Non-destructive testing- particles to gather visibly around the

defect. The defect then becomes a

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is carried
magnet due to flux leakages where
out in such a manner that product
magnetic-field lines are interrupted by the
integrity and surface texture remain
defect. This in turn creates a small-scale
unchanged. Non-destructive-testing
N-S pole at either side of the defect as
techniques generally require considerable
field lines exit the surface. The particles
operator skill, and interpreting test results
generally take the shape and size of the
accurately may be difficult because the
defect. Subsurface defects also can be
observations can be subjective. However,
detected by this method, provided that
the use of computer graphics and other
they are not deep. The ferromagnetic
enhancement techniques have
particles may be coloured with pigments
significantly reduced the likelihood of
for better visibility on metal surfaces.
human error.
Ultrasonic Inspection. In this technique,
Listed here are the basic principles of
an ultrasonic beam travels through the
major non-destructive testing techniques-
part. An internal defect (such as a crack)
Liquid Penetrants- In this technique, fluids interrupts the beam and reflects back a
are applied to the surfaces of the part and portion of the ultrasonic energy. The
allowed to penetrate into cracks, seams, amplitude of the energy reflected and the
and pores. By capillary action, the time required for its return indicate the
penetrant can seep into cracks as small as presence and location of any flaws in the
0.1 ,um in width. Two common types of work piece.
liquids used for this test are
Acoustic Methods. The acoustic-emission
(a) fluorescent penetrants, with various
technique detects signals (high-frequency
sensitivities and which fluoresce under
stress waves) generated by the work piece
ultraviolet light, and (b) visible penetrants,
itself during plastic deformation, crack
using dyes (usually red) that appear as
initiation and propagation, phase
bright outlines on the work piece surface.
transformation, and abrupt reorientation
This method can be used to detect a
of grain boundaries. Bubble formation
variety of surface defects. The equipment
during the boiling of a liquid and friction
is simple and easy to use, can be portable,
and wear of sliding interfaces are other
and is less costly to operate than that of
sources of acoustic signals. Acoustic-
other methods. However, the method can
emission inspection is usually performed
detect only defects that are open to the
by elastically stressing the part or
surface or are external.
structure, such as bending a beam,
Magnetic-particle Inspection. This applying torque to a shaft, or internally
technique consists of placing fine pressurizing a vessel.
ferromagnetic particles on the surface of
Radiography. Radiography uses X-ray
the part. The particles can be applied
inspection to detect such internal flaws as
either dry or in a liquid carrier, such as
cracks and porosity. The technique
water or oil. When the part is magnetized
detects differences in density within a
with a magnetic field, a discontinuity
part. For example, on an X-ray film, the
(defect) on the surface causes the
metal surrounding a defect is typically
denser and, hence, shows up as lighter
than, the flaws. This effect is similar to the
way bones and teeth show up lighter than
the rest of the body on X-ray films. The
source of radiation is typically an X-ray
tube, and a visible, permanent image is
made on a film or radiographic paper.
Three methods of radiographic inspection:
(a) conventional radiography,
(b) Digital radiography, and (c) computed
tomography.
Eddy-current Inspection. This method is
based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. The part is placed in or adjacent
to an electric coil through which
alternating current (exciting current) flows
at frequencies ranging from 60 Hz to 6
MHZ. The current causes eddy currents to
flow in the part. Defects in the part
impede and change the direction of the
eddy currents and cause changes in the
electromagnetic field. These changes
affect the exciting coil (inspection coil),
the voltage of which is monitored to
determine the presence of flaws.
Inspection coils can be made in various
sizes and shapes to suit the geometry of
the part being inspected. Parts must be
conductive electrically, and flaw depths
Pipe inspection coil Pipe Inspection coil
detected usually are limited to 13 mm.
Thermal Inspection. Thermal inspection
involves using contact- or non-contact
type heat-sensing devices that detect
temperature changes. Defects in the work
piece (such as cracks, debonded regions in
laminated structures, and poor joints)
cause a change in temperature
distribution. In thermography inspection,
materials such as heat-sensitive paints
and papers, liquid crystals, and other
coatings are applied to the work piece
surface. Any changes in their colour or
appearance indicate defects.
Holography. The holography technique
creates a three-dimensional image of the
part by utilizing an optical system
generally used on simple shapes and
highly polished surfaces, this technique
records the image on a photographic film.
The use of holography has been extended
to holographic interferometry for the
inspection of parts with various shapes
and surface features. In response
to double- and multiple-exposure
techniques while the part is being
subjected to external forces or time-
dependent variations, changes in the
images reveal defects in the part.
In acoustic holography, information on
internal defects is obtained directly from
the image of the interior of the part.
In scanning acoustical holography, only
one transducer is used and the hologram
is produced by electronic-phase detection.
In addition to being more sensitive, the
equipment usually is portable and can
accommodate very large work pieces by
using a water column instead of a tank.
Destructive Testing
As the name suggests, the part tested via
destructive-testing methods no longer
maintains its integrity, original shape, or
surface characteristics. In this method, a
sample or specimen has to be removed
from the product in order to test it.
Examples of other destructive tests are
the speed testing of grinding wheels to
determine their bursting speed and the
high-pressure testing of pressure vessels
to determine their bursting pressure.
Hardness tests that leave relatively large may be tactile (touching) or non-tactile.
indentations also may be regarded as They are linked to microprocessors and
destructive testing. However, micro computers for graphic data display (see
hardness tests may be regarded as non- also programmable logic controllers. This
destructive because of the very small capability allows the rapid online
permanent indentations produced. adjustment of any processing parameter,
thus resulting in the production of parts
2 Automated Inspection
that consistently are within specified
Traditionally, individual parts and standards of dimensional tolerance and
assemblies of parts have been quality.
manufactured in batches, sent to
inspection in quality-control rooms (post
process inspection) and, if approved,
placed into inventory. If the parts do not
pass the quality inspection, they are either
scrapped or kept and used on the basis of
having a certain acceptable deviation from
the standard. In contrast, automated
inspection uses a variety of sensor
systems that monitor the relevant
parameters daring the manufacturing
operation (online inspection). Using the
measurements obtained, the process
automatically corrects itself to produce
acceptable parts. Thus, further inspection
of the part at another location in the plant
is unnecessary. Parts also may be
inspected immediately after they are
produced (in-process inspection).
Sensors for Automated Inspection.
Continued advances in sensor technology,
have made online or real-time monitoring
of manufacturing processes feasible.
Directly or indirectly, and with the use of
various probes, sensors can detect
dimensions, surface roughness,
temperature, force, power, vibration, tool
wear, and the presence of external or
internal defects. Sensors may operate on
the principles of strain gages, inductance,
capacitance, ultrasonic, acoustics,
pneumatics, infrared radiation, optics,
lasers, or various electronic gages. Sensors