The words below are useful for discussing budgets.
advise-advice (to) use-a use raise-race halve-half (to)close-close(adi")
2. l\4odel the words. Students repeat. Explain that the vowels in the first word
of each pair (i.e., before voiced consonants) are longer than those in the
second word.
Distribute Worksheet 4.I2. Make sure students understand the categories.
4. Ask students to describe how federal tax dollars were used in 2007. Encourage
the use of use as a verb. Provjde feedback on final consonants (lengthening the
vowel in use).
5. Ask one or two students how they would advise the government to spend
tax dollars. Encourage students to use advise and use. Provide feedback
on pronunclation.
6. In srnall groups, students advise the government where to spend more or less
money. Remind students to pay attention to final consonants.
7. After the group work, ask a representative from each group to report on their
decisions. Provide feedback on final consonants.
8. Ask students whether the federal government spent more or less money
than it took in (since the percentages add up to more than 100 percent,
the governrnent spent more money than it collected). Ask the class how
the government should close the budget gap. Try to elicil raise taxes as
one possibility.
CHAPTER 4 Consonants 159
The -.s e nding is pronouncccl as r'-oicclcss ,/s/ whe n the last sound of thc word
is voiceless.
Vhen -s endinpls are added to words encling in t/, sounds, nxtive speakers ma1'
simplify or delete thc t sound; the -.! ending may be lengtltened to "hold the plece"
of the th sound.'l'his is a simplification that can be taugl]t to students (sce Final
cor.rsonants. Native Spcakcr Simplifications of Finxl (i)nsonants, page 155).
The rules fbr when -ed or -s cndings arc pronounced :rs sin[ilc consonants (/t/
or /d/,/s/ ot /z/) peclagogicall_v complex. nr apply the rules, students must know
^re
the invcntory of voiced and r-oiceless sounds in English, an unrealistic expectation.
Further, evcn if students have this knowle.lge . it is r-[rlikely that thev wjll have time
to apply it in normal speakilrg. A pedagogically si|tpler approach is 1o focus on
['hen the ending is pronouncecl as a separate svllatrlc (,/ad/ or /azl.).With the past,
the ending is a syllable wben the verb encls in /t/ ot /d/, otherwisc, it is a final
consonant (/t/ or /dD. For the -s endings, the ending is a s1.llable when the word
ends in a sibilant sound: otherwise, it is a final consonam Us/ ot /zD.
'this simplified approach also focuscs students attention on thc most
noticeable mispronunciation of the er./ endiflg-the inappropriate use of ,/ad/ with
r,-erbs like listened. The simplificd n-rle does not capture YOicing distinctions; tltat
is. it does not speciti'when -ed, for exanple. is pfonounced /t/ or /d/.yoicrng of
the cnding mav be either left to yoicing assimilation (a natural ten.lenc-y for a
following sound to takc on thc voicinli of the prcccding sound) or resolved
through errof cofrection.
CHA?TER 4 Consonants 161
Worksheet None
Tip Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to imorove com_
prehensibility and grammatical accuracy.
Desctiption As a regular part of Monday morning classes (once the past tense has
been taught), ask students to describe what they did on the
weekend, using the past tense.
1. Ask students to describe what they did on the weekend, using the past tense.
Provide feed back on pronunciation.
2t
Vith some irrcgulat plural sirbjects, the J ending is not rcduJr{lant In rc lollorving senlences, onlvthe ve$ending (orlackoiit)
identifi€s re subj€ct as pluttl at sit.rg\tlxt:7he [hee\ llohs sick,,Jl)e sheel) llak sick.
162 cHAPrtR 1 Consanang
3. Ask students to divide the past verbs into three categories: verbs where the
-ed ending is a syllable, verbs where the -ed ending is a stngle sound, and
irregu lar verbs.
4. Students check their lists and ask questions if necessary. Ask individual
students to read the verbs from one of the categories. Provide feedback on
pron u nc iation.
CONCLUSION
Pefhaps mofe than any othef afea of pfonunciation, stereotyped
pronunciations involve mispronunciations of consonants. For this reason, as well as
to improve comprehensibility, it is important to address them. Teachers can often
pro\'ide visual clues to the pronunciations of consonants by exaggerating the shape
of the mouth, using hand llestures, or providing simple diagrams.
The most pervasive and persistent errors with consonants occur when they
are in final position. Errors with final consonants can lower students'
comprehensibility as well as their grammatical accuracy. Teachers can use both
pronunciation actiyities and frequent error correction to help students pronounce
consonar"iis in this difncult position.
Although controlled practice of consonants is important for students to gain
skill, they also need the opportuniry to use their new skills in connected speech,
in activities that mo.t'e them bevond the domain of the word.
CHAPTER
[:] bought
central, back);the degree of muscular tension (tense or lax): antl the rounding of
the lips (rountlecl or unrounded). The grid imposed o\er the mouth in the
diagram above shows how vowel height, frontness,/backness. and tension/laxness
are reflected in NAE \.ow(jls. All English b;rck vowels are rounded, xs they are in
most languages.
( @rcaYe/i,/ @''"""
i.,---------,-_
Wr;, ; @tarc/ev/ @*,n,
r""u,
/ $eluke/uv @ bok/u/
I Ir sone dialecl!.
/q/ 0ol) is a Lrack or centmlback \,0$r1 (rte$,and lhrlich 1992, J0).
{relc"\1. .i ,t,r
ii !t Jp ir,-'d\\o*el. t,,,U, rl
166 IHAPTER 5 Vowels
Vowel Spellings
The sound-spelling correspondence of Entilish vowels adG a ler-el of difficr ty to
pronunciation. My student's mispromurciation of the first \-o\\ el i-fr.leopard! was
probably the result of its unusual spelling in that word (i.e.. a -spelling pronunciation)
Sound-spelling correspondences are complex partlv because there are only
slx vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, y'\ used to spell more than a dozen vowel sounds. In
addition, English has "borrowed" many words from other languages along with
their spellings (suite, for example, is a French borro\r'ing). Finally, linguistic
changes in the vowel system, most notably the Great Vox'el Shift, produced new
pronunciations. bul old spellings were relained.i
Students should be aware of both the common spellings of !-owels and the
exceptions to the conrmon patterns; spelling is coYered in many textbooks,
especially at the beginning and intermecliate levels.6 Intermediate and advanced
students who hn\'e learned the comlnon spelling patterns ma still need work with
the exceptions.
Phonetic Symbols
Phonetic symbols are used in pronunciation tertbooks and in ESL dictionaries.
Thcy proyide a means fo| representing sounds unambiguously and are especially
useftll when teaching vowel pronunciation (because of the complex spelling rules
for vowcls).7 It is not necessary for students to memorize a phonetic alphabet. Most
textbooks do not assume or require memorization of a phonetic alphabet, and
symbols are always accompanied by sample words.
Different phonetic conventions sometimes give rise to diffefefit symbols for the
same sound. Some textbooks, for example, use ,/ayl to represent the boldface vos/els
in time or iron; ot]l'erc use /ail. rvith ,/ayl, the second part of the vowel (the glide
ending) is represented with the consonant symbol /y/; wilh /ai/, it is represented
with the vowel symbol /i/. For some pronunciation problems, one sltnbol is
pedagogically more useful than another. In helping Chinese students correct
mispronunciations of time as "Tom," the symbol /ail is more useful because the
second part of the vowel iri tlnxe sounds like /i,/. HoweYer, the symbol /ay/ is rnore
nseftrl when showin€i the pronunciation of iron,,/ayarn/, because the second part of
the vowel sounds more consonantal.In this book, alternate symbols (to those shown
in the diagnm on page 163) are explained and suggested when pedagogically
appropriate. A comprehensive list of phonetic symbols and their alternates is
provided inside the front cover of this book.
5
The lowel aLlemafons in sane satll\,, u'lie Lidlh,lt]ld metetmehic, ior €ti^mple, arc resuliJ 0l the Crcal \b$€l Shift.
6l,rator
and Robinelt (1985) inclLrde ayery cornplete |st ofWelLings for $ressed vowels. The rules are aLranged br lclte4 rathet than by
sound.
1
In the Silent val lovels are ilrsocieFd wifi pafiicular colon to represent theni unamblguousL,v; sce Gattegno (1912).
cHAprER 5 Vowels 167
The remainder of this chapter presents the specific vo$/els and vor',sel
contrasts listed below. The six tips above are further explained and reflected in the
context of specific Yowels.
[] sprctrtc vow+s
t. Front yowels:/iyl an(l /r/ (leaueJiue)
t Front vowels: ,/e1y' afld /e/ (Jaait-u)et)
J.
4. Front vowels: /a/ (bad), /a/ /E/ (had-bead)
^nd
5. Front and centnl vowels:/e /, /E/, /a/,and /o/ (kept-cap-cup-cop)
6. Central vowels: /3 / a'nd /o/ (not-nut)
7. Back vowels:/u\V,/ /u/ (boot-book)
^nd
8. Back vowel:,/ofl (go)
9. Back vowel: A/ (cauglit)
10. Diphthongs:/ayl 1tigb), /a'gg/ (hotr), dnd /oy/ (boy)
11. R-colored vowels and /-colored vowels
'We
discuss what the teacher should know about each of these topics and
provide suggestions for teaching most of them. In some cases, the suggestion is a
classroom activiry In other cases, it is error correction. Suggestions for error
cHAprER 5 Vowels "l69
correction are short enough to use when students are engaged in nonpronunciation
actiyities.They are also useful for addressing pronunciation problems that only one
or two of your Students experience.
Perception of /iy/ alrd h/. ln many languages a single pure vowel ,/i/ (e.g., the
vowel in Spanish s/, "yes") corresponds to English /iy/ and / . Many students
identiry the tense \.owel /iyl as ,,similar,, to their natiye-language vowel. Some
students report that //re sounds llke lectue, suggesting that /iy,/ and,/r/ are heard as
the same vowel (like the native language vowel). Other students say that liae and,
leaue sonnd. diffbrent, but rhat they are nor sure v/hat the difference is. st l orher
students say that sometimes /r/ sounds similar to,/i)y' and sometimes different.
Although most students feel that /r/ is more difficult than /Iy/,
improyements in pefception and production may be greatef with,/r,/ than with
/iy/ (Lax.e 1994), perhaps reflecting diflerent amounts of attention paid to rhe two
vowels by learners. Str-rdents are likely to direct learning efforts toward a vowel
they perceive as new or different from their native-language vowel (hence.
something to learn); a vowel like /iy/, ss'hich is often pefceiyed as similaf to the
native-lan€iuage vowel, may receiye less attcntion, since the student feels she
already "knows" it (Flege 1987).
The lax vowel /r/ is easier to hear when it is followed by a yoiced sound (as in
kicl and is), which adds length to the vowel. Following yoiceless stops and nasals
make the yowel more difficult to hear (Lane 1994).8
Easier io hear: his, live, fish, big
Harder to hear: sit, quick, th n, I p
Pronunciation of /t/
and /ry/. Tbe diagram on page 170 shov/s the relative
heights of the body of the rongue for /iyl and /t/.The rdised part of the tongue is a
little higher and farther front for the tense vowel /iy/ (teaue) rlT n for /t/ (.liue).For
,/r,/ the tongue is a litrle lower (i.e., the mouth opcns a little) and more central than
for /iy/.'fhe lips rclaxed for /t/ and spread (requiring muscular tension) for /iy,/.
The difference in^relip shapes for /iyl and /r/ is a secondary difference. Many students
3
lbiceless stops are /p, I, v. the iiIxt sounds in l/e, /ra */e. Engl ish nasals ilclude /li. n, rl /, the last soLrnds in .ro4 Jrrre, and
srrg \bwels lollo$€d by I'oiceless stops (as inpaltl1 p/i*) .rn r rnder tlrrn thosr to loued bv rorced stops (ar )npeas pig);see also
C0n'onan6. n !" . 1
170 IHAPTER 5 Vowels
afe able to rclax their lips and produce a tense vowel. (This is not difficult. Try
keeping )'our lips relaxed and say eat; then spread your lips afld say /t) The glide
ending ol /iy/ Uy/) is created by a short front gliding motion ofthe tongue and iaw
A pure (steady state) /i,/ lacks this front gliding motion.
' Cognates are pain ol *'ods lrcm diftircnt lengueges that have similar soun& and meanings (e.g., English 4aa1d, and,lrench tluahq
CtlAtrcR 5 Vo\\,els 171
Spellings of /iy/ and /t/. The spelling of /r/ is consistent ancl a good clue
pronunciation of the vowel, althougl.r there are somc important exceptions.
5,l
Activity /iy/-/ : Presenting pronunciation
level Low lntermediate
Worksheet Page 232
fip Direct students, attention to vowel characterislics that they can see.
Description Students use diagrams showing both lip shape differences and
tongue height differences. Since differences in lip shape are
secondary pronunciation differences, students may still
mispronounce the vowels even though they use appropriate lip
shapes. The procedure ou tned below focuses more on hl lhan hyl.
1. Model the words live and leave, lengthening both vowels, exaggeratrng ljp
relaxation with live, and spreadjng the lips with leave. Ask siudents to describe
the d jfference they see.
2. Ask students individually lo say live and leave.
3. Direct students' attentjon to the cross,sectjonal diagram showing the two
vowels on Worksheet 5.1. Ask them whether the tongue is higher for /r/ or
tor liyl.
4. Tell students to start with liyl and leI their tongues drop a lit e to pronounce /r/.
172 .H^PIER 5 vowels
Tip Provide students with controlled praciice to develop skills with vowels.
Description This spelling activity practices both /iyl and h/ and the pronunciation
of letter names, necessary for spelling.
eat ir
seat sit
leave live
reach rich
4. ]\4odel the / y/ words. Students repeat. Then model the /i/ words. Students repeat.
5. Say a word from each palr and ask students to tell you the column number of
the word you said. Repeat if students have difficu ty.
6. Ask each student t0 choose a word for the c ass to identify. Provide feedback
on pronLrnciatlon. For errors with /]yl, wr te "r i" on the board and tell students
to say /i/ twice without break ng the voice and stressing the flrst /i/ (see page
1.73 Ior beach and sheet). For errors w th /r/, tel students to lower the tongue;
reinforce the verbal instructions by lower ng your hand.
7. lvlodel the pa r work. Choose a word from one of the pairs and ask a student
"How do you spe I nch?" (For low level students, write the questlon on the
board: How do you spell-?) The student should spe I the word he heard.
Choosing a different word, ask another student the same quest on.
B. Pair work. lf possible, pair students who speak different nat ve anguages.
Students who speak the same nat ve language can sometlmes recogn ze the
ntended word even if it ls mispronounced. Students take turns asklng about
the spelling of words on the board. Instruct thern to pronounce the words
carefully so their partners know whlch words to spell. Circu ate among the pa rs
and prov de feedback on pronunciation.
g After ihe pair work, review the activity with the whole class. Provide feedback
on pronunciation of the vowels.
cllAPrER 5 Vowels 173
Worksheet None
Description This activity focuses on pronouncing /iyl tn beach and sheef, two
words of concern to ESL students. When students use a pure vowel
(/i/) in these words, English listeners are likely to hear the lax vowel
h/ (and the lax vowel counterparls ot beach and sheef). For these
words, which end in consonants, the symbol /iil, with stress marked
on the first "i," is more helpful than /iyl.
7. Wrile beach and sheefon the board and pronunciation spellings below the
VOWEIS:
beach sheet
ll
2. lVodel the words, lengthening the vowels. Explain that in English, /iyl is not a
single sound. Students should pronounce this vowel with two /i/ sounds,
stressing the first. The voice does not break between the two vowels.
3. Ask each student to say the two words.
4, Ask students to volunteer expressions involving beach or sreef (for example,
beach blanket, beach party, beach ball, a sheet of paper, spreadsheets, and
sheet music).
5. ln groups, students plan a beach party, describing the place, food, games, and
other activities thai will create a good beach party.
6. After the group work, ask selected students to report on their beach party.
Provide feedback on the pronunciation ol beach.
With Spxnish students, the symbol ,/ci,/ (rather than /evl) should be used since
el is the nomal spclling of this vowcl ir Spanish.
Chinese students have persistent problems pronouncing the glide ending of
/ey,/ wlren it occurs beforc /n/ or /m/, prollouncin€i errplain and ndmq for example,
like "explen" and "nem" (see also Diphthongs bclow).
Spellings of /ey/ ajnd /e/. There is ovcdap in the spellings of /cy/ and /x/,wlricl]
can be a source of mispronr.lncirltion. Tbe letter sequence ed, lbr example, is a
spclling for /e1y' Qts in break) as well as /e/ (as iD breakfast).
the-v, convey
break, great
e (followed by a consonant)
7.l rn"
"r,',.,.i.1i:;; ff #:-::n#:*i'l1ll, ;l',:.:X,1.::iil,
jll:,,ilX*;i
ERR0R C0RRECTt0N | /iy/ -/r/_/e/
Problem: your student pronounces
/r/ \ounJj' irr succcssion {s(,c prrtbtcrn
beqt l.ll<e b/t LNtruct ],oul student ro sar.ftro
*"r0'. o-- r,,u'il). li or*. ,_r,
pronounces Dir like beat. rasttuctthe
i::ffi:::H:tudent student to lower
the problem is one of pronunciation and does not persisr long. Natiye speakers of
Arabic may produce a vowel that is midway between the Yo\l'els of / an(l /E/.
Spellings of /e/. The spelling of /a/ is very consistent. Once students are familiar
with the common pattern, spelling is rarely a source of mispronunciation.
a (followed by a consonant)
Exceptions: laugh, plaid, auntlo
r0ln
some dralects arzl is prcnounced bny.
|HAPIER 5 Vowets l//
2. lVodel had slowly, exaggerating the openness of the mouth and the spreading of
the lips. Ask students whether the mouth is more open or closed Ior had. Ask
students whether the lips are spread or relaxed.
3. lVodel head,Iollowed by the same questions: Are the ltps morc open or closed?
Are the lips more relaxed or spread?
4. Ask each student to say the pair had,head. Provide feedback on pronuncjation:
. had lel sounds like head ltl: Open your mouth more.
. cap lal sounds like cop lolt Push your tongue front. Spread your lips.
. cap lel sounds like cup lalt Open your mouth more and spread your lips.
Push your tongue down and front.
1. The list shows some of the causes cited for overweight and obesity. Check the
three that you think are most responsible for these problems. The bold leiters
are [a] or [€].
a. eating too much fat g. lack of information
b. taking in too many calories _ h. genetic propensity
c. eating too much sugar i. poverty
d. eating too much fast food l. wealth
e. lack of exercise Other
f. watching too much TV
2. Compare the causes you checked with your classmates, Do you agree? Talk
about your choices and listen while others explain their opinions. Look at the
list again, Would you check the same three causes now?
178 cHAPr[R 5 vowels
Activity 5.7 /zl /al /al and /o/ (kepl-cap-cup-cop): What hugs you?
Description This activiiy can be used to review pairs of vowels already practiced.
lf you prefer to use three rather than four vowels, choose the three
that calse your students the most difficulty. In many classes, these
are lel (as in cap\, lal (as in cup), and /o/ (as in cop). In groups,
students discuss things that "bug" them.
ltl kept
Words: cap /a/ Words: cup
lal Words: lal Words: cop
cell phones stqnding in line muggy weather hot weather
tests iraffic Jams studying my boss12
telemarketers my landlord rny brqther rny jqb
Lr
The vovrl in .ol /o/ is also dcscribcd ru a central-bxck r,orcl (Avc[ rnd lihrlich 1992)
t'Sonre
speaken pronounce the vo\reLtrr rr.$ as b/
.HAPTER 5 Vov/els 179
2. In class, present the dragram of the four vowels on Worksheet 5./. Dernonstraie
ihe vowels, starting wiih kept and cap. Far kept, keep the opening of the
mouth small and spread the lips a little. For cap, exaggerate the lip spreading
and openness of the mouth, Students repeat. l\4odel cup and cop, keeping the
lips very relaxed. Students repeat. Explain that the lips are relatively spread for
kl and lal; for /a/ and /o/, the llps are relaxed.
3. Demonstrate djfferences in the openness of the mouth. l\lodel cup and kept,
keeping the opening of the mouih small. Students repeat. lvlodel cap and cop,
exaggerating the openness of the moLth. Students repeat. Explain that for /e/
and /e/, the mouth is relatively closed. For lal and lal, the mouth ls open.
4. ln addition to the lip diagrams, you can present the dlfferences using a grid.
5. Ask each student to say the four words: kepi, cap, cup, and cop. Provide
feed back on pronunciation:
. Cop sounds too close to cupi Open your mouth more for cop.
. Cap sounds too close to copi Spread your lips more for cap. lVove your
tongue front.
. Cap sounds too close to kept; Open your mouth more Ior cap.
. Cop sounds too close to cap: Move your tongue back for cop.
6, On the board, write "What bugs you?" Below that, make four columns
conesponding to the four vowels. Then write the preselecied phrases containing
the target vowels (or use the phrases above) in the columns, underlining the
targei vowels. Explain vocabulary (e.g., "bug" is slang for "bother"). Tell the
class that the phrases on the board describe things that bug people.
7. lVodel the words and phrases in each column. Students repeat. Provjde
feed back on the vowels.
8. Students list on a piece of paper three things that bug them. Encourage them
to use words and phrases frorn the board or add their own pet peeves (whether
they contain the target vowels or not).
9. Students work in small groups and compare the things that bug them.
10. After the group work, ask several students what bugs them, Provide feedback
on pronunciation of the target vowels.
180 cHcPrER s vo\^els
nu.t /a/
-=.-\
(H{
\ ,-/
This vowel occurs as a stressed vowel in words like nut and nrtmber and, as
the yowel of most unstressed s)4lables, as in "ag6" (ago) and, "jlz,las" Cjealous),
makinEi it the most cofirmon yowel in English (see Unstressed Vowels, Word
Stress).1l It is also the pronunciation of the English hesitation word rzl:, used when
speakers need time to think.
In this book, the symbol /e/ is used for both the stressed vo\rel in number an(I
the unstressed yowel in cfgo (see also I)auer 1993), Other authors use the symbol
/A/ for tbe stressed vowel (as j.n n mbet m6ther) and /a/ for unstressed vowels (as
rn !!Eo, jealous).In some NAE dialects, the tongue may be slightly lower for the
stressed version /A/ and slightly higher for the unstressed version ,/a/. These
differences are unimportant for ESL students.
For many students, /a/ is a new vowel.Japanese, French, and Spanish students
may conflise lt with /o/ (as in not). Polish students may confttse it with /€/ (as in
net). Greek students may confuse it with /a/ ot /o/.
not /o/
( HAprER 5 Vov,tels "lB1
Iyhen native speakers ofromance langualaes lenrn that the vowel in worcls
like
po' lock, and moclern is /o/, they may substirute their native_language vowel,
producing a sound that is close ro English ,/a/ (a vowel that is farther
forward in the
mouth than English /o/), so thatpot sounds close to pat.
Level lntermediate/Advanced
Description This activity practices the pronunciation of /a/ in the word luck.
1. lVlake sure students can pronounce the vowel in /uck (see Presenting /a/ and
/o/, above).
2. Write s0me expressions that include the word /uck on the board. lVodel
the expressions.
good luck lots of luck try your luck down on your luck
3. Ask students to volunteer other expressions that include the word /ack, and
add them to the board.
CHAPTER 5 Vowels 183
4. Read the quotations on Worksheet 5.9 to students. Go over vocabulary, but do not
paraphrase the quotes. Students will do thjs in small groups. Ask each student to
choose a quotation and read it. Provide feedback on the pronunciation oI luck.
/rtw/ booL The vowel in boot /u.w/ is a high, back-tense yowel. The body of the
tongue rises up ;Lnd back; the lips round for the beginning of the yowel and
continue rounding to the glide ending (/w/).
boot /uw/
Many languages have a pure vowel /u/ that sounds similar to English /uw/ (as
in bool).The glide ending of /uw,/ is difficult for students to hear, and they are likely
to substitute the native-language pure vowel /u,/ (as in French tort meaning "a11").
In vowel-vowel sequences in which,/uw,/ is the first vowel (as in ruin),Ihe
glide ending (/w,/) links to the follov/ing voweL (ru*in) and is easier to hear than
when a consonant follows /us/ (as in root)-The glide ending is important when a
vowel follows because it creates a new syllable.This occurs both within words (as
'1n
ruin) and acrcss word boundaries as in do- i/).The glide ending of /uw/ is rarely
reflected in spelling.
ruwin Do" ii.
184 .HAPTER 5 Vo$'els
does not
/u/ book. The vowel n book (/u/) is a ncw vowel for most students '/u/
very common words' such as
occru in many English words but does occur in some
uctukl. cottltl, sltttuld, good, book' look, ar'(l lL'otnan'
is more cenftalized
/u/ is a high back lax vowel Comparecl to /uw'/' the tongue
with dropping slightly down ancl forwarcl from its Position for /uw/; the lips are
/u/,
less roundecl than thcy are for /uw/ (^s rt]. boot)'
book /u/
beaury beautituI
186 (H^PIFR 5 vowels
Worksheet None
Tip lntegrate vowel pronunciation with grammar practice.
Descr:ption This activity can be added to grammar work on indefinite articles. lt
provides practice choosing between a and an with words beginning
with the letter u.
1. 0n the board, write nouns or noun phrases in which the first word begins with
the letter u. lnclude words where u is pronounced /yuw/ (e.g., unit, union)
and words where u represents a vowel (e.9., umbrella, uncle). Before each
noun phrase leave a blank for the indefinite article. Sample words are
provided be low.
go /ow/
+
In many languages, the vowel corresponding to /oIv/ is a pure vowel, /o/ (as in
the Spanishpo.4 meaning "little"), $'hich lacks the glide ending /w/. Substitutions
of /o/ fot /ow/ arc a maior source of mispronunciation of this vowel.r5 In words like
folk and focus, the pure-yowel proriunciation produces pronunciations that can
embarrass students.
Most students do not have difficulty hearing or pronouncing the glide ending
of /ow/, once it has been pointed out. They may have difficulty, however,
remembering to pronounce it since it is rarely reflected in spelling. Spanish students
may be better able to notice the glide ending if the symbol /ou/ (rather than ,/ow,/)
is used to represent the yowel.The glide ending of /ow/ is important to teach.
Students may confuse the vowels in boat (/ow/),pot (/o/), anrJ bougltt (h/),
pronouncing all three words with a similar vowel. This niay occur because of
spelling (the letter o can represent all three vowels, as in home /ow/, sbot /a/, afld
/oss D/) or because they have learned British pronunciations ofthese vowels, which
have a more "o"-like sound thafl the NAI versions. If the ,,o,:like pronunciation of
/o/ words (such as lrot, k)ck, sbop) is not distmcting and does not reduce
intelligibiliry students do not need to "unlearn,' the British pronunciations.
Some students, however, do use conftlsing pronunciations with specific pairs
of vrords involvin g /o/ UJ/) and /ow/,like uant and uon ? When both words sound
the same, pronunciation should be addressed.
15
The pure Iowel/o/ does nol exist in NA! €xcepl in ,r few erpresions. such as d rc fi$tpaft al0h oh /a'tau/. This warning is also
writttn 'Uh-oh," and "uh" is pnnounced with /e/.
188 IHAPTER 5 Vo\rels
Descript:on This activity targets words where ihe letter o is pronounced /ow/ or
/o/. Students sort the words according to the pronunciation of the
vowel. Teachers should look through past readings or vocabulary that
studenis have covered and select words where the stressed vowel is
spelled with o (as in possible, stolen) and pronounced either /ow/ or
/o/. The activity can be made more challenging by including words in
which the letter o is pronounced lal (as in moneD.
1. Prepare a list of words where the stressed vowel is spel ed with o and
pronounced either /ow/ or /o/. The sample words below, where the o spelling
is pronounced /o/, are ones my students often mispronounce.
possible nqtice gone a lone
2. Write the words on the board or present them ln a handout. Add two column
heads to the board that corresponds to the two pronunciat ons.
Actiui1t 5. 1 I continue/l
lAnswers: /a/ wordsr p6ssible, m6dern, shop, gone, bother, pr6blem, r6tten,
lost, m6nster, college; /ow/ words: cold, p6tent, folk, most, n6tice, groceries,
hold, bone, a lone, stolel
3. IVodel the words. Students repeat.
4, Using the handout (or copying the column headings onto a piece of paper),
students write each word under one of the columns, according to the
pronunciation of the vowel. This can be done singly or in patrs.
5, Ask a volunteer to come to the board, The class tells the volunteer which words
belong in the two columns.
6. Elicit from the class other words spelled with o and clarify questions about
pronunciation. Your students may volunteer words that are pronounced with
vowels other than /ow/ or /o/. ln that case, model the pronunciation and
explajn that lowl and lol are common pronunciations of this spelljng but not
the on ly ones.
Spellings of /r/
E ERR0R C0RRECTION: zarz sounds like "low"i bougltt sounds like "boat"'
Instruct students to pronounce lau (or bougllt) with an "ah" sound instruct them not
E to round their lips too much when they say words like bougbL lalu, ot Pquse
ffi otnn norrgs, /ay/ (bigtr), /aw/ (hont), and /oy/ (boy)
Diphthongs /ay, aw, oy,/ clide Yowrls /iy. ey. ow. ttw/
Lv€i\
rY"
t5
The consonalls /s, z, r,/ arc eraltplcs 0l contln,lan$. \iifi conti ltutls. thc ,rir is obstructed but nol comllerly blocked
cH^prrR S Vowels 19'l
There are some dialect differences in the pronunciation of diphthongs. Some
Southemers pronounce the glide ending of diphthongs weakly in informal speech;for
example, o/ may sound similar to "ole" or ,,all,', and time may x]iltnd a little Iike .Tom.,,
Few students have problems hearing or pronouncing English diphthongs.
Chinese students may weaken the glide ending of ,/ay,/ (and to a lesser extent /aV)
when these vowels are followed by nasd consonzurts, as in time or count. Ther-
pronnnciation of time, fot example, may soru]d close to Tont (similar to the
Southerners' pronunciation). The phonetic symbol ,rai,/ is more effective than /avl ir.r
efrof coffection of this problem.
Diphthongs pfoyide an oppoftunitF ro pfactice r'owel-r'owel sequences and
the correct s]4labification of words liirie science (sci|ence). The lilicle ending of the
diphthong acts as a linking sound, joining to the following vowel to create the next
svllable'. scilence.
Description This activity practices joining diphthongs Uay, aw, oyl) or glide vowels
(/iy, ey, ow, uw/) to a following vowel (vowel-vowel sequences) in ihe
context of fields of study: biology, psychiatry, meteorology. Because
of its connection with science, this topic is appropriate for lTAs or
students in academic English programs.
ERR0R C0RRECTI0N: Chinese students pronounce tirne like "Tor ," arrd explain
as 'explen."
1. Chinese students are unaware that they are weakening glide endings befofe /n/ or
/n/ ("s in time, explqin\.
2. Write the mispronounced word on the board, underlining the problem Yowel ( e.g ,
tlme, fi,nd, exptglln, trqln).under the Yowel write the phonetic symbol /ail (for
time an<lfinD or /ei/ (fot exptain ?;nd train).^lelJ the student that she is not pro-
flouncing dre second part of the vowel sound strongly enough whef' /m/ ot /,/ fol'
lows. Model the correct and incorrect pronunciations.
3. Alternatively, model the word without the final nasal consonant; say "tie" instead of
"dme," "tray" instead of "tlain," and "explay" instead of "explain." Ask the student
to repeat the shortened word seYeral times, iust as you said it.Then ask the student
to say the shortened word (e.g., "tie") and add,/na/ or / .
ifog for example , sound the same. The vowel which remains in r-less dialects is
different from its counterpart before other sounds.Thus, to achieve an accurare /-
less pronunciation of thc vowels ii hear /ft/, bait /Er/, trer /ar/. haftt /o , more
/or/,a'17d tour /ur/, tlte student needs to alter her pronunciation of six vowel sounds
(the r-colored versions of /r, r, a, o, o, u,/). Learnin!! to pronounce a following /r,/ is
an easier task itnd produces the reqrdred "cok)ring" of tlte l.owel. In addition. even
in rless dialects, final /r/ is pronounced as a linkir]g consonant when a vowel
follows, as rn heq_ansuter. .lenkins (2002) irlso recornmends teaching the
pfonunciation of /r/ aftcJ these six vowel sour]ds, rather than their r-less
cor-lnterparts (see Lingua Franca Cofe, page 9).
Pedaliogicall,v, the three mosr important and difficult r-colored vowels are /ar/
(.as in lser), /or/ (as in bard), and, /or/ (^s in rzore). Mispronunciations of these
vowel sounds are especially distorting. For many students, the vowel in lter is the
most difficult.This \,.owel is really a unitary yowel eyen tlroulah it is represented wirh
two phonetic symbols (,/arl).r7 The spellings ot /ar/, /or/,and, /arl also o\Iedap and
afe anotlrer source of mispronunciation. R{css pfonunciations of thc vowels in t,eat,
bair, and tour (/n/, /tr/, /ur/ ) are not as difficult to understand.
Certain sounds following /r/, especiallv /n/ and /1/, can make the r-colored
vowels more difficult. Students who ltave learned to pronolmce the r-colorecl
\.owels in words like lJurt and first may still ha\.c difliculty q/ith learn, burn, and
turn. One of the most difficr t sequences of sounds is that in u'ort(l and girl.'Ihe
pronunciation of these words is learned morc easily when thel/ a1e presented as
two-syllable words: ,/warald,/ and ,/garal/. 'the word squirrel, with the same
sequence, is spelled as a two-syllable word. Pronouncing u.torld ,,nLl gid as t:wo
syllable words gives students more time to m'tke the articrjlxtory chanlle from/r,/ to
/l/. Early has a similar sequence, but is easier to pronounce because ,/l/ begins the
last syllable.
rt
Other slnbols for this rowel lnclude 4-/ $,hen the lo\rcI rs gressed ({s in ,?)2, and /a-l \rhen fie vo$,el is unstrssed (as in ,1qqa).
194 :HAPTER 5 vowels
SpellJngs of /crl.
Spellings of /orl.
The r-colordd vowels /at/, /a ,^nd /or,/ are acqlrired gradually They warrant a
fllll pronunciation lesson, in addition to error correction and review. R-colored
vowels should not be taught as part of a lesson on beginning ,/f/ (for example, the
13
Sonre speaken pronoun ce Ihe 'tawel n loumtlnent ?s lat/ .
cHAprER S Vowels 195
/f/ in rou,
red, and correct).Teaching approaches for,/r/ alter vowels (i.e., r-colored
vowels) and /r/ in beginning position (as in rou) atf. different. and the
pronunciation problems associated with the two positions of
(for teaching beginning
h/ arc also different
see Consonants, page 1.i1).1e
^/,
Z-colored Vowels. Vowels that occur before ,4/ at the end of a wo rd, (as it all) ot
syllable (as ln allaays) are /-colored vowels. The vowel is pronounced with
a short
glide ending, /a/.2o
feel fiifv
sell lseeV
cold /kow.ld/
Z-coloring of vowels is a topic for accent reduction and polishing, and does
not have to be covered in most classes. Howeye! students may notice that a vowel
before /l/ sounds different from irs .rcgular,' pronunciation before other
consonants. When working with minimal palrs like
feet_Jill, where yowels occur
before ,/l/, students may comment that the vowels sound different from the
vowels
in leaue-liue. The teacher can explain that the vowels sound a little different
because of the /l/ sorurct. In some textbooks, /l/ coloring may be part of a
lesson
on "diltk /l/" (see /l/,page 144).
Activity 5.13 R-Colored vowel* presenting r-colorcd vowels /ot/ (arc), /at/ (he.),
and /or/ (o.)
level Ail
Worksbeet Page 235
Tip Use hand gestures to reinforce the pronunciation of /r/ after vowels.
Description Students learn to pronounce /r/ after vowels by using a combination
of diagrams showing articulation and hand gestures that mimic
retroflexion of the tongue"
19ltaching
rchoflexion h-ihe pedagogical locus for the /-colorcd vowels. for beginring //, rchof]exion and the absence ofconta.t
betw€en the tongue tip and the top of the mouth arc both impoftnt.
,'dark
'zo A1temativel11 tlrc /a/ glide can be consjdercd part of the /,, (see /l/, Consonants).
196 :HAPTER 5 vowels
Actiuit! 5. 1 3 continued
2. Use hand gestures to reinforce the retroflexed movement (up and back) of the
tip of the tongue. This gesture is also useful for feedback and error correction.
As you say are, start with your hand flat, palm facing up, and curl your
fingertips up. Tell students that your hand represents the tongue.21
3. Tell siudents to make a long "ahhhh" sound and then slowly turn the tip of the
tongue up and back (this is the pronunciation of are). Use the hand gesture as
a visual model. Students may be able to pronounce /r/ more easily if they close
their eyes and visualize the tongue tip turning up and back,
4. Ask each student to say are. Use the hand gesture to re nforce pronunciation.
5. Direct students' attention to the diagrams of the mouth shapes for lorl (are),
larl (her), and lorl (or). Remind students that inside the mouth, the tongue tlp
turns up and back a little.
6, IVodel are again. Explain that the rnouth is open. Inside, the tip of the tongue
turns up and back. Students repeat. Use the hand gesture to reinforce
pronunciation of /r/.
7. IModel her. Explain that the mouth is nearly closed. lnside, the tip of the
tongue turns up and back. Students repeat, Use the hand gesture to reinforce
pronunciation of /r/.
8. l\4odel or. Explain that the lips are rounded, Inside, the tip of the tongue turns
up and back. Students repeat. Use the hand gesture to reinforce pronunciation
oI lrl .
9. Ask each student to say are, her, and or. Provide feedback on pronunciation.
214
n:riewer suggests thalneadng a rcd milten adds an eLement oifun lo the prcscntxtlon.
CH \PIER 5 V,,$els 197
1. Ask students to look around the room and volunteer words for the things
they see.
2. Write the words on the board and circle those that have /r/ after a vowel;
examples include door, floor, blackboad, purse, paper, shirt, skirt, chair, and
water (bottle). Students practice the words.
3. Provide feedback on pronunciation of /r/, using the hand gesture described
on p. 196.
CONCLUSION
The pronunciation ofyowels is difficr t for students partly because English has
a relatively large number of vowels.Teachers should focus on high-frequency vowels
and vowel contrasts, such as the front and central vowels. Among those, nonnative
Engish-speaking teachers should select vowels that they pronounce accurately and
feel comfoftable teaching. English vowels are also diflicult because of confusing ancl
inconsistent spellings. \We have provided some examples of actiyities which help
eliminate "spelling mispronunciations,', by focusing students on exceptional
spellings. Finally, vowel articulation is difficult for teachers to describe and for
students to yisualize.We haye proyided some vowel presentation activities in which
teachers provide visual clues to vowel pronunciation. Hand Flestures that mimic the
pfonunciation of ,/r/ after vowels are effective in presenting and giving feedback on
these clifficult vowels. The distinctiye mouth shapes associated with some yowels
also simpli8. the task of presenting pronunciation.
In the classroom, students shoulcl have enough opportunity to gain skill with
a particular vowel (or yowel contmst) in controlled activities. Once students are able
to pronounce a vowel reasonablv accurately in contfolled practice, the teacher can
mo\.e to mofe communicatiye practice by selecting a key word or set of words
containing the vowel to establish a context fof less-scripted speaking.
ACTIVITY WORKSHEETS
The following pages provide directions for Activity 1.7: Make enough copies of
using the worksheets with the activities Worksheet 1.7 for half the studeltts. Cut the
suggested in Tips for Teaching sets apart and distdbute Set I to half the
Pronunciation. The x/orksheet numbers class and Set 2 t() the other half'
match the activity numbers; if an activity is
Activity 1.8: Make a copy of Worksheet 1.ll
not listed below. no worksheet is needed
for every student in the class. Have students
for that activity. If a worksheet has
read along as they listen to tlte audio CD
qu€stions for students to answer, th€
(track.1).
answers follow the directions. In order to Ansuters: 1.f (tbe);2. c (tbe);.). b (the);4..1 (the);
save pape! teachers may elect to use the i.b (the):6..i (notbing):7.k (the);8.I (Jout);9. g
blackboard, slides, or transparencies to (your); 10.d (an); 11.e (an); 12.i (a).
present worksheets intended for the entife
class. Materials intended for only one Actiyity 1.9: Make a copy of W'orkshe€t 1.9
member of a pair (or one team of students) for every student in the class. Have students
should be provided as paper handouts. read along as they listen to the words on
the audio CD (track 5).
Activity l.L Make a copy of Worksheet 1.1
for each student in the class. Have students Activity 1.10: Make enough copies of
read along as they listen to the paragraph \Vorksheet 1.10A for evcry student. Have
on the audio CD (trdck 2). Then have students read along as they listen to the
students complete the trivia quiz. audio CD (track 6). Nlake enough copies of
Ans.oers: 1. a; 2. c: 3. d;4. c; 5. b; 6. a: 7. c: B. d. Worksheet 1.10B for half the studeqts. Cut
1.108 ir half so every student gets one set
Activity 1.2: Make a copy of Worksheet 1.2 of questions. The answers are part of the
for each student in the class. worksheet.
Actiyity 1.3: Make half as many copies of Actiyiry 1.11: Make a copy of Worksheer
each schedule as there are students in the 1.11 for cveq. student. Students work in
class. Give half the students Schedule A and pairs to answers the questio[s.
half Schedr e B. Pair up students with Ans.4)ers: L the I95Os;2.tbe 193Os:3.tbelate
different schedules. If ]'ou choose, you can 192os and earl! 193Os;1. the 1910s; i. tbe
substitute different programs for those on 1960s;6. the 1930s and 191Os;7. tlre 199Os;
the schedule to reflect TV shows vour B. tbe 196Os;9. tbe 198Os: lO.tlte 1970s: 11.tbe
students like to watch. l92Os:12.the 1950s.
Activity 1.4: Make half as many copies of Activity 2.1: Make a cop_v of Worksheet 2. I
each map as there are students in the class. for each student in the class. Haye students
Give half the students Map A and half Map read alonEi as they listen to the audio CD
B. Pair up students with ditTerent maps. (trdck 7).
Activity 1.6: Make a copy of !trorksheet 1.6 Activity 2.4: Make a copy of Worksheet 2.4
for each stuclent in the class. Have students for each sudent in the class. Have students
read along as they listen to the audio CD read along as th€y listen to the audio CI)
(track 3). Have students work jn pairs to (track 9).
decide which came first. A su)ets: 1. h;2. c; 3..l;4.f;5. e;6. a;7. b; a. g.
Arasuters: cell pbones, coml.)utcr games, desktops,
e-mail, bard dir.Jes, searclr engines, confbtence Activity 2.6: Make a copy of Worksheet 2.6
calk, liuer tu'anspl"1nts, ftnperprinting. for every student in the class. Have students
"199
200 AppENDtx A Activity worksheets
read along as they listen to Part A of the Actiyity 3.8r Make a copl' of Vorksheet 3.8
audio CD track 10. Pause the audio, then for each student in the class
continue listening to Part B (track 1 1) Activity 4.3: Make a copl of Wo*sheet 4.3
when ready. for each student in the class. Have students
Activity 2.7, Marke enough copies of read along as they listen to the audio CD
Worksheet 2.7 for half the class. Give half (track 18).
the students Grid A and half the students Answers: pretU) ; ma tter: rneeting; inrlted: Wbat
Grid B. Students with different grids will A geftinll; later; betler;W)at do.
pair up and work together
Activity 4.4: Make half as many copies of
Activity 2.9t Make a copy of \trorksheet 2.9 Vorksheet 4.4 as there are students in the
for each student in the class. Have students class. Give Chart A to hall the class and
read along as they listen to the audio CD Chart B to the other half. Students with
(track 12). different charts will pair up and work
Actlvity 2.10: Make a copy of worksheet together.
2.10 for every sudent in the class. Have Actiyity 4.5: Make one copy of Worksheet
students read along as they listen to the 4.5 for each student in the class.
audio CD (track 13).
Ansuers: 1. utben;2. and; 3. Or;4. if;5. that; Activity 4.7: Make a copy of worksheets
6. tbat 7. hut; B. than;9. as; lO. as; I 1. wben; 4.7A. J.n(I1t.7B for each student in the class.
12. wben. Distribute Workslleet 4.7,4. before the
activity; have students read along as they
Actiyity 2.13r Make a copy of Worksheet listen to the audio CD (track 19). Distribute
2.13 for each student in the class. Hayc \trorksheet 4.78 at the conclusion of the
students read along as they list€n to th€ activity. Explain that students may want to
audio CD (track 14). keep the rules where they can easily refer
Actiyity 3.1: Make a copy of Worksheet 3.1 to them.
for each student in the class. Have students 4nsrrers.' r=ft\ t uo rd s. fi.( e.\pe n si ue. m k.
Xerox, expdnd, tdxes, experl, dxiom,
read along as they listen to the audio CD
tttd.ximuln, context; x=gz uords: exhibit,
(track 15). evtminq eltist, exbibition, execLrtiue,
Activiry J.2: Prepare half rs mdn] copie\ exhausted, exdtn, execute; x=z uords: Xerox.
of each chart as there are students in the
class. The categories of comparison in the Activity 4.8: Make half as many copies of
Vorksheet 4.8 as there are students in the
charts can be changed to reflect )'our 'Itam A questions
students' situations. For example, if most of class. Give half the class
your students work, the information under and half the class Team B questions.
Tedm A Ansuters: L relnember: 2. rwle:
"Location" might be specified as closeness
3. fural; 1. red; 5. ra.lio; 6. riuers; 7. rug;8. utritu.
to work rather than closeness to school. Tearn B arrswers: L rlgbt; 2. relatiues; 3. repdif;
cive half the students Chart A and half the 1. (d) ring: 5. (a) rcoJ; (). roses;7. retunx;8. to
students Chaft B. Students with different
charts will pair up and work together
Actiyity 4.9. Make a copy of worksheet .{.9
Activity 3.3: Make a copy of \t9orksheet 3.3
for each student in the class.
for each student in the class. Have students
read along as they listen the dialogue on Activity 4.11: Make a copy of Worksheet
the audio CD (track 16). 4.11 for eaclr student in the class. Hav€
students read along as they listen to the
Activity 3.7: Make a copy of Worksheets
audio CD (track 20).
3.7A and 3.7B for each student in the class. P.t t 2 Anstuers: 9. aduise; 10. pig; I 1. rice;
Students will read along as they listen to 12.peas; 13. b.1ck; 11. (a) use; 1 5. haqe; 16. set.
the dialogue on the audio CD (rack l7).
AppENDtx A Activity worksheets 201
lr(fivity 4.12r Ma.ke a copy of Worksheet Activity 5.5: Make a copy of Worksheet 5.5
4.12 for ezch student in the class. for each student in the class.
Actlylty 5.1: Make a copy of Vorksheet 5.1 Activiry 5.72 Make a copy of Vorksheet 5.7
for each student iri the class- for each student in the class.
Activity 5.2: Make a copy of \forksheet 5.2 Actiyity 5.8: Make a copy of Worksheet 5.8
for each student in the class, or simply for each student in the class.
pfesent minimal pairs relevant to Activity 5.9: Make a copy of \forksheet 5.9
students'leyel. for each student in the class.
Lcttulty 5.4r Make a copy of Worksheet 5.4 Acttvtty 5.13: Make a copy of !florksheet
for each student in the class. Have students 5.13 for each student in the class.
read along as they listen to the audio CD
(track 21).
Arrswers: /A/ uords: bead, steal, kq,, cheap,
receiue, people, beliew; /eJ// utor*: break, W
tbq, take, eigbt, baw stays; /e/ unds: brcakflst
instead, medl.lne, says, /tta/rJ), egain, frierul.
202 AppENDtx A Activity wotksheets
Shoulder Season
The cost of traveling depends on when you trayel and where you travel. High season is
the most expensive time to travel. Low season is the least expensive time to travel. Shoulder
season is in between.
If you don't want to spend a lot of money, shouldet season is the best time to travel.
Airfares and hotels aj:e not so expensive, and the weather is not usually too hot or too
cold. Fof example, if you'rc tfaveling to Japan from the United States, the shoulder season is
in winter
1. You want to go to South Africa. v/hen is the shoulder seasofl?
a. January to April c. October and November
b. Summef d. $finter
2, You want to go to Australia. When is the shoulder season?
a. Summef c. Spring
b. May to July d. Octobef
3. You want to go to Turkey. when is th€ shor der season?
a. Winter c. July and August
b. March d. Fall
4. You want to go to Rio de Janeirc in Brazil. when is the shoulder season?
a. February c. Summe r
b. Winter d. September to December
5. You want to go to Italy. When is the shoulder season?
a. Summef c. June and July
b. Fall d. January to March
-I.2
WORI(SHF,F,T PRIMARY STRESS: Integrating Stress,
Vocabulary, and Reading
Reprinted from rvorthstal 1, Rea.liltg qndr ritil?g b,v Joho tseaunont, Pcarson Longllran,
20Oc). pagc I ti. Uretl with pcrmi.iion.
44 Mah Stre€t
tr 46Pal*Lane
tr 43 First Str€et
n
42 Main Str€€t
tr !:1
H
z
F
36 Main Street
EI
Et
F 32 Pr* Ilne n rl
ll
37 Flrst Stieet
tr
e
'4
FT
35 Main Street
@ z 30 PaIt Irne E 33 Fkst Street
E F
n 24 Pffk Iln€ E 22 First Street
n *
tr
n
IA2l Stud€ot B map
The mrp shows aparun€nt buildings on Mah Ste€t, Palt Ilne ard l1lst Sh€et.The numbers in the
buildiry show how tuy people li!€ Ln that builalha. IJ a buildiig is mptt ark your partner the
questton b€low and mite the ans*,er on the map.
44 Main Str€et
tr 46 P,rk lr€ n 43 Fist Sheet
tr
42 Main StrEet
tr F
Fl
z
F
Fi
36 Maln Str€et
tr Fl
&
F 32 ?arklane @ II 37 Fist Str€et
n H
F
35 Main Str€et
tl z 30 Park Iae n & 33 First St eet
E !r
20 Mdn Street
@ n 22 First Street
tr
2l First Street
E
206 Appr:NDix A Activity worksheets
women outlive men because th€y experience less work-related str€ss than men.
rfomen have a more positive outlook and more practical goals than man
Men are more likely than women to underestimate the dangers of risla behavior
In most societi€s. men oute?rn women and are the main source of farnily income .
AppENDtx A Activity Wotksheets 2O7
Apple orchard
NNNN
Some larks2 and a wren,
Are building their nests in my beard!"3
and
da DA d^ da DA
da DA da da DA
Matchlng
1. dotrom a. an event where businesses looking for new employees can
meet people lookng for iobs
2. Web site b. an employment agency (usually for well-paid jobs)
3. outsourcing c. cyberspace location
4. cuttluoat (adj) d. the practice of hiring employees located in other countries
Discusslon
1. What kird of work do you do or are you interested in doirg? How do people find
jobs in that area? Do they go to job fairs? Web sites? Headhunters? What's the iob
rnarket like in that area?
2. V/hat do you think of outsourcilg? Is outsourcing an issue in your country? How
can it hurt a country? How can it help a country?
AppENDtx A Activity Worksheets 213
1o -r--.- X
t-_;) ( )
I. ,t:l
Lr
lU ldD
,i.
5i .t 13
\,i
6. 14
t5
s]L- /-l
lZ.$$\ l--l
\:,tr' ([/
u,...:.:,:l
8. 16.
Appf t'iDtx A Aclivity Warkshects 215
'f,
'gg
216 AppENDtx A Activity Worksheets
Dlscusslon
How would you answer these questions? In your country who makes these decisions?
218 AppENDIx A Activity worksheets
1. v4mddaya see?
\I4lerja go?
3. Whatcher name?
6. vftadia see?
9. I wantcha to go.
Ordering Breakfast
Waiter: What would you IIKE?,
)C I'll have EGGS.
Waiter: How would you LIKE them?
X: SCRAMBLED, please.
Waiterr Anlrhing ELSE?
X: Just COFFEE, with MILK.
*The waiter might
also say,'Are you ready to ORDER?".CaI I iake your ORDER?,,,Ar. you READY?,,
220 /\PP.Ntr,\ A Activiry la/orksheets
$)\U/mt'ntn s750/month
Ar Finished?
B: Yes.
,4,: Dinner?
B: Sure.
Ar Italian?
B: No.
Ac Sushi?
B: Yeah.
A,: Where?
B: Tomo's?
A,: OK.
222 APPEND:r A Activity Wotkheets
Dialogue 1: l
Julian: Congratulations.
Luke: Tharks. Now I'ye got to find a way to pay for it, though.
Dialogae 2z
Julianr Have you decided what kind of law you vant to go into?
Julian: Well, Sue loves to hike so we're going hjking. It's an easy hjke,
A A.lA,/Iv l4/ork-sheels 223
^PPrNDil
.WORKSHEET
3.7B PARENTHETICALS: YOrl LOOK PfCttY
Happy, Luke.
I'm sure
You know
it seems
Dialogue
A: Let's go for a dfiye.
B: OK, but I have to do something fust.
Situatlons
1. It's an extremely hot and humid sumner day, and A and B, husband and wife, don't
have air conditioning in their apartment or car. They're both exhausted from the
heat. They think that maybe the breeze coming in the car windows will make them
feel bette! but they re not very hopeful.
2. B is Asmotherfather B is teaching A to dfiye. B beli€yes that A is a terrible driver
and always dreads helping A practice. A loyes to driye and nevq refuses an
opportunity to practice.
3. A and B are newll.weds, very much in love. They're going to one of their favorite
spots, a secluded lake whefe they fifst met and f€ll in [oye.
AppENDrx A Activity Worksheets 225
A: V/hy would you thinl tlnt? You and Alex have been talking about
J. Cl.fna J. Norw.rv
/r. Gefmany 2_5 .i. Iran '2.6
7. Ital\' 7. Kuwait
9. Inclia 9. Mexico
'IO. "laiwan 1.0 10. Algctia 1.7
'' I hc clxlx on oil impor'ts comcs lroln the I J.S. Enerll.i lnfornatiolr Administration for 200.1: the export
intornxti(n reflects 2005 dxle (source: $.\\.$..eia.doe.go\').
APTEND/.\A A.tiyit!'|l/crrksheefs 227
2. Jap^, 2. Russia
4. Germanv 4. Iran
8. Spain 8. Ni{aeria
*'fhe data on oil imports concs fiom thc U.S. Efleryt Informatior Adn]inistratio[ lbr 200'1; llle cxporr
infolmation rcflects 2005 data (sourcer www.eja.doe.go\').
228 AppENDtx A Activity worksheets
sung
Decide how "x" is pronounced in the words below. Write each word under the first, second,
or third column below the words.
fL'( expensiye exhibit examine mix exist
Ierox exhibition executive exhausted exam expand
taxes expect execute axiom maximum context
r-&s t4=gz
AppitiDtx A At tivtt'/ Workshee' 229
1. li. at the beginniflg of a word is prono'rnced /z/ (there are vcry 1ew of these words
in Bnglish).
x€rox xenotl
2. X at the end of a word is pronounced /ks/.
box tax
lsome speakers pronounce exl, as "eksitt" while othcrs pronourcc it as 'c€lzit." Some speakers usc
both pronuncilrtions.
230 rpprND/.! ,1 ,l.tir,/r| i1.'orlrheets
Diagtatn of /t/
Diagran of /r/
Iight right
Minimal Pairs
light-right low-row glass-grass alive-arrive
late-rate list-wrist fly-fry play-pray
long-wrong led-red
P?.rt ^l
A B A B
1. beU belt 2. shore short
3. fax faxed 1. dog dogs
5. pick picked 6. watch watched
7. thant thanked 8. plan plant
P^rt 2
9. advise advice 10. pig pick
11. rise rice 12. peas piece
13. bag back 14. (to) use (a) use
15. have half 16. said set
232 AppENDtx A Activity worksheets
Aid to the poor (Medicaid, food stamps, housing subsidies, etc.) 16%
@
leave /iy/ llve /t/
AppENDtx A Activity Wotksheets 233
Choose minimal pairs for this actiyity that are appropriate for your students'level
(B = beginning level; LI = low-intermediat€;I = intemediate; HI = high-interme diate;
A = advanced).
"/ eat
(B)-it (B) cheap (B)-chip (I/HI) beater (I)-birter (I)
,,/ seat (Ll)-sit (B) steal GD-still (LI) relieve (I)-relive (I)
/ leaye (B)-liye (B) /least (lD-list (LI) Pete (I)-pit (HI)
reach (Ll)-rich @) field(I)-filled (Il) asleep (I)-a slip (HI)
feet (B)-fit (LI) heat (I)-hit (B) meal (I)-mill (A)
v/ sleep (B)-slip (I) beaten (I)-bitten (I) de€p (I)-dip (A)
green (B)-grin (I) heaL/heel (I)-hi[ (LI) feast(Hl)-fisr (HI)
reason (B)-risen (I) seek (I)-sick (B) seed (Hl)-gdd (A)
each (B)-itch (HI) peel (A)-pill (LI)
Diagram of r
Iip Shapes
her
E npPENDtx B
PROBLEMS OF SELECTED LANGUAGES
On page 10, we list features of English pronunciation thxt are difficult for most students,
:egardless of natir,'e-language background. In this appenclix, we describe problems that are
]pical of stuclents from sclected nativeLanguage backgrorxlds: Ajabic, Chinese, Irrench,
Haitian Creole, Japanesc, Korean, Poftuguese, Russian, South Asian languages, Spanish, Thai,
lnd victnamese. Togethcr with the list of common problems on page 10, the information in
Ihis section car.r be usecl by teachers who want to anticipate the types of pronunciation
problems their students are likely to have. The teacher should also bc awa.re that the
problems described below are q?ical but are not experienced by every native speaker of
rhat language.
ARABIC
Anbic belongs to the Semitic family of languages, which also includes Hebrew, Ammaic,
and Assydan.It is spoken in Algcria, Bahrain, Chad, Diibouti, Eg)-pt, Eritrea, Iraq, Israel,
.lordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, C)man, palestinian territories, eataq
Saudi Afibia, Somalia, Sudan, S,yria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, and
.l?mert.
aS well as in smitllef communities in othef countries aS a native or second language
(L2). Because Arabic is the language of the Koran, many Muslims around the world are
fxmili'Jr s\ ith \omc Arabic worcls and phrases.
Moclern Standard Arabic is a "pan Arabic,,dialect used in schools, by journalists, and for
ollicial purposes (swan and smith 2001, 19i). h addition, there are marry colloquial \.arietics
of spoken Anbic, which can differ substautiau,v from each other. 'l'he problems describecl
below are comrton to most varieties of A1?bic.
Word Stress
Since stress placement in Arabic is regular anal predictable, Anbic students may be
unfamiliar with the varied stress placement in Enlalish and misplace stress when the,y speak.
Arabic students should be taught predicrable stress associated with clir.sses of English words
(begiming on page 30), and new vocabulary of more than one syllable shoul<1 be presented
orally. Arabic str.rdcnts may also be unfarniliaf with tlte English use of stress ro disringuish
meaning ir pairs like a rdcorcl-to rec1rd or Appb-aI)pdll.
Although Arabic and English are both stress-timed languages, unstressed syllables in
Arabic arc not as shofi relative to stressed syllables as they arc in English, and vo\lel qualiq.,
in unstesscd sfllables is not as reduced as it is in English @enrabeh 199j . Zutalq and,
serrcno 2007). studerlts should be encouraged to n.rake a greater length distinction bern'een
strcs.etl rnJ UnstrcsscLl \owcl: (.(c page ,25).
Rhlthm and Ifltonation
ln connected speech, Arabic students may insefi a glottal stop (the sound separating
the two parts of uboh) trelbre words beliinning with a vowel, creat tg a choppy soundhg
rhlthm. Students should prnctice linking final consonants to beginning voweG (see
page 55). Students may also stress more words in uttennces than native speakers would,
resulting in oyedy emphatic speech. Students should work with highlighting, focusing
emphasis on just one or fwo words in an uttennce (sce page 96). Likewise, students should
wolk on givinEi less prominence to ftlnction words (see page !0).
237
238 rrrrND/,\ B Prtl:lens ti Stlcctcd lang,uagc's
Consonants
1. /p/. h/:Tb,ere is no /p/ in nrost dialccts of Al'abic, so students ma) substitutc for
/p/. pronouncing wor.ls like I)eople as 'beoble.' Teach stLldenls to pronounce ^/
\l'ords
beginning with the letterr' wilh a puff of xir (aspiration. see page 150)
2. / . /v/tThese arc variaDts of the sanrc sotlnd in Arabic. Focus on Ay' .tt tlle
bcginnings or i1l the miclclle of$'ords (see palie l21r)
l. /ll,/: ,\mbic has no /!/. so studcots maY substitute /n/ or /\g/ fttt /\/ (.see page 136).
1. /r/:1he /r/ in Artbic is a flaPPcd /1/ ancl students ma\-substitutc this sound for the
/r/ of Erglish. Teach the retroflexed articulation of English /r,/ (see page 141)
5. Consonant clustcrs: In ntost dialects of A1'abic. consooaot clusters do not occuf at
the beginnings of $.(]rds. Studcnts lnay ioscrt vo$'els bcfore or betwccn beginning
Elrglish cltlstcrs. Pron()uncing a wortl likefToor as if]oor' or "Iiloor" (sce page 15I)
Final two membel consonant clusters tlre permittcd. Sttldents should work with
past ancl prcsent el-Idings to practice tjnal chlsters with two of nrore meflbcrs
(sce page 159).
6 l/r sounds: These sounds occur in Modetn Standatd Anbic bu1 not in some of thc
colbquial languagcs. SOme students havc no problem pronolrncinla the tJ sounds,
br.rt others may substitute /t/ or /.1/ fot lhese sounds. a stilimatized pronLrnciation
(see pagc 126).
Vowels
\. /I/ . /E/: k1\b:1c students mit\' conftlsc these two vowels, prononncilf'g becl llke bid or
vice Yersa lsee pagc 175).
'2. /x/ , /T/ , /a/. /o/: Arabic has only one lo$' 1'owcl. so all of thesc Yowcls ma.v be
difficult fbr stuclenls to pcrccive:rnd prorlollllce (scc palie 178)
orthography
'Ihcre is [o similarirr._ bet$-een thc Elrglish ancl Ar.rbic \t'ritinl] systcms, Arabic is written
liom rillht to leli ancl flequeutll omits vowels. E\rn aclvancecl Al'abic stuclents have
difficulty reading aloucl, often halting rtnnaturalh- and transposing letters;these studcnts
should practicc reading aloud.
CHINESE
Chinesc is ;t collcction ()f languages ard dialccts trnificd b]' a comnon $'riting s1's1c11
The sharetl \vriting s,vstcm allows written Chinese to be understoocl b,v Iitefatc speakers of
all varietics, cven s'hen the spoken varicties are mutualh' uDintelligible (lhincsc is spoken in
the People's Rcpublic of China (Clrina), the Republic ol Chira (Tai$'an), Hong Kong,
Singaporc. \{ala}-sia. Macau, thc Philippincs, Australix. tndonesia, Maurititrs. Peftr, Ciurada, the
Ilnited St:rtcs, and othcr reliions $'ith Chinesc communities.
There are substanti,tl linguistic clifterenccs betwcen Chinesc, a Sino-'libctan langtlage,
'rnd English, an Indo Elrropcan languag;e. one of the most important Phonological
dillerences betwccn Enlilish and Chincse is the trsc of pitch Chilcse is a tonc language:
an essential part of the pronunciation ol a par(icular worcl is a particuliu lcrel of pitch
(or dircction of pitch). Pitch, thcreforc, clistingttishes worcls liom each other' Ilrr
examplc. Chjnese r1li. spoken on a high-level pitch (tonc), means "to hang over
something;" spoken on a pitch that irlls sharplJ', r/.r mcxns "big.' (Stress iD Elglish
pertbrrus tlris frnction in the pair (a) r'cud (to) tec6rel, for e-\arnple.) In English, pitch
AppENDtx B Prcblems of Selected Languages 239
patterns (intonation patterns) occur ovef phrases and utterances, structruing and adding
discourse meaning.
In this section we focus on two varieties of Chinese: Mandarin and Cantonese. Mandarit
is the standard form of spoken Chinese, used in journalism, education, and government.
Cantonese is the ofticial language of I-Iong Kong and the mother tongue of many Chinese
speakers overseas. A major phonolotiic;rl difference between Mandarin and Cantonese is
rhlthm. Mandarin is a stress-timed language , like English, while Cantoncse is a syllable-timed
language. Thc rhltl.rmic dissimilarity betweer.r Cantonese and English makes Englislt rhlthm
mofe dilTicult fof Cantoncse speakers than for Mandarin speakers. Most of the other
problems described below are comnon to both Mandarin and Cantonese.
Word Stress
Most Chinese words are monosyllabic;as a result, Chinese speakers are likely to lrave
difficulty with stress placement in polysyllabic words (see page 37).
Rhythm
Because Cantonese has syllable timed rhlthm, Cantonese snldents may pronounce every
English q'llable with equal length and shess, creating a staccato or choppy eftitct (see Chapter
2). Mandafir-speaking srudents have less difliculry with this aspect of English rh).thm.
6. ,4l/: (lhinese studcnts lnav substitutc a Yelar /h/ for Erglish gbttal /h/, prolouncing
/h/ with a noisy sound (like the Gernan pronurciation of c,b in Bdcl,) Explain that
English,/h,i is a soft sound,like the sound of heav) bretrthing (see page 140)
7. C(xrsonant clusters: (ihinese cloes not allow collsonant clusters at thc beginnings or
cnds of words. Studcnts ma]- simplif,v clusters b)' dcletin!! a consonant (.e.9 'problem
sounds like "poblem" or eve[ /poban]/) or bY separating consonants (e !a .2/e4.se
sounds like'palease') (see page 151).
8. Final consonants: Chinese allo$,'s a yery linitccl number rlf finlrl consoralts Final
consonants may bc dcleted, or a vo$'el 1nay be added fter the consonant (see
page 153).
9. Irinal Voicecl stops ancl fricativcs:In addition to the general problelns posed bY final
consonants, Chinese students ma,v "dcvoice final voicecl conson rtrts pronouncing
bag ljke b6ck, or lJ like "iss"(see pagc 155)
10. Final ,/1/: Chincsc students often clrop /1,/ xt the end of a word or s)'llable, or
pronounce it like /w/ ot /o/ (e.g.. r'rld souncls like ode, ?-nd /lttle sounds like "litto")
(sec page 1'14).
11. Final nasals (/n /, /m/, /l / ): ("bfiese stuclents ma-Y omit linal res,ll consonants ancl
ftrsalize preceding vowels (e .g.. uirerr /go rna-r'' sor.lnd like /wJ,/ 1go) (see page 136)'
Vowels
/,7171): Chinesc students
1. Frcnt vowels (/r,\'/ rneat, /l/ \llitl, /eJ-/ lltote, /E/ fiet, /E/
confuse most of these vowels and r1eed extensive practice with them They
nray pron()unce st?at as greet (or rice versa) and el'en s4ld as seerl (sec
pages 169- 179).
2.,R,coloreclvowcls:chineseEsLstudenrs$4rofirstlearnedanr-lessvafict-YofEnglish
dillicultv with /r/ colored l'o$'els (sce pa€le 192)
l]aYe a great deal of
3. /ey/,/^w/,ar.1 /a:'/ before /n/ or /fl7/: Chiftese students may omit the lalide
erclings (/w/ or /y,D of tllese voq,'els whe n the-v occlu be fore /n/ or /r1/
(e.g., train mav sound like "tren." toz{.", likc /ton/ (ot /t\/),and tlme llke Tou)
(sec palie 192).
FRENCH
French is a Romance language, rclated to SPanish, It,rlian, Poltuguesc. Catalan, and
Romanian. Because English has bornlwed man) s''ords from French, rnany English words
look si iler to French words,which sometimes leads students to use their Frcnch
pronunciation in English.
\Vest Indies,
French is spoken iativcly in Francc, Bclgium, S['itzedand. I-uxembourg, tbe
Haiti. anal (lar.rada, and as an L2 in man-Y of thc f<rrmer colonies of France The problems
described bekrw are common to lnost varieties of French
wof d Stress
A major differcncc betw-een Frcnch ancl English lies with $-orcl stless and fhythm. Ffench
words (and phmses) are usually stressecl on the last syllable, wlrich is also p'o'o'nced with
a rising pitch;stress placement in English $''ords is much rnore varied Frencl] students
sl.roulJbe taught predictabte places of strcss associated witll classcs of English words
(beginning on page 30), and iew vocabulary of morc than one slllable should be Prescnted
u."iiy. fr., because Frcnch is a s_yllable timed language. where the lcngths of stressed
"aaitior.r,
AppENDiX B Problems of Selectec| Languages 241
and unstressed syllables are approximately the same, French-speaking students need to learn
to lengthen stresscd syllables (see page 21). Because the qualit_v of unstressed vowels in
French is not reduced, Ftench students may have difficr ty hearing the short, reduced
vowels of unstressed s,vllables in English.
Rhlthm and Intonation
French-speaking students need to learn to make sfessLength distinctions between
content and frmction words (see page 50). They also have dilficulty recognizirg the reduced
pronunciations of fttnction words.
Consonants
1. t sounds:These sounds do not exist in Frencll. French-speaking students may
substitute several sounds for the th so:und,st /s/ or /z/ (preferred by students from
Fmnce), and /t/ or /d/ (preferred by French Canadians). Swan and Smith (2OOl)
report that /f/-/v/ slrbstitutions also occur (sce page 126).
2. /t[/, /d3/:'lhese consonants do not cxist in lrench. French-speaking students may
substitute /t ior /tf, pronouncing che.tp llke sheep. for example, and /3/ for /d3/,
pronouncingJu./ge like "zhuzh" (see page 132).
3. frt/:-lLle letter/, is nct-er pronounced in French. French-speaking students may drop
English /h/ when it should be pronounced (for example. pronouncing DearrT as
"'eaq'"). Ol1ce they leafn that A,/ is pronounced in English, they may add /h/ to
words beginning with vowels (for example, pronouncing aluays ltke bqllu'als).
4. /r/:French /t/,pronounced witl.r the back of thc tongue, may be substitut€d for
English retroflexed /r/, which is pronounced wirh th€ front of the tongue (see
Page 711L).
Vowels
1. /iy/, /l/.See page 169.
2. /a/, /o/, /a/tFrcnch-speaking students often confuse these vowels (sec page l7g).
HAITIAN CREOII
Haitian Creole is an official languagc of Haiti (together with French) and is also spoken by
Haitian emigrants living in the Ilnited States, Canacla, and otl]er Caribbean. Central
American, and South American countries. Haitian Creole is a mixtlue primarily of French
and West Afiican lanlllrages, but also has influences liom Central African lanliuages,
Portuguese, Spanish, and English.
Word Stress
In Haitian Creole, as in French, the last svllable of a wofd or. phrase is stfessed, a pattern
which can interfere with irtelligibility and be disrracting to listeners (pclez-Applc 2001).
Teachers should point out the differcnt stress patterns of English word classes (beginning
on page 30) and introduce new vocabulary orally, emphasizing the sffessed syllables. Haitian
Creole speakers sl]ould also be instructed to lengthen stressed vowels.
Consonants
1. t sounds: Scc page 126.
2. /t/.ln Haitiai (lreole, thc letter / is prollonDced /\ry' before back vo$'els (for
cxalnple, /uw/ an<1 /ow, and elsewhere like a French /r/ (see Frcnch. Page 240).
Stuclcnts should lbcus on the retroflcxed plomnlciation of English /r/ (sce page 141)
J. /n/rln final position, /n/ rua] be olrittccl and pronotrllced as a nasalization of the
lrrc<rrling \o\\'cl {\cc P.lgc lto'
Vowels
l. /i\'/. /\/: Sec Page 169.
2. /e/, /J/, /o/:Tbcse arc new Yo\lrels tbr Haitiao Creolc speakers (see pagc 178)
JAPANESE
Japallesc may be related to Korc.rn and lllso to Mongolian. Manchurian, and'I'urkish lt
diflers liom English in almost all linguistic irspects.
Word Stress
Japancse
js a pitch accent language:pitch placemcnt, rather than stress as in English, can
diiltrcntiate one word fiom anotherJapanesc stLrdents need to learn to lengthen stressecl
vowels. Ilnaccented syllables in Japanese worcls are not s'eakencd as the,Y are in Englislt (by
shortcning thc sylhble and reducing the yowel), and Japanesc students need practice in
hearing and proclucing the short, redtrced s-vllables of English (see page 25)
Rhlthm and Intonatiofl
J;ipanese studcnts tend to prollounce all words $'ith equal prominencc and necd practice
using pitch to highlight ne$'or important information (sce pagc 96) Ttre)-may also haye
difliculty recognizinll tlte reduced pronullciatiolls of nrnction worcls like cdn of at (see
pagc 72).
Because D)ost sl'llables in.Japanese crcl in vo$'cls,Japanese students have difficulry
linking Enlilish words that clrd in consonants to fbllo$'il]€l words (see pagc 5'1).
Japarcse students also have di1ncult]' learning English intonation; thcir pitch range
sometines souncls too flat, and pitch changes fla,v scen too abrupt They maY also be
unfamiliar s'ith the use of intonatiol-r to strtlcturc meaninla and discolrrse in English; in
Japan€se. particles and adverbials Perfornl some of the discourse ftuctions
(e.9 ,
distinguishinEi ne$'frorn gil'en ifformation) that intonation does in English Japanese
students should ltave ample pr.rctice listening to English inlonation as it occufs in autllentic
spcccb to gain a better understandinll of its discoursc functions (see Chapter l)
Consoflants
l. /t/. /l/:Th.. Dnglish /r,/-/l/ contrasl is one of the most clifficult firrJapancse speakers
to learn. Their mispronunciiltions of /t/ aliLd /l/ are stereotl'pecl (e g ."flied lice")' and
.lapanese students are yeflr concerl]ed abolrt leiuilin!l to prollollnce the two sounds'
The.Japarcse coLrlltcrpart to tsnglish /t/ an(l /V is describcd as a flap collsonalrt'
similar to the North American English (NAE) pronunciation of t in zrrrlel
Perceptually, English /r/ may sound more dilTerent from its.Japanese counterpart
than /1/.leachers shollld tcach the articulation ol /r/ and /l/ and Provide ample
practice with botll sounds (See pagcs 1/+l-117).
2. /D sounds: See page 126.
AppENDtx B Problems of Selected Lanfluages 243
Consonants
1. tD sounds:See page 126.
2. /p/,/ -, /v/:There is no /b/,/f/,orlv/in K(xean Korean students need to lcarn the
articulation of these sounds (see page 12.1).
3. Voiced stops:Kore;Ln has voiceless aspirated stops and voiceless ur.Iaspirated stops
Korean learners ma1-have problcms producing and llearing tlle loiced stoPs of
English, especially ir1 the middle or at thc ends of rvords (see page 155).
1. /s/,[/:lnKore \./s/ af'd /f/ arc yariants of the same sound.4,/ occurs bcfore higl)
and mid-front vowels (as in s€e and sa1), ?:nd /s/ occuts elscwhere. Korean students
may pronounce words lik€ see as -sre and need practice pronouncing /s/ belbre
these vowels (see page 135).
5. /7,/:voiced, /z/ (as In zoo) aloes not occru in Korean. Korean students may substitute
/dz/,/d3/,ot B/ for /z/ in words lLke museutn ald result (see page 131).
6. h/, /l/:Thesc two English sounds are variants of the same sound in Kore,rn. Korean
students may substitute /1,/ fbr beginnjnla /r/, pronouncirg rigbl. for example, like
ligtJl, and, h/ for /l/ b€tween vowels, pronouncing collectillg, tbr example. like
correcliug (:ee !)agc l4t)).
7. /i/ vowel whcn these
Fhal /t[/, /d3/,4'/,and /3/:Kore^n stlrdents may add a sh()rt
consonants end words, pronOunci:ng uhich, for example , Iike "whicl4 " or.larlge like
"iuclg_y" (see page 131).
Vowels
1. /iy/, /IL See page 169.
2. /at/: Korean students have persistent problems Pronouncing /Jrl, olien pronouncing
ttork likc ualk i\tLI vice versa. The)' should work both on the /arl and on tllc
contrast ofla/ and /c/ (ot /e/ /J/, depending on the teacher's dialect). (See
pages 192 ancl 180.) ^nd
3. /€/, /e/tKorc^n lacks /a/, so students tcnd to sobstitute /E/ for this vowel,
pronouncing bod so tbat it sounds close to bed, for example. Sttldents should
be instructed to open their nouths more when the,Y say words with /ze/ (see
pJge 1 lr ).
PORTUGI.,IESE
Portr.rguesc is a Rornance language closely related to Spanish. There are two major
varieties of Portuguese: European Portuguese (EP) and Brazilian Portuguese (BP)
European Poftuguese has stress-timed rhythm, like English, while Brazilian Portlrguese
bas syllable-timed rh)'thm.
B prablems oi Selected Languales
AppENDtX
245
Word Stress
Stress placement in portuguese is very regulat so str.ldents may
have difficulty with the
\-aried placement of stress in English. students should become familiar
with word classes
Ihat have predictable stress, and new vocabulary should be presented orally,
with thc
stressed syllables emphasized (see pages 30-3g).
Because BP is a syllable-timed language, Bp students may pronounce
unstressed syllables
$,'ith too much length. Ep students may pronounce unstfessed syllables too
weakly and may
nced to gi\c them more prominence.
Ithlthrn and Intonation
tsP stud-ents may have difficulty perceiying the reduced function words
of English and
may give function words too muclt prominence in sp€aking (see page
72).
In Portuguese, fbcus words (highlighred words) teld to be ptaied at the end of
a
sentence, so Portuguese students may harve difficulty perceiving and producing
higltlighted
words in non-final positions (see page 96).
Consonaflts
1. Final ,/l/: Portuglrese students may pronounce /4/ after vowels as /w/ or /u/; for
example,people may sound like ,,peopu" (see page 144).
2. Final nasal consonants /m, n, r]l: Final nasal consonants in words like soz
e an(l sun
may be omitted and the preceding vowel nasalized;soze may be pronounced
(sce page 138).
/se/
3. /tl/, /d3/:Ep lacks rhese consonants. /tfl may be pro noltnced, [/ (.e.g., che4p sourds
bke sbeep), a.nd. /d3l may be proflou niecl 13/ G.g-iust n.ny bd pron-ouncei,,zhust,,).
(See page 135.)
4. t sounds: See page 126.
5. /s/ + consonant clusters: portuguese speakers may add a vowel befbre,/s/ +
consonant clusters, pronouncing steam, for example, like esteem (see p^ge 151.).
6. Final consonants: Fewer nnal consonants are permitted in portugu€se than in
English. Portuguese studer.rts may drop final consonants or weakin them. making
them hard to heal or they may add a vowel after final consonanrs (see page 1i3).
Vowels
I . /iy/ , A/ . See page 169 .
rIt should be notcd that 1lative'Eoglish spexkcrs use fal'ing intonation F'ith some types ofJ]e.s-ro
questiors (see pagc 101).
AppE.\Dtx B Ptoblems of Selected Lanlua+es 247
u,o/ + consonant (e.9., uord, uork, worlcl, worth) are particularly difficult (see
page 194).
lacks /a/,so students tend to substitute ,/t/ 1br tlis vowel,
3. /t/, /e/:Rttssiar
pronouncing Zra4 1br example, so that it sounds close to bed (see page 176).
Word Stress
In English the stressed s]'llable of a word is usually pronounced on a high pitch.In Hindi
and Urdu, the stressed syllable bcgins on a low note and then rises. Carricd oYer into
English, this pattern may sound as though stress has been misplaced and will also contribute
to a singsong effect. \Vord stress in Hindi, tlrdu. tsengali, and Punjabi is not contnstive as it is
in English, so students may be unianiliar with the use of stress to distinguish pairs like (a)
rdcord-(to) reca.,rd. ln H\r.di, a.nd Urdu, word stress is regulaq which creates difficulty with
correct stress placement in En[ilish. Students should be taught the placement of stress in
different classes of English words (see pages 30-3{J), and new vocabulary of more than one
syllable shoulcl be presented orall-v. Students should also learn to pronouncc stressed
syllables with greater length tlnn unstressed sl'llables (sce page 21).
Consonants
'1. /t/, /d/:Hindi,Urdu, Bengali, and Punjabi have si-x to eight t/d sounds, whercas
English has two. Native speakers of these languages often substitute their
retroflexed /t/ and ,/d,/ for English alveolar /t/ /d/ (.for a retroflexed /t/, the tip of
^t'tdof the tongue makes contact with
the tongue turns up and back and the underside
the top of the mouth).
2. /,1: sounds. See page 126.
3. /p/, /t/, /k/:Native speakers of Hindi, urdu, Bengali and Puniabi nlay not pronounce
/p/, /t/,or /k/ with enough aspiration beforc stressed vowels;for example,ptg may
sourld like big, tie like .lie, and come like g&t ? (see page 150).
248 APPENDII B Problems oi Selectecl Languages
in
/w/. /v/:Tilere is only one consonant that corresponds to English '/w/ and /v/
HinJl, ttrdu, eengali, and Puniabi, so students often confttse pairs like uet and aet
(see pagc 124).
consonant
). Consonant clusters; Students may insert vowels to make unfamiliar
"silip" or "islip" (see
llusters easier to manalie; for example ,.sllp may be pronounced
page 151).
6. Final consonant clustefs: Students may omit the final
consonant of a clllste\ mixed
for example, may be pronounced mlJr (see page 153)'
Vowels
1 . /€/ , /e / : Sludents may substitute /€/ for /a/, Pronoun cirrg bdd llke bed' fot example
(see page 176).
2. /eyl: Students may pronounce this as a pure vowcl /e/ (see page 173)
SPANISH
Spanish is a Romance language, closet)-rel3tcd to Portugues€
Spanisll is spoken in many
corirtrics ancl thcre is substantial diatecr l ariJtion. Tht problems described below are
coflrmo1l to speakers of most varieties of SPanish
word
' Stress
(e'g amo /emol' meaning "I
ifta fngfith, Sp^nish uses worcl stress to contrast meanings '
"he loved") However' stress placement in Spanish is much
lovc" versr.rs am6 /ffi6/, meaning
than in English, ancl irregulirr stress Placemcnt is marked orthogmphicall-v'
iore .egular
;;;;-t"rd";,. ;"y -is.t..ss th. second worcl ol compounds llke Siruriend xnd
bolfriend (see P ge 33).
vowels do not differ
iit. rnori syliable-timed languages, Spanish stressed and unstressednot rcduc€ th€ r'owel
gr.",ly ii; length, as they do in En;lish ln lddition, Sp;rnish does
vowels, so Sfanish studelts nmy bxse their pronunciation of
[""ri( "rr.ttiit.*etl
Joriii"r.a lto*.rt on spanish spilling-sound correspondences (see page 25)
4. /y/, /d3/: Sp"\'tish-speaking students may substitute /d3/ tbr /y/, pronouncing.llLles like
/ess', a stereotyped promrnciation (see pag€ 149).
5. /s/, /z/.Ifi most varieties of Spanish,,/2,/ is a l'ariant of /s/, occurring only before
voicecl consonants. spanish students rnay pronounce Ia4/ like loc! or He is a
student hke "lf.e iss a student." Speakers of Castilian Spanish may pronounce the
letter z as ,/e/ (see page 155).
6. /f/: Spanish stuclents may substitute a tapped or trilled /r/ for English retroflex,/r/
This iubstitution disappears rather quickl-v in ESL settings (see page 141).
7. /s/ + consonant clusters: Consonant clusters be[iinning with /s/, as in stdte or special,
are not permitted in Spanish. Students oftcn add a short /e/ vowel at the beginning of
the clustet pronouncing st lle like estdte, and special lite "especial" (s€e page 151)'
8. Final consonants: Because Spanish permits few final consonants and consonant
clusters, Spanish students may drop final consonants in English words (see page 153)'
9. Final nasal consonarlts /n/, /m/, and /r)l: Students may substitute final nasals for each
other. Final /m/ especially may be replaced with final /n/ or /!/, or even vowel
flasalization (e.g.,someone sotLncls lite "sungwung") (see page 1]6 )
10. Regular past tense:spanish stuclents may ovcrgcneralize the /ad/ pronunciation of
the -ed endlng in verbs, pronouncing words like listened a\d ansu)e7'ed as "listen-ed"
and "answer-ed" (see page 159).
THAI
Thai, a member of the Tai family of languages, is the national language of Tl.Eiland
Althor.rgh th€re are important regional varieties of Thai, Central Thai (also the language
spoken by most people in tsangkok) is considered the standard \?riety
Word Stress
Misplaccd word stress is an important source of efrors for Thai-speaking students who
tenci tb stress the last syllable of English words. Teachers should present classes of words
wh€re stress is predictable and present new vocabulary orall]', emphasizin!! the stressed
sytlables. Thai si'dents, wh' tend to pfonounce stressed and unstressed syllables with equal
length and stress, should also practice lengthening stressed vowels (see Chapter 1)'
Rhlthm and Intonation
Tirai students olten insert a glottal stop (the sounal separating the two parts of uh-ob)
before rvords beginning with aYowel, creating a choppy sounding rhlthm Students should
practice linking words enciing in final consonants to words beginning with vowels (see
55). Stuclents sho.ld also practice lengthening the stressed syllables of content words.
' in Thai,
bage
a tone lang'age witli mostly monosyllabic words, the function of pitch is to
'.rain
particles to express politeness
distinguish one s/ofd liom anothef. Thai uses sentence linal
and iiieractional functions which are oftcn conveyed in English by intonation. Beca.se they
are unfamiliar with the use and meanillg of English intonation, Tl.ni students sometimes
sound abrupt. 'Ieachers should provide students with opportunities to listen to English in
context and call attention to its functions (see Chapter 3).
250 AppENDtx B Ptoblems of Selected Languagcs
Consonants
1. tl, sounds: Thai students often substitute /t/ ot /d/ fot tlTese sounds. which are
stigmatized pronunciations (see page 126).
2. /l/, /(B/:These consonants do not exist in Thai. At tlte beginninll of a word, 'I'hai
students nray substitute /tl/ fot /l/ and ,/dsl, pronouncing srlp like chip or Jeep Llke
cheap. At the end ofa word,[/ and /d3/ may be pronounced /t/ (e.g., rr.,rs, sounds
li]de ui\ and age sounds likc dte). (See crror correction techniques fbr sibllants on
pag€ 135.)
3. /gJ:yoiced /gJ ls not a Thai consonant and may be pronounced as /k/ (e.g.,g4me
sounds lite c,7nx e). Students should practice voiced voiceless minimal pairs likc
game-came, goat-coa, and gum-con1e (see page 155).
.{. A'l:Thai students often substitute /v{/ for /v/. prono\ncing r]€st like u)est (see
page 124).
5. /r/, /l/:In spoken Thal, h/ is being replaced by /l/ , ttn<1 stlrdents may substittfte /l/ fot
,/r/ in English (see pages 141-147).
6. /s/+coosonant clusters:Thai students nlay add a vowel to separate the consonants,
pronouncing .s/eep, for example, as sdleep (sce page 151).
7. Beginninla clusters: Thai students may deletc the second consonant in the clustcr;
p/at sounds like 2 ay, antJ glass sounds like gas (see page 151).
8. Final consonants: Thai students may drop or change final consonants. f'hey necd
both focused pronunciation work on prol.rouncing final consonants and frequent
correction of linal consonant errors. fhc,v should also work on final consonants in
the context of linking adjacent words (see pages 54 and 153).
Vowels
L /ey/ ."fhai students often substitute a pure 1'owel /e/ or /€/ for /eyl, proneuncing
bait like bet. Enphasize the Eilide ending of,/e)y' (see page i73).
2. /e/:This is anew vowel for Thai students, who often substitute /s/,e.g.,bad sounds
like Z2ed (see page 176).
3. ,?-colored vowels:See page 192.
\IIETNAMESE
Vietnamese is a member of the Austroasiatic language family, spoken primarily in Vietnam
but also within communities in the tJnited States, Australia, xnd other countries.
wofd Stress
Most Vietnamese words are rnonos,vllables. As a result, Vietnamese students haI'e clifficult_y
with stress placement in polysyllabic words.In addition to learning about word classes
where English stress is predictable, new vocabulary should be presented orallv (see pages
3o- 38). Vietnamese students should also be taught to make length distinctions bet$-een
stressed and unstressed syllables (see pages 21 27).
Rhlthrn and Intonation
Because Vietnamese stlrdents often gi\''e equal prominencc to all syllables, their English
rhlthm may sound staccato. They should be instructed to make length distinctions betrveeil
stressed content words and unstressed function words (see page 50).
ApptNDtx B Problens ol Selected Lanluages 251
Vietnamese students should also practice linking words ending in final consonants to
both following vowels and following consonants (see page 54).
A primary function of pitch in Vietnamese, a tone language, is to differentiate words,
rather than to structure discourse meanin!1. As a result, students need pmctice listening to
English intonation in contextualized speech to learn the discourse meanings structured by
pitch. Students should work with highlighting imporrant words (see page 96) and final
intonation patterns (see page 100).
Consonants
1. Final consonants: English final consonants are a majer source of pronunciation
errors forVietnamese students. A linited number offinal consonants (/p,t,k/) are
permitted in Vietnamese, but they tend to be pronounced very weakly. Final
/f/ and /s, are not permitted inVietnamese. When speaking English,
fricatives (e.g.,
Vietnamese students often appeaf to omit final consonants (.e.g.,bank card may
sound like "bah kah"). Both focused promrnciation work on final consonants and
frequent error correction are useful (see page 153).
2. Final voiced and yoiceless stops: Final voiced stops (^, d, g, are not permitted in
Vietnamese. Sh.ldents should practice lengthening the vowels prececling Englisl.r
voiced stops (see page 155).
3. Final sibilants /s,l tf:These consonants in final position are a source of many
problems. Students may substitute /t for final /tt, prono djacing catclr L]ldie casb, for
example. Sometimes /t is substituted for finaI /s/ (e.g., krss sounds like "kish")
(see page 131).
4. Beginfling /p/: /p/ does not occur in begtuning position inVietnamese Q)et, for
example, may sound like ,er). Students should be instructcd to pronounce words
spelled $.ith beginningp with a puff of air (see page 150).
5. t sounds:Vietnamese studenrs usually substitute /t/ or /d/ for the t/? sounds, a
stigmatized pronunciation (see page 12ar).
6. Consonant clusters: Consonant clustefs afe not pefmitted invi€tnamese, so students
may omit one or more members of a clusterj for example, green may sound like
"geen;'and street may sound like "seat" or "steat" (see page 151).
7. Letter Jc.'Vietnamese uses a modified Roman alphabet and the letter r in is
pronounced as /s/.Vietnamese students' pronunciation of words like expldin as
"esplain" or "espain" may reflect both transfer of the Vietnamese letter-sound
correspondence of tr and difficulty with consonant clusters (see page 139).
Vowels
I Tenselax vowels: Although Vietnamese has a complex vowel system, it does not
distinguish vowels on the basis of tenseness, so pairs like sedt-.r/, are difficult for
studcnts to pronounce (see pages 169, 173, and 183).
2. /e/, /E/: /e/ is not a vowel inVictnamese, so students may substittte /e/ for /E/,
pronouncing b.td, for example, so that it sounds like bed (see page 176).
SUFFIXES AND ASSOCIATED STRESS PATTERNS
-ious/-cious/-eous/ cufious,mysterious,deliciol"ls,superstitious,ambitious,
-gious/-eous/ prestigious, courag€ous, outrageous
-geous/-uous
Cotnnxon sulfixes like -y,-ly,er/o{are and uerb endings do nol cbqnge stress.
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
Students should record a one-minute description of the picture story below Students should
tell the story in their own words.
The fofm on the next page can be used to make a broad €valuation of pronunciation,
256 APPENDI{ D DiagnosticTest
Name :
Other problems (errors with word suess, errors with sounds, mispronounced words):
INSTRUCTI ONS FOR RECORDING AND
SENDING A SOUND FILE
RECORDING
1. Plug in the microphone.
2. START J ALL PROGRN.MS -+ ENTERTAINMENT J SOUND RECORDER,
3. with the microphone plugged into the computer, click dre red RBCORI) butto[ ,mcl speak
intothemicrcphone.'fherccorderrecordsoneminuteofspeech.ClicktheredRECORI)
button again to continue rccording-
SA\TNG
4. Open rhe FILE menu and cllck SAVE AS. Compress the file if it is large: On the SAVI AS
window. click the CFIANCE button.In the SOUND SELECTION window urder FORMAT,
select MPegla).er 3 (MP3). Close the SOUND SELEC'IION wiidos'. Nane the file and save it.
SENDING
5.The file can now be attached in an email and sent.
1. Open any existing Sound Recording applicafion on your NIac. If you do not have a Sound
Rccording application installed, dovnload and install the ftee version of Audacit)'lM sound
recorder (httpr//audacitlsourccforge.net/dowdoadr. lt is very easy to use.
2. After the iastallation of Audacity, open the application liom )'our desktop and then use the
recording tools to Record, Stop, Rewind, Pause, or Fast'forward.
3. To save the recorded file, click on the FILE mellu and then c]ick on ExPoRT AS MP3.
.1. Choose the location to saye the file and then click on SAIE.
257
Affricate consonants complex consonants consisting of a stop consonant and
fricativejin English, the first sounds in ihair andjazz
dveolar consonants consonants produced when the tongue appfoaches of touches
the alveolar rid€ie (rhe top of the mouth just behind the top
teeth); in English, /t/ and, /s/ are alveolar sounds
Alveolar ridge the top of the mouth just behind the top teeth, before the loof
of the moutlt rises
Appositives phrases fbllon'ing a noun providing additional information: for
exanple, in the se\tence Rudy GiutianL one_time nqlor of
Neu York CitJt, ran unsuccessfullJt.for president in ZfiOS. ti,re
plTrase one-time mayor of Neu york Cit! is an appositive
A.fticulation movements of the vocal organs that produce consonants
and vowels
Aspiration audible puff of aif that accompanies pronunciation of some
consonants;in English /p, t, k/ are aspirated wlten a stressed
vowel follows
Assirnilations modification of soulds so they become more similar to adjacent
sounds;for examplc, in the phfase ,/ aa n't belieae
!ou, ma;y
speakers assimilate rhe last sounds of can't (/nt/)io the
/bf of
belieue ("I camp believe you,,), modf(ing /rt/ so rhat botl.r
souncls are pronounced with the lips (like ,4ril)
Audiolingual approach method for teaching language based on behaviorist vic,w
of
language learning as habit formation; strong r€liancc on pattcrn
drills and dialofis
Back rzowels Vowels produced with the body of the tongue pulled back in the
mouth;in Engtish, these inchtde the vowels rn i,uke, took, boat,
cougb, and in some dialects,lot
Bilabid Consonants made by moving the lips togetherj in English,
/p. h. m. w,/
Blends ovedappinti pronunciation of the encl of a word and the
beginning of a lbllowirlg word; for example,,,didj a.' for (lid
!ou.
Centfal vowels vowels pronounced with the body of the tongue in tlte center of
the mouth, rdther front or back;in English these include the
vowels in crr, and, in some dialects. the vowel in cot
Citation fof(n pronunciation of a word in isolation
Cleat /V pfonunciation of /1/ at the beginning of a word (toue)
Closed syllables syllables that end in one o[ more consonants;for example, the
words 4og and 4uck consist of one closed syllable
Cognate words wofds from tx.o different languages with a com]Iron ancestfy; for
cxample, English 4ualit! Sp nish cati.tqd are cognares
^ttd,
259
260 ck,ssarv
265
266 Bibtiogtaphy
Bro$n, A. (1988). Functio l loxcl ,lnd the teiclling of Crurtenden, A. (1986) . Irltuurtiolr (2i,J ed.).
pronrLncixtiorr. IISOI- quafle l, 22, 597-606. Canbridge. [JK: Canbridgc University Press.
Catlbrd.J. (1987). Phonetics and thc texching of Cruttcnden, A. (1990). \ucleus placemcnt and
pronunciatiod. lfl J. Morley (.Ed.), C1tfte t three class€s of cxc€ptions.In S. Rirmsamn
l)ersrectires on Plonunciation <pp. 8a-1OO). (Ed.)..ttttdies ilt the pruntoritttiott oJ
washington. D.CTTISOL. I nSlt.l.t A .ottt' t ttl.tatit ( I olutn. ilt
Cauldwcll,lt. & Ile*'ings, M. ( 1996). Inlonatiori rL es honor oJA.C. Gilnsat? (pp.9 18).London:
in ILI tcxtbooks. rzl Joum.n, 50,327-3-44. Routlcdge.
Cebrjnn,J. (2006). Ilxpcrience and thc use of nol] Cruz-!_€rreirn, M. ( I 981). Non-nati\.e ilterpretive
Dxtive duration in L2 vowel categorization. strategics tbr intonatiooal mcaniir[i: rh
Journal of Pbdtet:ics, .)4, 312 387. experimental studr'.In A.James & J. Lealher
Lcl(('V rci.r, \4 tlrinron. D. & {,o,\hain.J.{ l()')6, (Eds.), Sol,Lnd patterJls 111 second l4 guage
Tea ch ing prolTunci..ttiol1: A rcJerence Jbr acquisitiort (pp. l0l- 120). Dordrccht: loris.
teacbers of Enklisb tn sDeakers oJ otbei laft Dagut. M. & Laufe., (1985). Al-oidaDce of phrasal
B.
g?r,?ge.s. Cambddge UK: Cambridlie r-erbs-A case for contrastive anlysis. Strdle.s
flnivcrsity Press. hISecond Ldng dge Ac.lttisition, 7, /-3-79.
Cenoz,J. & Lecumberri. L. (1999).The effect of Dalron. C. & Seidlhoferlt. (1991). Pronunciation.
training on the discrinlilration of English Oxford: Oxlbrd UDiversil_v Press.
vowels. Inte rnational Reoie ut t )f Applied I)auer,R. (1981). Stress-timing end s)4lable-timiflg
L.illguage Ibacbing, 39, 85- 1o7. English lloun-verb stress difference b-v nalive
CheD, A. & Gtlssenhoven, C. (200J). Lenguagc- ancl non-nati!.c speakers. Jourlla I (t ntetnory
dcpendence iD dre signalling of xttitude and l.\r?Llage. 36,1,15 160.
ir spccch.In N. Suzuki & C. BartDcck (Eds.). Dxvitz.J.R. & I)avitz, LJ. (1959).The comtnLrnication
Proceetlings of ltotksbop on tbe sLtbtle ot' leelings by content lrce spcech.Journdl
expressiuit! oJ enotior, CHI 200.J. (ion oJ C()nn1,t1icati on, 9, 6- l a.
lbreoce o,) human irrd cofiputer intcaection. Ders'ing,T. & NIuDro, M. (1997). Acccnt, intelligi-
Choi,l. (1988). fre t?rccssitf of teacbitrg Illqlisb bilitv and comprchcnsibl11q. Sttt.lies irt
Jt6t s'peech ]fieno 1ena for better aural Secon.l Latryuage Acquisitbn, 20, 16. I
com|rcbension skill itr tlJe Koredn contexl Derwing,T. & MLLnro, M. (2005). Second language
Unpublished mastcr's thesis.Thc flDiversity accent xnd Promrnciation tcaching: A
of Illinois at LJrbana-ChrnlP'ritio, Llrbana, IL .cseerch-basccl xpproach. TIISOL Quarterry.
Chun, D. (1 998). Signr mxlysis sofr\!'ere lb. t.). 179 497 .
teacling discourse inton tbn. La gu,tge Dcrwing.T., llunto, M., & Wicbc. G. (l99lJ).
Iearnl g and Tecltnolo&t, 2.6l-i7 - F.fi.lence in fxvol of x broad frume*rcrk for
CollierJ. (19i1). fhe chaser In J. Collier, lkt.les pronunciation instructi.)i. Langu age
.t tl Goo.lni.qhts (pp.,t15-418). New York: Ledmi g, 18, a93-41o.
NewY)rk lleview of Books. Dickerson. L. & Dickerson,W (1977)- lnterlangtrage
Corder, S. ( 1978). Lmguage learner lanliuage.In phonology: Crll relrl resealch and futrn c
J. Richaids (Ed.), U,?derstalldinL! secontl dnd
dircctions.Io S. Corder & [. Roulet (Eds.),
The nolions of slmplficcttiol\ interldl)
Jor?ign ldng .age learning (pp. t-l 92).
llowle-v, It-\.: Newbury House. g dges artd pklgit$ alul tbeir rcl.iiott k)
couhhard. M. (1985). Intooation. In M. couldlard, secoltd ldngudge leat??lt8 (Actes cllr ieme
Atl i lroductbn to discourse .oqlysis Colloque dc Linlluistique Appliquee dc
(pp.96-I l9). I-ordon: Longrnxn Ncufthatel. pp. 18-29). Paris: AIMAV/Didier'
Bibliography 267
Dickerson,W (2003).Talking on a second channel S. (1997). Effecrs of
Flege,J., Bohn, O.-S., & Jang,
using parcntheticals. In K. Bardovi-Hadig cxpedence on nofl-native speikers' produc,
& R. Mahan,Taylor (Eds),'Ieacbing ptag- tion and perception of English vowels.
nxatlcs. Washington, D.C.: US Department Joumal of Pbonetics, 25, 137 -47O.
of State English Language Progmms. Flcgc,J. & MacKay L (2004). Perceiving vowels in a
Retrieved November 11,2009 fiom second lang$ ge. Studies h1 Secon.l
http://www.usconsulare.org.hk/pas/kids/ Language Acquisition, 26, l-31.
pragmatics.htm Flege,J., Munro, M. & MacKay, L (1995). Facrors
Eckman, F (1991).The srflrcrural conJortuity hyporh, alfccr in8 srrcngrh of peft civeJ foreign
esis and the acquisition ofconsonant clusters accent in a secold langlr. ge.Journal of the
in the interlanguage of ESL lermers. &dres Acoustical Societ! ofAfiertca, 97,
ln second language ac4uisition, I 3, 23-47 . 3125-3r31.
Eckman, F (200.1). From phonemic differenc€ ro Flege,J. Munro, M. & Skelton, L. (1992).The produc
constmint rJnhings. .ttudles ln secotld lan- tion of v/ord final /t/-/d/ conrast by native
guage acq isition, 26,513-549. speakers of English, Mandarin and Spanish.
Ekman, P (1999). Basic emotions. In T. Dalgeish & Jounlal of tbe Acoustlcal Socie4) of
M. Power (Eds). Handbook of cognition an l America, 92, 128-143.
emotion (pp.45-60). Sussex, UK:John Wiley Flege,J.,Takagi, N. & Mann,V (1995).Japanese
and Sons, Ltd- adults can leern to pronounce English A/
Escudero, P & Boersma, P (2004). Dridging rhe gap /V accvtutel,\. Language and S?eecb,
between L2 speech perception, researcl, and ^nd
:J8.25-55.
phonological theory Stu.lies in second lan- Flege,J. & Wang, C. (1989). Native langunge phono
guage ac4ulsition, 26, lil-'ai. tactic constmints affect how well Chinese
Esling,J. (1994). Some pe$pectives on accent: subjects perceive the word final Englisll
Range of voice quality variation, the /t/-/d/ contfrst.Joumal of Phonetics, 17,
pe.iphery and fbcusing.lnJ. Morley (Ed-), 299-3r5.
Pronunciation pealagog! and tlreot)/. Neu Fokes,J. & Bond, Z. (1989).The vowels of stressed
uieus, neu dirnensiotts (pp.49 63). and unstressed syllables in nonnalive
Alexandda.VA:TESOL Eng)1sh. LangAage Leaming, 39, 341 - 3i 3.
Esling,J. &Vong, R. (1983).Voice quality senings Gerdner, R. (1988). Attitudes and motivation.
and the teaching of prcflunciation- TESOI Anntual Rexieu ofApplie.l linguistics, 19,
QuafierlJ), 17,89-95. 135 r48.
Field,J. (2005).Inte igibility and the lisrener:The Gass, S. & Sclinker, L. (2OOB). Secor\d Language
rcle of lexical srress. TEJOL Qu.afierlf, 39, Acquisition: An lntroductory Course (3rd
399-423. ed.). NewYork: Routlcdge.
Firth, S.(1992)- I,ronunciation syllabus design:A Gass, S. & Varonis, E. (1984).The effect of fanil-
question of focus. In P Avery & S. Ehrlich iarity on the comprehensibility of nonna
(E ls.), Teaching Ameican Engllsb pronun- tive speech. Language Learning, 31,
ciation (pp . 173-1A3). Oxfordr Oxford pp.65-89.
University Press. Gatbontin, 8.,Tiofimoyich, P & Magid, M. (2005).
Flege,J. (1987).The ptoduction of 'ne$'" and "sim, Learners'ethnic group affiliation afld L2 prc
ilai' phones in a foreigo lnnguage: Evidence nuo(irlion accurac): A sor iolinguistic inresti
for the effecr of equivalence classification. gation. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 4a9-511.
Joumal of Pbonetics, 15, 17 6i. Gattegno, C. (1972). Teaching foreign languages
Flege,J. (1988). Facto$ affecting degree ofper in schools:Tbe silent araj! NewYork: Educa,
ceived foreign accent in English sentences. tional Sollrtiol1s.
Journal (t tbe Acoustical Socie1) of Gilbcrt J. (1980). Prosodic development: Some pilot
Atnerlca. l'4. /\t- /9 studies.In R. C. Scarcella & S. Krashen (Eds.),
Flege,J. & Bohn, O S. (1989). An instrumental study Research in second lranguage acquisition:
of vowel reduction and stress placement in Selected papers oJ tbe Los Angeles Second
Spanislr-accented English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition Researcb Forunl
Ianguaee Acquisilion. I l. \a 62. (pp. I l0-117). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
268 Bibliography
Gilbcrt, J. (1987). Proouncixtir)'r aod listeninlt sLrpr.rsegmentals I E.SOl, Qudftel b:. 38.
McDonald, D.,Y1 e, G., & Pos/ers. M. (2O01). Littguistics i1t Language Teacbing, 36,
\rl(rnllrr r,, irnpro\e FnSli.h L.'pronrrr( iJ-
tion:The vdrieblc effects of dillbrent q-pes of \gU\en,T. & lllgram.J. r 2UOi, \ iclnrmci( r(qursi
insttrction. Language Learniltg, 11.75 1oo. tion of tsnglish word slrcss. TESOL Qudrte )/,
McNemc),, 11. & Mendelsohn, D. (1992). -t9,309-319.
Suprxsegmen(als in the proDunciation class: Ohala,JJ. (l9Al). Crosslanguage use of pitch: A1l
Setting priorities.In P Avery & S. Ehdich ethologic:rl vie qr-. ?rofietica 10. l- 18.
(.Eds.).Teacbing Atnerican English f)ro 11n- Osb u rnc, A. (2003). Pronunciation strntcgies of
ciati otl (pp. 185 196). Oxford: Oxford aclvanced DSOL learnerc. Intentational
flnil-ersitv Press. Reuie ' ofApplied Linguistics, 47,I3I -I43.
\'tehler.J., Dupoux, E., Nezzi,T., & Dehaene l,ennington, M. (1998).The teaclubility of
Lamberrz, G. (1996). (lopin!! wirh tinguistic phonolog,v in adulthood:A re examination.
diYersity: l-he inlhtrt's viewpoint. In.l Morgan Inlerna tional Reaieu of ApPlied Linguisti.:s
& K. Demuth (gds.), Sigt|al to syntax: in Ldnguage Teachiilg, 36, 323-342.
Buulslntpl.iDeJrunt \pk(h lu Sr,ttttmat itt PeiDington. M. & Ellis, N. (2000). Cantonese
earlJt acqaisitioll (pp. 101 116), Mnh*'ih, spcakers memory of lnglish sentences with
V: Lr\\ren. ( Erlbrum q..oci.rlr.. prosodic cu€s. Tre ,lfo.lern Lan{<uage
Mcnnen, l. (2006). Phonetic and phonological influ- .lournal,81,372-489.
cnce!, in nonnlLi\( inlJ0Jlion: {n orervies Pcrez.-Apple, E. (2001).lnheieot challen{ies of
fbr llnguage teachers. QIlUC Speecb Science teaching pronunciation to Haitia{ Creole afld
Researcb Centre Worki g Paper WP9. Q'ueen Sprnish speekers. Paper presented :rt the
Ilargerct UniYersitv College. Amual Sunsbine State FioddaTESOL
Michaud, C. & Reed, M. (2008).The rolc of pronun- I onlerence. lampr. I L. \'ld) 2O0l .
ciation in ESL wdting classrooms. Paper Pre- Pi(kering. L ( l00l ,. tlre role oi rone choic( in
sented at 42"d AnlualTESOL CoDr.ention. jmproving ITA coormunication in the class-
Ne.!vYo':k, NX August 2008. room. TEsoL Quarterlf, 35. 2la - 255.
Mo.le]: J. (1994). A nultidimensional curriculunl Irierrehumbert,J. (198o). Tlre pbonoloS! an.t Pho'
design Ior speech-paonunciation instruction. netks o.f Englislr i tonatiotLItlooniiP:fon.
In J. Morlev (Ed.), ?t? ltulxciation Pedagag! lndiana lJniversity Linguistics Club.
and Tbeory: Neur Vieu's, Nen^ Directbt?s Pierreh mbert,J. & Hfschberg.J. (l990).The
(pp. 64 91). Alexindria.vr\:TESol. n]eaning of intonational contouls in the
N1unro. M. & DerwinELT. (1998).Thc cficcts ol interpretation of discourse. In P Cohen,
speaking rate on listener evaluations of J. Morgan, & NI. Pollack (E ls.),Intentions in
native and foreign accented speech. conlnunkation (pp. 271 31 1). Cambridge,
Language Leaflting, 4a, 159-1a2. I,I-A.: MIT PfCSS.
Nlunro, M. & DcrRing,l. (20O1). Modeling percep- Pjte,K. <1915). The intonation of Aneri.nn Enslkb.
tions of the ,rcccntedness and comprchensi Ann Arbor flnil'ersiq- of Michillan Prcss.
bitity of L2 speech. St dies in Second Pike,K. (19 t-2). Pbonetlc.r tuur Arbot: Universitl of
Lang age Acquisltioll, 23, 4i | -46a. Michigair Prcss.
Munro, M- & Den\-ing,l (2006).The tunctioDaL load Praror, C. & Robinett, B . (1981). A ,ianual of
princ4)le in EsL instruction: An explo.atory Alnericall Englisb Pronunciation (1'n ed.).
strdl'. .!Lrsrer?, J4, 520-531. NewYork: Holt, Rhehart. aod Winston.
llunro, M. & Derlr'ing,T. (2008). Segmertal acquisi Ramus, E Nespor, M, Mehler,J. (1999). Correlates of
tjon in xdult ESL learncrsr A bngitudinal linguistic rhythm in the speech sigoal.
study of voRel productlon Langudge Clog ition, 73,26i 292.
learning, 58, 179-5o2. Ranalli.J. (2002). Discourse intonation:To teach or
Muryhy, J. (1991). Oril comfi uoication in TESOI-: not to teach? Retricvcd November 29, 2009
Integrnting speakinS. listen;fl9 and pronurci' ftom http://www'cels.bham.ac.uk/
ation. TESOL QudrterU), 2 5, 51 -i 5. resources/essays/Ranneli4.Pdf
Nekumn, C. (1998). A new theoretical account of IUre':T,Tlkada. M. & Ota, M. (2000). Scgmentals
'fbssilizatioD : Implications for L2 attdtion and global forcign accent:Ihe Japaflesc flap
rese,vcl\. I1ie1'nallon4l Rerieu) oJ Applied |'t ESL. T.ESOL Quarterly, J 4, 1 11 -7 37 .
Bibtiography 271
Rinqa T.,Takagi, N., & Inlrtsuka, K. (2005). phon€ric Acoustical Societ! ofArnerica, Ia! l4n-
pafafieters and pe.ceptual judgments of guage paPers. No\. 10,1,1. Ausrin,TX.
accent in Enlllish by American a1.rd Japanese TrLrone, E. (1980). Some influences on thc syllable
listenerc. |ESOL puarterUt 39, 41t-166. stf ucturc of intedangu:rge phonolog.v.
Saslow, J.& Ascher, ,! (2006). Top Notcb Frtnda- lnternatiot|a I ReDieu, ol, Applied Li gu istics,
lnentals. ll/hite P|^ins, Nt Pearson Longnran. 18 139-152.
Saulders, N. (I987). Morphophooemic reri]tion in Teronc, E. & Paffish. fl. (1988).Task relnted vadetion
cluste$ in Japanese EngLlsh. LatuXuu4e in interlenguage:The case of tr-ticles.
Leatning, j7,247 272. Language Leaming, a8, 21 - 11.
Scherer, K.lt. (?0iJ0).,! cross cultural inaestigation Taflor, D. (198I). Non native speakcrs and the
of eTnotion inferences from aoice and rhlthrn of English. lrternatio al Reuieur .tJ
speech. lmplicatlons Jbr speech tecbnologJi. Applied Linguistics in Teacbing, 14.
b1 Proceedings of ICSIP 2000, 2, Beijlnt4, 219 226.
479 1a2. Taylor, D. (1993). Intonation and acccnr in Eoglish:
lvalboft, H.c (20O1).
Scherer, K.R.. Baose, R., & \fhat teachefs neecl to know. Intenlational
Fmoliun inJere ((\ tron) vo(Jl e\pfes\ioll Retieu afAp?lied linguistics in Language
correlate across languegcs and cL turcs, Learning, 31, l-22.
Joumal of Cross CuLturul PslcbobK)), 32, 'Iempcrly, M. (1987). Linking aDd delerion in final
76,92. consonant clusters.In J. Morley (Ed.),
Selinker, L. (1972). Irlte International Lurrent Perspectil)es on pronltnciation
Reuieu of Ap?Lie.J^ngr)age.
Linguistics, I0,2O9-2a7. (pp. 59-82).Washington D.C:TESOL.
Selkirk, E (1984). Plro fiolog! .md slntax.Tbe ret.L Ter)( h. P ( 2UUJ ) \on-nillive .peJk(r. mi!f( r( ep
tion betu)een sound and structutv. tions ol Enlllish vowcls and consonants:
Cambridge, MIT Press. E\idcDcc from Korean adults in lt.K.
Setter.J. ^tr{: dll.rhm in world [nglishcsi
(2006) Speech Iilternational Reuieu oJApplie.l Linguistics
'fhe case of Hong Kong.'IESOL i langllage TeacbiiTg, 4 1, 145- tj3.
Quarteru,
10. 763-7A2. Thomas, H. (2007).IP,{ symbols for reaching r-os,.et
Shcldon, A. & Strange,W (1982).The acquisirion of sounds. fs.re/?t ./l fedcbet; 4, a0-32.
/r/ /l/ b,y Jepanesc learners of English: Thonpson, S. (1995).'Ieaching intonation on qucs-
^fid
Evidence drat speech production can pre, tlons. ILT Jo tlnnL,19, 2a5-243.
cedc speech pcrceprion. Apptied lrslcholin, Trnn.J. (1988). Some cotrtrastive inlonated feetllres
guistlcs, 3, 24a 261. of British English and Geioran.InJ. Klegnf
Smith, L. (1992). Spread of English end issues of intel & D. Nehls (Eds.).-crira].s olt tlle Elrgtislr
ligibilitt.In B. Kachtu (td.),Tbe otber tongue: lalxguage and applied lirtgltistics on ttre
Englisb a(7loss cuttures (2'rd ed.,pp.75,90). occasion of Gerhard Nickel's 6)tb Biixh.lay
I fb.tnx l ril\er\rr) ol lllfutois Pre.i. (pp. 235-2.19). Heidelberg: Julius croos.
Smith, L. & Nelson, C. ( 1985). lnt€roarion^l inteltigi, '|fofimolich, P & Baker, W (2006). Leardng sccond
bility of English: Directions and resollr-ces. lenguage s prnsegmentnls: Eflect of L2 expe
World Englisbes. 4, 33j-312. rience on prosody aod fluencl characteris-
Stampe, D. (1979).'1 dr'ssertation on ndtural tics of L2 speech..lr,dies in Secon,l
pbonologJ. Newyotk: carland Pubtishing. Ldnguage Acquisitiotx, 2a, 130.
Swaio, M. (1985). Communicative competence: lioimovich, P, Gatbontin, [. & Se!{alowitz. N.
Some roles of comprehensiblc input end (2007). A dynimic look fi I_2 phonotogical
comprehersible output ill its developncnt. learning: Seeking processiug explan;rtions fbr
In S. Gass & C. Maddel (Ed:s.),Input in implicational phenom(oa. Studies in Second
secon.l langlnge dcquisition (pp. 235-25a). LdtTgllctge Acquisition, 2 9. 4Oj -44a.
l{owley, tr4-4.: Nc$,bury Housc. I'lcr, (1992). Discolr.se structure alld the per,
A.
Swan, M. & Sn tlr, B. (zOOt). Iearner Engtisb ception of incoherence in international
(2nd.cd.). Cambridge, UK: Caolbridge teaching msistarts' spoken discourse. TEtOZ
UDi\.ersit,v Press. Quarte !, 26,1II-,129.
Slrdal, A. & lilka, M. (200J).To rise or falliThar is I]eyama, M. (1996). Phiase-final lengrheninS and
tlJe qucstlon. 116th rneetlng of tlre sffess-timed shortcoing in the speech of
272 Bibtiasraphy