Pg.

9.7 Option – Astrophysics

1. Our understanding of celestial objects depends upon observations made from Earth or from space
near the Earth

1) Discuss Galileo’s use of the telescope to identify features of the Moon.

The Tuscan physicist, mathematician and philosopher Galileo Galilei constructed one of the earliest
telescopes which he pointed towards the heavens. Galileo observed the moons of Jupiter, the phases of
Venus and the rough features of the moon. This new evidence conflicted with the Ptolemaic model and
the idea of perfect ‘heavenly’ bodies.

2) Discuss why some wavebands can be more easily detected from space

Selective absorption by the Earth’s atmosphere of some wavelength bands affects how and where we
study EM radiation from space. Gamma rays, ultraviolet and X-rays are absorbed by the upper
atmosphere whereas infrared is reflected by gases in the atmosphere such as water vapour.

These effects can only be completely reduced when telescopes are placed in orbit ‘above the
atmosphere’.

3) Define the terms ‘resolution’ and ‘sensitivity’ of telescopes

Resolution: A measure of a telescopes ability to distinguish between two very close objects

R (arc seconds) = 1.22 x (λ/D) x 206 265

Sensitivity: The light collecting ability of a telescope

Both sensitivity and resolution can be improved by increasing the diameter of the collecting surface or
lens. Smaller wavelengths tend to have a better resolution.

4) Discuss the problems associated with ground-based astronomy in terms of resolution and
absorption of radiation and atmospheric distortion

Ground based astronomy suffers from atmospheric problems including ‘seeing’ and absorption of most
wavelengths.

‘Seeing’ refers to the effects on tiny, rapidly changing temperature variations in the earth ’s atmosphere.
The effect is similar to if you were to stir a glass of clear water, then shine a pencil torch beam through
the water onto the glass’s bottom. The result is that the image is in constant rapid motion, becomes
blurred and is seen to change in diameter.

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5) Outline methods by which the resolution and/or sensitivity of ground-based systems can be
improved including:

- Adaptive optics: A technique used in telescopes that involves measuring and compensating in
real-time for atmospheric effects (e.g. blurring). It works by using a wavefront sensor to measure the
image distortion of a target star.

- Interferometry: A technique used to study optical or radio-wave interference. The device in

which it occurs is called an interferometer. Signals from two or more telescopes are added together to
produce interference patterns. A computer is able to detect the path length difference that two
telescopes detect, using this it can solve for a stars distance and construct an accurate image.

- Active optics: Active optics systems are designed to correct changes in the surface shape of
large primary mirrors that occur as the mirror tilts or the temperature changes

These methods improve overall conditions for ground based astronomy but atmospheric effects can
never be completely eliminated.

2. Careful measurement of a celestial object’s position in the sky (astrometry) may be used to
determine its distance

1) Define the terms parallax, parsec and light-year

Parallax: Apparent movement of an object against a background when viewed from different positions

Parsec: 3.26 lightyears, a star one parsec away will have a parallax angle of one arc second

Light year: The distance light travels in one year

2) Explain how trigonometric parallax can be used to determine the distance to stars

Using the diameter of the earth’s orbit around the sun as a baseline and measuring the change of angle
of a star against its backdrop of stars we can then use trigonometry to determine the star’s distance.

Be prepared to calculate the

distance of a star using

D =1/P

(D is distance in parsecs, P is
arc seconds)

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3) Discuss the limitation of trigonometric parallax measurements

Because of the limited resolution of ground-based telescopes due to atmospheric distortion of light from
distant stars, trigonometric parallax is restricted to an accuracy of ~ 0.01 arc seconds or a distance of 100
parsecs. More distant stars have larger uncertainties in their parallax angle.

Hipparcos, an orbiting telescope, has been used to measure parallax more accurately and has extended
the measurement of distances to more than 300 pc within an accuracy of +- 30%.

3. Spectroscopy is a vital tool for astronomers and provides a wealth of information

1) Account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare these with a
continuous blackbody spectrum

A continuous blackbody spectrum is produced by a hot, dense gas, this is because it is

releasing all wavelengths and none of it is being absorbed by outer particles

An emission spectrum is produced by a hot, low density gas. Particles only release
specific wavelengths at certain temperatures. A nebula with only hydrogen gas would
release only red/pink emission lines.

An absorption spectrum is the same as a continuous spectrum viewed through a cool, low-density gas.
The free floating gasses surrounding galaxies turn its continuous spectrum into an absorption spectrum.

2) Describe the technology needed to measure astronomical spectra

You need a spectroscope to disperse the light and a spectrograph to observe the spectrum accurately.

A spectroscope consists of a light source (celestial or other), a collimator (which consists of several slits
that produce thin parallel beams) and a triangular prism or diffraction grating to disperse the light. The
spectrum can then be photographed or viewed after using a spectrograph.

3) Identify the general types of spectra produced by the stars, emission nebulae, galaxies and
quasars

Stars: Continuous emission spectrum similar to that of a black body; because the light passes through
the cooler outer layers of the star, dark absorption lines are visible.

Emission nebulae: Hydrogen (i.e. red/pink) emission spectrum lines present with a faint continuous
spectrum also visible.

Galaxies: composed of vast numbers of stars, therefore many absorption spectra. The features of
individual stars are less prominent and the spectrum of the galaxy as a whole is continuous.

Quasars: Continuous spectrum but can have emission lines that fluctuate regularly.

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4) Describe the key features of stellar spectra and describe how these are used to classify stars

Mnemonic: Oh Be A Fine Girl Kiss Me (OBAFGKM)

Stellar spectroscopy: is the examination of the spectra of stars in order to learn more about their
composition, surface temp, velocity, density, etc.

Stars are made up of similar material yet their spectra varies greatly this is because atoms and molecules
produce different spectral lines at different temperatures. I.e. Spectra refers to temperature and
correlates with colour.

5) Describe how spectra can provide information on surface temperature, rotational and
translational velocity, density and chemical composition of stars

Using a spectrograph to determine the maximum wavelength we can then use Wien’s law to solve for
temperature.

Rotational velocity: The part rotating towards the earth will have a blue shift whereas the part rotating
away will have a red shift. Faster rotational velocity equals broader spectral lines.

Translational velocity can be determined by viewing the Doppler shifts of absorption lines. The faster
they’re accelerating the more obvious the Doppler shift.

High density/pressure stars give off broad spectral lines as their electrons aren’t as free to move around
and so don’t always give off their full wavelengths when they emit photons.

The absorption lines given off by stars can be compared to the absorption lines of known elements in the
lab giving us information on its chemical composition.

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4. Photometric measurements can be used for determining distance and comparing objects

1) Define absolute and apparent magnitude

M=m – 5log(d/10)
Absolute magnitude (M): The magnitude a star would have if it were 10 parsecs away.
IA /IB =100 (MB-MA)/5
Apparent Magnitude (m): The magnitude measured by an observer from earth

2) Explain how the concept of magnitude can be used to determine the distance to a celestial
object

Using telescopes we can observe a stars apparent magnitude. We can infer that stars absolute
magnitude by comparing it with similar stars with known absolute magnitudes. If absolute magnitude is
greater than apparent magnitude it is further than 10 parsecs, and vice versa means it is closer than 10
parsecs.

Now that we have absolute magnitude and apparent magnitude we can solve for distance using the
(m-M+5)/5
distance modulus formula i.e. M=m – 5log(d/10) >>> d=10

3) Outline spectroscopic Parallax

Spectroscopic parallax is a method of using the H-R diagram and the distance modulus formula to
determine the approximate distance of a star (it doesn’t use parallax at all).

This involves identifying the type of star from characteristics of its light. Then knowing how bright such
stars are (i.e. approximate absolute magnitude), a distance can then be calculated using the inverse
square law.

4) Explain how two colour values (eg colour index, B-V) are obtained and why they are useful

The human eye is most sensitive to yellow/green light whereas photographic film is most sensitive to
blue light. To provide a more accurate reading that is also consistent among astronomers the (B-V) values
are used to determine the colour and therefore spectral class of a star.

5) Describe the advantages of photoelectric technologies over photographic methods for

photometry

Photoelectric technology is more sensitive to a larger range of wavelengths. It is also more sensitive than
photographic film and the data can be fed instantly into a computer for quick observation and analysis.

5. The study of binary and variable stars reveals vital information about the stars

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1) Describe binary stars in terms of the means of their detection: visual, eclipsing, spectroscopic
and astrometric

Visible: Both stars are visible through a telescope; the change throughout the orbit can be seen and
measured with long focal-length telescopes with a high magnification.

Eclipsing: The two stars are too close to be resolved with a telescope. When the orbit lies on our line of
sight the stars will eclipse each other. This occurs twice every orbit.

Spectroscopic: The two stars are too close to resolve with a telescope. Using spectroscopy we can notice
two different spectral classes along with two different spectral lines. There will also be two sets of
Doppler shifts and these are noticeable relative to each other. The star moving towards us has a blue
Doppler shift whereas the one moving away from us has a red Doppler shift

Astrometric: Only the brighter of the two stars is visible. Accurate measurements of the brighter star
reveal the orbital motion around the centre of mass of the pair.

2) Explain the importance of binary stars in determining stellar masses

Binary stars can be used to determine stellar masses because they obey Kepler’s Law of Periods; hence
there is a relationship between mass, period and radius: M1 +M2 =A3 /T2
M1 +M2 = 4π r /GT2
2 3

3) Classify variable stars as either intrinsic or extrinsic and periodic or non-periodic

Intrinsic stars are stars that vary in brightness by some change within the star itself.

Pulsating/Periodic stars periodically expand and contract their surface layers. In the process they change
their size, temperature and spectral properties

4) Explain the importance of the period-luminosity relationship for determining the distance of
cepheids

In 1912 it was noticed that the brightest Cepheid variables in the Magellanic cloud had the longest
periods. The longer the period the greater the absolute magnitude of the variable star. This relationship
also applies to RR Lyrae stars. Now that we have absolute magnitude and apparent magnitude we can
then solve for distance using M=m – 5log(d/10).

6. Stars evolve and eventually die

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1) Describe the process involved in stellar formation

Disturbance (e.g. exploding supernova)
2. Cloud of gas (Nebula) 1 .Interstellar Medium

(Gravity attracts
more gas)
Gets hotter 4. So much heat/pressure fusion
3. Gravitational energy>>>heat energy. starts and star joins main sequence
(When it emits light it is a protostar) And bigger
A star is born

2) Outline the key stages in a star’s life in terms of the physical processes involved

Cloud of dust and gas (Nebula) 1. Cloud collapses (gravity)

1 2. Fusion starts (heat+pressure)
3. H-fuel runs out, He-fusion
Protostar
begins
2
(More than 25Mo) (Less than 8Mo) 4. He-fuel runs out.
Main sequence star
3 a/b. Supernova, core collapses
3 3

Red Supergiant Red Giant Red Giant c. Planetary nebula, core collapses
4a 4b 4c

Black hole Neutron star/pulsar White Dwarf

3) Describe the types of nuclear reactions involved in Main-Sequence

and post-Main Sequence stars

The proton-proton chain happens in main sequence stars. It involves the

protons of hydrogen atoms being in such a hot dense state that protons are
turning into neutrons and eventually forming helium. The mass lost in turning
protons into neutrons releases energy in accordance with E=MC 2.

The Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) cycle occurs in post-Main sequence stars.

Carbon acts as a catalyst in a process of turning hydrogen into helium (just like the
proton-proton chain). It involves a procedure of turning Carbon into Oxygen,
turning protons into neutrons and the final result is Helium.

4) Discuss the synthesis of elements in stars by fusion

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In high mass stars temperatures may be high enough to cause fusion of helium to form Carbon and
Oxygen and also for carbon to fuse into heavier elements up to iron. Elements above iron are produced
in the extreme conditions of a supernova.

5) Explain how the age of a globular cluster can be determined from its zero-age main sequence
plot for an H-R diagram

Globular clusters form a close by group of stars that are usually

born at the same time. The largest/brightest stars move off the
main sequence first. When you see a cluster with no large
luminous main sequence stars you can conclude that the cluster is
very old. The point on the main sequence where the star plot turns
off onto the red giant branch is known as the turn-off point. The
earlier the turn-off point, the older the star cluster is.

6) Explain the concept of star death in relation to:

Planetary nebula: Glowing gas that surrounds a central star, they’re formed when a star 2 solar masses
or less has finished fusing helium surrounding a core of carbon and oxygen. The star becomes unstable
but its small size cannot fuse heavier elements. It pulsates and throws outer material into space. The gas
glows as it is being radiated by the remaining part of a star which eventually turns into a white dwarf.

Supernovae: A very large star has fused heavier elements which are now in its core. It loses its nuclear
fuel and collapses in on itself; gravitational energy is released super heating the core. This results in the
star being blown apart in an explosion. For a couple of days or weeks the energy from a supernova can
be more than a whole galaxy. It releases lots of gamma and X-rays and can be seen from earth.

White dwarfs: The remnants of small stars, there is no fusion going on and all its heat is leftover from
being a star. It’s composed of mostly oxygen and carbon. Its surface is white due to the small surface
area compared to the amount of heat being radiated. It’s formed from a planetary nebula.

Neutron stars/Pulsars: Formed from a planetary nebula or supernova, it has a mass of 1.4 solar masses
or more (greater than a white dwarf). Gravity forces electrons and protons to merge and form a
continuous type of extremely dense star; a neutron star. It may have a diameter of 10 – 20km. Because
it’s smaller it spins very fast, it can have a period of a few milliseconds. It is detected with radio waves.

Black holes: If the remnant of a supernova core is more than five solar masses it will collapse into a
neutron star and then a black hole. Black holes are referred to as a singularity as they have unlimited
density and no real dimensions. The gravity is so strong that not even light can escape; the point at
which that happens is called the ‘event horizon’. They are detected by witnessing their effects on planets
orbits.

By M Burke