Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Review

Energy consumption and environmental impact of rubberized asphalt

pavement
Tao Wang a, Feipeng Xiao a, *, Xingyi Zhu a, Baoshan Huang b, Jingang Wang a,
Serji Amirkhanian a, **
a
Key Laboratory of Road and Traffic Engineering of Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai, 201804, China
b
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The focus of this paper is to evaluate the energy consumption and environmental impact of rubberized
asphalt pavement during the life cycle. Reducing the environmental influences of the highway infra-
structure has received the increasing attentions recently. Application of crumb rubber in asphalt pave-
Keywords: ments overcomes the used tires disposal problem and achieves materials savings and environmental
Rubberized asphalt benefits, due to the reduction of raw material and extension of pavement service life. In addition,
Energy consumption
rubberized asphalt production is a highly energy consuming process due to a higher mixing temperature.
Greenhouse gas emissions
However, the warm mixing technology can lower the mixing temperature of rubberized asphalt mixture,
Environmental impact
leading to approximately 20e25% of fuel savings. Moreover, the consumed energy of rubberized asphalt
during maintenance phase is lower than that of conventional asphalt. In addition, the greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions from the production and construction of rubberized asphalt mixtures are similar to
those from hot mix asphalt, but their emissions of CO and CH4 are much lower. Meanwhile, the noise
reduction is an environmentally friendly benefit. The leachate from asphalts used wet and dry-process
crumb rubber modifiers (CRM) does not pose a measurable threat to the environment. Rubberized
asphalt technology as a green technology in term of lowering GHG emissions, saving energy and raw
material and reducing noise level of pavement should be widely used to achieve environmental
sustainability.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2. History of rubberized asphalt pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.1. Recycled tire rubber as engineering material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.2. Current uses of rubberized asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.3. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3. Energy consumption of rubberized asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.1. Materials production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.2. Highway construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.3. Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.4. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4. Environmental impact of rubberized asphalt pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.1. Materials production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.2. Highway construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.2.1. Asphalt fumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fpxiao@tongji.edu.cn (F. Xiao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.086
0959-6526/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
140 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158

4.2.2. New pavement construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

4.3. Rubberized asphalt pavement in service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.3.1. Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.3.2. Tire wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3.3. Leachate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.4. Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.5. End of life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.6. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5. Conclusions and further research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.1. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.2. Further research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

1. Introduction (Amirkhanian and Corley, 2005). In order to lighten the problem,

many countries had focused on the production and application of
Climate change and global energy shortage have become the crumb rubber for asphalt pavements to reduce its environmental
challenge of sustainable development of the international com- burden and achieve decent engineering properties (Amirkhanian
munity. The goals of emission-reduction and energy-saving require and Corley, 2005; Bahia and Davies, 1994; Esenwa et al., 2010;
the cooperation from the communities of nations (Zhu and Geng, Huang et al., 2004).
2013). Pavement construction is a major constituent part of the Nowadays, the crumb rubber modified asphalt (CRMA) had been
transportation industry, which consumed a great amount of energy widely accepted and used since it overcame the disposal problem of
with imposing a particular burden on the ambient environment. scrap tires. Meanwhile, the CRMA possessed many merits including
The materials used in highway construction, as well as electric saving cost and quantity of construction materials (Huang et al.,
power and fuel for the plants and construction equipment have 2004; Xiao and Amirkhanian, 2009a, 2009b; Xiao et al., 2009a;
remarkable environmental effects, including the generated solid Xiao et al., 2009b). In addition, the crack propagation, durability,
waste, discharged water and emissions (Park et al., 2003). skid resistance and fatigue of pavements were also improved by
According to Magnum's report (Mangum, 2006), the North adding the crumb rubber into the asphalt (Xiao and Amirkhanian,
America and Europe had by far the most extensive nets of the 2009a, 2009b). The increase in mixing and compaction tempera-
highways and paved roads in the world. In Europe, more than 90% tures as a result of the addition of crumb rubber could be reduced
of 5.2 million kilometers of highways and paved roads were esti- by the incorporation of warm asphalt additives, which could lower
mated to surface with asphalt materials. In the USA, more than 92% the mixing and compaction temperatures of rubberized asphalt
out of 4 million kilometers of highways and roads were surfaced mixtures compared with traditional hot mix asphalt (HMA) (Xiao
with asphalt. Additionally, 85% of airport runways and 85% of et al., 2009c).
parking areas were paved with asphalt mixtures. Meanwhile, Moreover, the cost benefit ratio in the highway construction was
asphalt pavements in Canada and Mexico accounted for 90% and evaluated by the newly introduced indicators, such as the raw
96%, respectively (Mangum, 2006). material saving, reduction of noise and reduction of greenhouse gas
Nearly 90% of the roads all over the world were comprised of (GHG) emissions in recent years (Bilal and Chappat, 2003;
bituminous mixtures, while the remained 10% were made of Chehovits and Galehouse, 2010; Temren and Sonmez, 2012). The
Portland cement concrete (Zapata and Gambatese, 2005). Almost new indicators contributed to define and quantify the benefits of
500 to 550 million tons of asphalt mixtures were produced and the “green technology”, which expanded the economic balance to
paved in the USA annually (Hansen and Copeland, 2015). Con- environmental sustainability (Bartolozzi et al., 2012).
struction of new roads meant to imply interference with the sur- Rubberized asphalt technology as the green technology was
rounding environment, such as a large amount of aggregate used and considered to be environmental beneficial in terms of the
requirement for construction and the road alignment (Birgisdottir great potential of consumption large amounts of end-of-life tires,
et al., 2006). Due to the increasing amount of highway pavement providing a useful contribution to reduce the environmental
constructions over the years, reductions of energy consumption burden of waste tires (Xiao et al., 2012). Meanwhile, the application
and GHG emissions should be paid close attention to (Birgisdottir of end-of-life tires in asphalt pavement formed three types of
et al., 2006). technology including processes of wet process, dry process and
At the same time, due to the increasing automobiles in China, terminal blend rubber modified asphalt (Oikonomou and
Europe, US and Japan, the demands of tires increased rapidly every Mavridou, 2009). The rubberized asphalt produced by wet pro-
year all over the world (Li et al., 2010). Eventually, a large number of cess was widely used because of its high-performance (Wang et al.,
tires developed into the category of end of life tires (ELTs). Because 2017).
of the generated large volume and good durability, the scrap tire The objective of this review article was to discuss the energy
was one of the largest and difficult treatment sources of wastes consumption and environmental impact of the rubberized asphalt
(Nehdi and Khan, 2001). The disposal of scrap tires had been pavement produced by wet process in its service life. The main
considered to be a serious problem because it was illegal to send studied aspects included the disposal of scrap tires and application
the used tires to the dump. Taking into account the level of tire of rubberized asphalt, as well as evaluation of the energy savings
consumption and its full recycle, it was necessary to improve the and environmental impacts during material production, construc-
properties of reused products and expand the application scopes. tion and maintenance and end of life. The overall structure of this
Scrap tires as fuel for either tire-to energy-facilities or paper mills review article is shown in Fig. 1.
were used in many countries. Nevertheless, the use of scrap tires as
fuel released substantial carbon, causing environmental problems
 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158
Fig. 1. The flowchart of all the structure of paper.
2. History of rubberized asphalt pavement
2.1. Recycled tire rubber as engineering material
Due to the increasing number of automobiles, the corresponded
scrap tires had increased dramatically, especially in the US, Europe,
China and Japan (Li et al., 2010). The disposal of used tires had
become a worldwide difficult problem owing to their durability and
large volume generated (Nehdi and Khan, 2001). The improper
disposal of tires might impose potential dangers to human health
under some circumstances and potentially enhance environmental
risks. Meanwhile, the landfill of scrap tires had attracted a lot of
public attentions and concerns, becoming an unattractive choice
(Feraldi et al., 2013). Recycled scrap tires could also be used as fuel
for energy recovery or as recycling materials (Lloyd, 2004). Ground
rubber was of high value that could be used as raw materials for
many products (Lloyd, 2004). Nevertheless, its production required
a great quantity energy consumption and delivered detrimental
substances, making it a less advantageous way to disposal the scrap
tires from the view of environmental protection (Fang et al., 2001;
Li et al., 2014).
The tire was a kind of complex high-technology safety product.
The tire was made up from elastomeric compound, fabric and steel
(Rahman, 2004). Actually, nature rubber is sticky in nature and
easily brittle when cooled down and deformed when heated. The
property of nature rubber was as shown in Table 1.
Some materials including reinforcing fillers and mineral oil
could be added into the tires to satisfy the ultimately different re-
quirements (Miskolczi et al., 2008). Some properties of tires, such
as non-biodegradability, the resistance to heat and humidity were
beneficial to their road service functions, which were not conducive
to collection and disposal (Puşc
a et al., 2010). Forty-nine states in
Table 1
Effect of temperature on natural rubber (Mukhopadhyay et al., 1977).
Temperature Property
200
C Decomposes
180
C Break down as in the masticator
120
C-160
C Vulcanized when agent, e.g. Sulfur, are added
50
C Plastic and sticky
20
C Soft, Resilient and translucent
10
C Brittle and opaque
141
the USA passed several regulatory provisions for the reuse of scrap
tires to prevent further stacking of used tires (Moo-Young et al.,
2003). The scrap tires as engineering resources were used in
various ways (Feraldi et al., 2013). The scrap tires used for tire
derived fuel contributed more than half of the annual generation of
scrap tires in the USA in 2007, followed by the application in ground
rubber material and civil engineering which accounted for 17.2%
and 12.2% respectively (Feraldi et al., 2013).
At present, the landfill disposal of tires was illegal and banned in
most countries, while the recovery options were explored such as
“energy recovery” where the end-of-life tires having a calorific
value equivalent to that of good quality coal are used as an alter-
native to fossil fuels, or ‘‘chemical processing’’ such as pyrolysis,
thermolysis and gasification, and finally ‘‘granulate recovery’’ (Lo
Presti, 2013). Large machines were used to cut up tires into small
pieces of different sizes in the granulate recovery. The recycled
rubbers could be used as civil engineering materials which were
applied in flooring for playground, paving blocks, rubberized
asphalt pavements etc. (Shen et al., 2009). Meanwhile, the size of
tire rubber was reduced to produce the crumb rubber which could
be compatible to use in asphalt industry. In general, turning end-of-
life tire into crumb rubber modifier (CRM) could be achieved by
ambient and cryogenic grinding technologies (Oliver, 1981).
2.2. Current uses of rubberized asphalt
Crumb rubber modifier had been used in hot mix asphalt since
several decades ago (Epps, 1994). The use of tire rubber in asphalt
pavements started 170 years ago, with an experiment involving
natural rubber with asphalt in the 1840s, attempting to endow the
flexible nature of rubber with a longer lasting paving surface
(Heitzman, 1992). In 1960s, scrap tires were processed and used as a
secondary material in the pavement industry. As one of common
applications the crumb rubber was used as a partial substitute of
the mineral aggregate in the mixture, via a process known as ‘‘dry
process’’(Epps, 1994). Meanwhile, Charles McDonalds in 1960 made
the first attempt to blend crumb rubber with base binder and found
that after thoroughly mixing tire rubber with bitumen and allowing
it to react for a period of 45 min to 1 h, this material obtained
beneficial engineering characteristics. This technology was known
as the ‘‘wet process’’ (Lo Presti et al., 2014). Crumb rubber was
successfully incorporated into asphalt in 1975. By 1988, American
142 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International defined
rubberized asphalt as a mixture of at least 15% ground tire rubber
derived from scrap tires and base bitumen (Lo Presti, 2013). In 1991,
the widespread use of the asphalt rubber technology is mandated
in accordance with the United States federal law (Kuennen, 2004).
Since then, the main applications of CRMA in pavements included
chip seals (Baker et al., 2003), stress absorbing interlayers (Scofield,
1989), crack and joint sealants (Epps, 1994), and hot mix asphalt
(Takal, 1991). Considerable research had been done worldwide to
validate and improve technologies related to rubberized asphalt
pavements. Nowadays, paving with rubberized asphalt could pro-
vide many advantages, including constructability (Shen et al.,
2009), recyclability, safety, reduced maintenance, durability
(Wang et al., 2017) and as reflected in the energy savings (Sousa
et al., 2007). Due to the benefits as mentioned above, rubberized
asphalt was being used more and more in many countries (Xiao
et al., 2007).
2.3. Summary
Rubberized asphalt technology from its emergence to the cur-
rent mature application had a history of a hundred years. The wet
process made rubberized asphalt capture beneficial engineering
characteristics in 1960s. The rubberized asphalt technology was
mandated by the United States federal law in 1991. Since then, the
rubberized asphalt technology had been widely studied and used.
3. Energy consumption of rubberized asphalt
3.1. Materials production
In general, the life cycle of pavements consists of five phases,
including materials production, construction, service, maintenance
and end of life (Santero et al., 2011). Energy consumptions and
emissions occur at each phase, as shown in Fig. 2. Materials pro-
duction and construction were the major phases. The materials
production stage involved raw material procurement, transport of
raw materials and material manufacture (Wang et al., 2012a,
2012b). Pavement construction included transport of mixtures,
the paving of mixtures, and the compaction of pavement (Huang
et al., 2009).
The raw materials in rubberized asphalt mixtures including
rubberized binders and aggregates required a huge amount of
Fig. 2. The relationship between energy and environmental impacts in life cycle of
highways (Park et al., 2003).
energy to achieve the predetermined temperatures (Chong et al.,
2016). For instance, the energy used in production of asphalt mix-
tures was approximately 1.36  108 MWh every year all over the
world (EAPA and NAPA, 2011). Enormous energy consumption
meant a huge amount of greenhouse gas emissions and costs. A
study done by Gillespie (2012) applied regression analysis to esti-
mate the energy consumption in the production of asphalt mix-
tures. The result indicated that fuel and electrical consumption
were 9 L/ton and 8 kWh/ton with a result of CO2 emission of
28.8 kg/t (Gillespie, 2012). Meanwhile, the aggregate moisture
content had a direct impact on energy consumption with added
0.7 L for 1% increase in moisture content (Gillespie, 2012). In
another study, the result revealed that the production of asphalt
mixture accounted for the largest proportion of energy consump-
tion compared with the aggregate production phase, transportation
phase and construction phase (Feng et al., 2014). Aghbashlo et al.
(2013). proposed a model to quantify energy consumptions of
aggregate in different drying technologies. The energy consump-
tion of material or process was shown in Table 2. The variability of
the energy consumption of aggregate production was great due to
the different process technologies used in different regions
(Bennert et al., 2011; Gillespie, 2012). Meanwhile, the energy con-
sumption of asphalt production was different in various regions.
Some studies concluded that the energy of asphalt production was
generally different, including 2890 MJ/t (Stripple, 2001), 5320 MJ/t
(Athena, 2006), and 6000 MJ/t (Ha €kkkinen and Ma €kel€
a, 1996). In
addition, the report indicated that the energy consumption of
producing asphalt mixture was 2860 MJ/t (Hammond and Jones,
2011).
Researchers found that rubberized asphalt had excellent energy
saving capacity. Several studies indicated that application of
rubberized asphalt benefited energy saving due to the reduction of
raw material and its longer service life (Antunes and Murachelli,
2009; Bartolozzi et al., 2012; Elliott, 1994). Meanwhile, the thick-
ness of 50 mm gap graded rubberized asphalt was less than one half
of conventional dense hot mix asphalt pavement leading to energy
saving (Way and Flagstaff, 1999). Sousa et al. (2001). compared the
energy costs in kilo-Joule gain/loss associated with three disposal
methods of scrap tires. The result shown in Table 3 indicated that
there was a net positive gain in energy between 310,267 and
566,109 kJ/kg by using granulated tire rubber as a modifier to
asphalt pavement. In addition, the disposal method of using crumb
rubber in asphalt had great benefits in energy recovery (Sousa et al.,
2001).
Energy consumption could also be reduced due to aggregate
savings. High quality road construction materials were in short
supply and difficult to obtain in parts of the US and Europe. Sousa
et al. (2001). found that 109,314 kJ/kg energy saving in aggregate
production was obtained when rubberized asphalt was used. The
energy saving by using rubberized asphalt was very impressive. The
energy saving coupled with other benefits including less cracking
and maintenance makes rubberized asphalt very attractive and
beneficial in highway industry (Sousa et al., 2001).
Based on the life cycle assessment (LCA), Farina et al. (2017).
found that the crumb rubber production chain corresponded to a
net energy saving of 4236 MJ/t (Farina et al., 2017). It could be also
concluded that the use of materials containing crumb rubber
caused a reduction of the overall energy ranging from 43% to 46%
(Farina et al., 2017). Yu et al. (2014). found that a smaller amount of
energy during materials production process for plastic rubber
asphalt (PRA) mixture was consumed than that for styrene-
butadiene-styrene (SBS) asphalt mixture, saving about 9.6% en-
ergy, as shown in Table 4. For both mixtures, mixing process was
the main contributor to total energy consumptions, followed by
 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158 143

Table 2
Primary energy consumption of each material or process (MJ/t).

Source material Athena Corti et al. (Corti and Frischknecht (Frischknecht Stripple Elliott
(Athena, 2006) Lombardi, 2004) et al., 2012) (Stripple, 2001) (Elliott, 1994)

Nature aggregate 57.6 140 78.6 59.1

Crushed aggregate 36 59 7.67
Asphalt: Feedstock 40200 40200 40200
Asphalt: Manufacturing 5320 9000 2890 814
Crumb rubber modifier: Feedstock 34900
Crumb rubber modifier: Manufacturing 42700 2015
Asphalt mixing plant: Hot mix asphalt 531 551
Asphalt mixing plant: Rubberized hot mix asphalt 375 404

asphalt, aggregate and modifier productions. PRA mixture was consumption was slightly higher due to a higher mixing tempera-
more environmental-friendly in terms of energy consumption (Yu ture and an increased mixing duration (Mcquillen et al., 1988;
et al., 2014). Meanwhile, the reduced temperature by using warm Oliveira et al., 2013). The use of additives such as waxes to lower
mix additives in mixing and paving would cut down the energy the mixing temperature, thereby reducing the energy consumption
requirement to produce HMA, leading to less emissions and odors had been studied recently (Butt, 2012). The warm mix asphalt
from plants and a good working conditions in mixing plant and (WMA) technology could reduce 30
C of the mixing temperature of
paving site (Gandhi and Amirkhanian, 2007; Hurley and Prowell, rubberized asphalt, and thus there was approximately 20e25% of
2006). It was also concluded that the compaction temperature of fuel savings (Xiao et al., 2009a). The mixing and compaction tem-
CRM mixture including the warm mix additives could achieve en- peratures of rubberized asphalt were reduced by adding warm mix
ergy savings (Akisetty et al., 2008). additive (Behl et al., 2013). Meanwhile, the warm crumb rubber
It was concluded that, as shown in Fig. 3, the energy con- modified asphalt mixture exhibited a better moisture resistance
sumption of SBS modified asphalt was more than that of rubberized compared with conventional hot mix asphalt (Oliveira et al., 2013).
asphalt. The major reason was that the production of SBS modifier
consumed more energy than that of the tire powder which was
derived form waste tires and noly the energy consumed for 3.2. Highway construction
grinding was included in life cycle inventory (Zhu et al., 2014).
Because the mixing temperatures of field blended rubberized Studies of energy consumption during the service lives of
asphalt (FBAR) and terminal blended rubberized asphalt (TBAR) asphalt and concrete pavements had been conducted. According to
were higher than those of SBS modified asphalts, the energy con- Horvath and Hendrickson's (Horvath and Hendrickson, 1998)
sumption of producing FBAR and TBAR increased 5%e10% (Qin findings, the asphalt pavement consumed 30% energy more than
et al., 2009). concrete pavement, while the Swedish Environmental Research
In terms of rubber modified asphalt production, the energy Institute (IVL) concluded that concrete pavement consumed 37%
more energy than asphalt pavement (Stripple, 2001). The results
indicated that asphalt and concrete were both energy-intensive
Table 3 materials (Horvath and Hendrickson, 1998; Stripple, 2001).
Comparison of kilo-Joule gain/loss of three scrap tire disposal methods (Sousa et al., Utilizing the method proposed by Society of Environmental
2001). Toxicity and Chemistry, the energy consumed for a 1.0 km asphalt
Tire derived material kJ (gain/loss)/kg rubber pavement during its life cycle was calculated, as shown in Table 5
(Stripple, 2001). The results showed that the total energy
Alternative daily cover 1837
Tire derived fuel þ31399
consumed was close to 23 trillion joules (TJ). The energy consumed
Crumb rubber modified asphalt þ310267 to þ566109 during the construction phase was approximately 8 TJ (35% of the
total consumption). In the maintenance phase, the energy con-
sumption was less than 3 TJ (13%). The energy consumption
Table 4 increased to 27 TJ/km in a life cycle (40 years) by using concrete
Energy consumption of PRA and SBS asphalt mixtures per metric ton (Yu et al., pavement instead of asphalt pavement. This increase occurred
2014). mainly in the construction phase and little or no changes occurred
Mix type Types Energy (MJ) in the operation and maintenance phases. The reduction of energy
consumption was not noticeable by switching to cold mix asphalt
PRA mixture Asphalt 104.2
Aggregate 82.9 (Stripple, 2001).
Rubber 29.8 It could be observed that the use of materials containing crumb
Polypropylene (PP) 6.2 rubber caused a significant reduction of the overall energy con-
Mixing 401.0 sumption compared to SDGM, with percentages equal to the values
Milling of PP 0.4
Crumb rubber manufacturing 7.2
represented in parentheses in Fig. 4 (Farina et al., 2017). However,
Transportation 47.1 the rubberized asphalt obtained by dry process did not reveal en-
Total 678.8 ergy saving advantages compared with standard dense-graded
SBS asphalt mixture Asphalt 125.4 mixture, with gross energy consumption of 19370 MJ/m and
Aggregate 82.9
18851 MJ/m, respectively (Farina et al., 2017).
SBS 98.8
Mixing 401.0 As shown in Fig. 5, Zhu et al. (2014). stated that the energy
Milling of SBS 8.6 consumption in mixing of SBS modified asphalt was lower than that
transportation 27.1 of rubberized asphalt mixture. However, the total energy con-
Total 743.8 sumption of TBAR mixture was 13.66% lower than that of SBS
Notes: PRA: plastic rubbe asphalt, SBS: styrene-butadiene-styrene. modified asphalt mixture, followed by TOR and FBAR modified
144 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158

6000

5000

Engegy Consumption (MJ/t)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
Virgin asphalt SBS modified FBAR TBAR
asphalt

Fig. 3. The energy consumption of different asphalt (Zhu et al., 2014). Notes: FRAR ¼ field blended rubberized asphalt; TRAR ¼ terminal blended rubberized asphalt.

Table 5
Energy consumed (TJ) of LCA results for a road (Chiu et al., 2008; Stripple, 2001).

Road construction, maintenance and operation for 1 km long road during 40 years of operation Construction Maintenance Operation Total

Asphalt road, hot method, low emission vehicles 8.0 3.0 12.0 23.0
Asphalt road, cold method, low emission vehicles 6.5 3.5 11.5 21.5
Concrete road, low emission vehicles 11.5 3.0 13.0 27.5
Asphalt road, hot method, normal emission vehicles 8.0 3.0 12.0 23.0
Asphalt road, cold method, normal emission vehicles 6.5 3.5 11.5 21.5
Concrete road, normal emission vehicles 11.5 3.0 13.0 27.5

aspahlt mixtures, 13.61% and 5.75% respectively. The result indi-
cated that rubberized asphalt had evident energy saving advan-
tages in the life cycle (Zhu et al., 2014).
The construction of asphalt pavement was an energy-intensive
process. Meanwhile, the use of materials containing crumb rub-
ber caused a significant reduction of the overall energy spent.
3.3. Maintenance
The use of waste material in the construction and rehabilitation
phase could reduce the energy consumption. The material obtained
by milling the road surfacing that had reached the end of its design
life was known as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) (Miller and
Bahia, 2009). Since aggregate materials were non-renewable re-
sources, the main advantage of using RAP was to lessen the
requirement of new aggregate/binder and waste material disposal
in landfill (Chiu et al., 2008). In addition, the use of some additives
such as warm mixes could reduce the mixing and compaction
temperatures of mixtures, thereby reducing the energy consump-
tion (Tabatabaee and Bahia, 2012). Carlson indicated that RAP
containing CRM asphalt cement was fully recyclable into new HMA
mixtures (Carlson and Zhu, 1999b).
Farina et al. (2017). focused on life cycle assessment of various
types of highway paving technologies containing recycled material
such as crumb rubber and RAP. Fig. 6 indicated the gross energy
requirement contributions of materials and operations which were
part of pavement construction and maintenance. Productions of
binders and modified binders were the most energy intensive
process (Santero et al., 2011). Furthermore, the different types of
rubberized asphalts showed significant energy saving benefits
compared with the reference solutions. The environmental per-
formance benefits were highly remarkable (Farina et al., 2017).
Due to the improved mechanical performance of rubberized
asphalt, the costs for pavement maintenance and conservation
could be reduced throughout the service cycle so that considerable
energy and nature resources could be saved (Jung et al., 2002;
Sousa et al., 2001; Van Kirk and Holleran, 2000). Meanwhile, the
use of rubberized asphalt contributed to the waste materials
disposal and reduction of landfill, which reflected the concept of
sustainable development (Jung et al., 2002). In addition, carbon
black in rubber could keep the pavement blacker for a long time so
 pez et al., 2009).
as to ensure the driving safety (Lo
Notes: SDGM ¼ standard dense-graded mixture;
RGGM ¼ rubberized gap-graded mixture; RGGMR ¼ rubberized
gap-graded mixture with RAP; RDGM ¼ rubberized dense-graded
mixture.
In Fig. 7, the study done by Antunes et al (Antunes and
Murachelli, 2009). showed that both reduced hot mixes produc-
tion and reduction of milling thickness were the major items
contributing to the large amount of energy saving of rubberized
asphalt application in comparison with conventional hot mix
asphalt during the pavement rehabilitation (Antunes and
Murachelli, 2009). Overall, the energy savings amount of
28.651 kWh/m3 were obtained by using rubberized asphalt tech-
nology instead of conventional HMA solution. The energy savings of
rubberized asphalt application accounted for 47% of the total en-
ergy consumption associated to the rehabilitation stage (Antunes
and Murachelli, 2009). It was concluded that using the rubber-
ized asphalt hot mixes could consume less energy than conven-
tional asphalt mixtures during the rehabilitation stage, resulted
from the landfill space saving and the recycled rubberized asphalt
not to be hauled away (Antunes et al., 2005; Decker and Hansen,
2006).
 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158 145

20000
Construction
18000 0%
Maintenance
Total

Gross energy requirement (MJ/m)

16000
Reduction(%)
14000

12000 43% 43% 45%

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
SDGM RGGM RGGMR RDGM
Different types of pavements

Fig. 4. The comparisons of different pavements of gross energy requirement (Farina et al., 2017). Notes: SDGM ¼ standard dense-graded mixture; RGGM ¼ rubberized gap-graded
mixture; RGGMR ¼ rubberized gap-graded mixture with RAP; RDGM ¼ rubberized dense-graded mixture; Heat loss of asphalt concrete during transportation was one of the major
problems during road construction phase. Karacasua et al (Karacasua et al., 2012). concluded that it was possible to reduce the heat loss of asphalt concrete with appropriate
application type and amount of rubber. Insulation decreased the amount of energy required to replace heat losses, thereby reducing energy costs. Rubber could also help reduce
heat produced during the production on site. This could provide cost effective and energy efficient solutions and maintain environmental sustainability (Karacasua et al., 2012). A
study done by Sousa et al (Sousa et al., 2007). indicated that the energy savings of using rubberized asphalt gap-graded and rubberized asphalt open-graded mixtures during
construction phase could reach 1,375,962,879 kJ/km and 3,059,839,016 kJ/km, respectively. Approximately 70% of the used tires in Arizona was applied in highways to gain a great
energy saving benefit (Sousa et al., 2007).

Asphalt Aggregate
Transportation of raw materials (50km) Mixture mixing
Transportation of mixture (20km) Paving
Compaction

800
700
Energy consumption (MJ/t)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
FBAR TBAR TOR SBS modified
asphalt

Fig. 5. Energy consumption of different type of asphalt (Zhu et al., 2014). Notes: FBAR ¼ field blended asphalt rubber; TBAR ¼ terminal blended asphalt rubber.
146 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158

26

23

20
Gross Energy Requirement (MJ/t)

17

14

11

-1
SDGM RGGM RGGMR RDGM
Work equipment 2.14 1.25 1.25 1.58
Transportation 2.553 1.423 1.383 1.676
Bituminous mixture plant 2.9 1.44 1.383 1.676
RAP 0 0 -0.8 0
Bitumen/AR bitumen 13 7.81 7.81 6.64
Aggregates 1.95 0.94 0.84 1.21

Fig. 6. Gross Energy Requirement associated to individual material and operations

(Santero et al., 2011).

3.4. Summary Fig. 8. The asphalt pavement LCA framework showing the input-output flows in the
system (Park et al., 2003).

Application of rubberized asphalt would benefit immediately in

term of energy saving due to the reduction of raw material and production of raw material, construction, maintenance, use in
benefits of longer life of rubberized asphalt pavements. The WMA service and end of life, imposed unique environmental burdens.
technology could reduce 30
C of the mixing temperature of The various materials used in pavement construction, as well as
rubberized asphalt, and there was approximately 20e25% of fuel electricity and fuel used for plants and machinery had remarkable
savings in term of warm crumb rubber modified asphalt. The en- environmental effects. The waste generation, discharge into water,
ergy consumption occurred mainly in the construction phase and and emission to air were the three major forms of environmental
the proportion of energy consumption in the operation and impacts, as shown in Fig. 8 (Park et al., 2003).
maintenance phase was less. Application of rubberized asphalt Kucukvar and Tatari (2012) studied the atmospheric emissions
could provide energy efficient solutions and maintained environ- for Portland cement pavement and hot mix asphalt, and concluded
mental sustainability. The use of rubberized asphalt contributed to that Portland concrete pavement emitted approximately 2.6 times
the waste materials disposal and reduction of landfill, reflected the more atmosphere pollution than hot mix asphalt (Kucukvar and
concept of sustainable development. It was concluded that using Tatari, 2012). The life cycle emission phases suggested that mate-
the rubberized asphalt hot mixes could consume less energy than rials production and transportation were the dominant phases of
conventional asphalt mixtures during the rehabilitation stage, atmospheric emissions (Kucukvar and Tatari, 2012). However, ac-
resulted from the landfill space and transportation savings. cording to Santero et al. (2011), from an energy and air emission
standpoint, the transportation impacts associated with the long
4. Environmental impact of rubberized asphalt pavement distances between sources and locations were also important.
Typically, transportation accounts for only a fraction of the energy
4.1. Materials production consumption of the materials and construction phases. An increase
in distance would in turn increase the proportion of impact
The each stage of the pavement life cycle, including the attributable to transportation (Santero et al., 2011). Meanwhile, the
sensibility analysis of haul distance on environmental effects
18 indicated that the contribution of haul distance to environmental
16 effects could reach 10% (Bartolozzi et al., 2012). The haul distances
14 should be as short as possible to reduce the impact on the envi-
Energy saving (kWh/m3)

ronment (Bartolozzi et al., 2012).

12 Rubberized asphalt was produced on the base of virgin binder
10 by adding crumb rubber. The GHG emission for rubberized asphalt
8 consisted of rubber power modifer and production (Zhu et al.,
2014). The values of GHG emission of rubber power production
6
calcalated were 0.97 kg CO2eq/kg (Liu and Yin, 2001) and 1.15 kg
4 CO2eq/kg (Wang et al., 2012a, 2012b) by several researchers (Zhu
2 et al., 2014). It was concluded that the GHG emission of asphlat
rubber was more than that of SBS modified asphalt productio and
0
Hot mixes Hot mixes Hot mixes Milling Transport for
the production of rubberized asphalt consumed much more elec-
production transport laying disposal tricity (Zhu et al., 2014).
Stout et al. (2003). compared the emissions due to the addition
Fig. 7. Energy saving per unit of rubberized asphalt hot mixes (Antunes and
Murachelli, 2009).
 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158
of crumb rubber to asphalt cement and the emissions derived from
the manufacture of non-modified asphalt concrete, as shown in
Fig. 9. Emissions of O2, N2, CO2, NOx and SO2 from the production of
rubberized asphalt mixtures were somewhat similar to those for
hot mix asphalt (ranging from þ0.5 to 10.7%). However, emissions
of CO and CH4 were much lower from rubberized asphalt mixture,
i.e., 39.7% and 61.7%, respectively (Stout et al., 2003).
Crumb rubber modified asphalt mixtures required a higher
temperature to blend, thus potentially increasing the hazardous
emission in hot-mix plants. A study conducted by the Michigan
Department of Transportation indicated that the inclusion of CRM
would not produce additional hazardous emissions (Stout et al.,
2003).
Based on the IEA model (Fulton and Eads, 2004), Sousa et al.
(2007). studied the CO2 emissions of rubberized asphalt mixture.
The result showed that the total CO2 savings reached 154 tons per
mile of lane if rubberized asphalt was used as a gap graded mixture.
However, if rubberized asphalt as an open graded was used over
pavements replacing 7.6 cm of hot mix asphalt then CO2 savings
reached 343 tons per mile of lane.
White et al. (2010). evaluated the impact of road material pro-
duction and highway construction of four different pavement types
on climate change (global warming) potentials. The results
confirmed that emissions from mixtures using Portland cement
concrete were severer compared to asphalt mixtures. In Fig. 10, the
Portland cement mixtures had greater total CO2 emissions
(0.1055 kg CO2 equivalent % weight) in comparison with fly ash
cement concrete (0.0743 kg CO2 equivalent % weight), hot mix
asphalt (0.0238 kg CO2 equivalent % weight) and rubberized asphalt
(0.0299 kg CO2 equivalent % weight).
Bartolozzi et al. (2012). concluded that the environmental
burden was mainly derived from the electricity consumed during
the production of hot asphalt mix. The result showed that the
global warming potential (GWP) emissions of rubberized asphalt
and conventional technologies derived from electricity consump-
tion were about 2  104 (65%) and 3  104 kg (67%) CO2, respec-
tively. Overall, the rubberized asphalt technology was in favor of
reducing the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission (Bartolozzi et al.,
2012).
Bueche and Dumont (2012) calculated the CO2 emissions as a
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100 81.88 81.46
50
6.48 6 12.1 12.75
0
CO (%) N (%) O (%)
Fig. 9. Emissions measured during the production of the mixtures (Stout et al., 2003).
147
function of energy used to produce hot mix asphalt. Results showed
that asphalt plants based on only gas consumption emitted the
lowest amount of CO2. On the other hand, plants based on only
electricity should be avoided as they emitted the greatest amount
of CO2 (117% more). Chappat and Bilal (2003) estimated the CO2
emissions for both material production and laying down for
different pavement structures. Portland cement concrete in terms
of CO2 equivalent had greater CO2 emissions than other mixtures.
The CO2 emissions from warm mix asphalt and hot mix asphalt
were similar (Chappat and Bilal, 2003). Yu et al. (2014). found that
the environmental burden of PRA production was been reduced
due to the utilization of the recycled materials, as shown in Table 6.
In addition, the constitutions of GHGs for two mixtures seemed
similar. Meanwhile, the PRA emitted less GWP than SBS asphalt
mixture (Yu et al., 2014).
Several studies investigated the environmental benefits of two
different treatments of scrap tires (Feraldi et al., 2013; Schmidt
et al., 2009). One treatment was that all tires were incinerated in
cement kilns while the other was that the rubber from all used tires
was used partly as infill in artificial turf and partly for modification
of asphalt. The result showed in Fig. 11 revealed that the environ-
mental benefits of scrap tires as recycled material were far greater
than those of scrap tire used as co-incineration (Feraldi et al., 2013).
Based on the ReCiPe approach (Goedkoop et al., 2013), Farina et al.
(2017). found that the application of rubberized asphalt produced
by wet technology showed significant benefits compared with
standard paving solutions in terms of global warming potential and
gross energy requirement (Farina et al., 2017). Meanwhile, the
crumb rubber production chain corresponded to a net greenhouse
emission gain of 103 kg CO2 eq/t and to a net life cycle energy
saving of 4,236 MJ/t (Farina et al., 2017).
The recycling scrap tires are used to produce the proprietary
asphalt modifier Roadþ (Feraldi et al., 2013). The use of asphalt
modifier Road þ had excellent environmental advantage and
reduced the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by 30% in com-
parison with SBS modified asphalt (McGraw and Lott, 2005).
In sum, research concluded emissions of O2, N2, CO2, NOx and
SO2 from the production of rubberized asphalt mixtures were
somewhat similar to those for hot mix asphalt (ranging from þ0.5
to 10.7%). Meanwhile, the inclusion of CRM would not produce
430.5 Asphalt rubber mixture
Hot mix asphalt
259.5
139.3
124.4
76.7 74.4
27.7
10.6
CO (ppm) SO (ppm) NOx (ppm) CH (ppm)
Emissions
148 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158

120
g CO equivalent/g Reduction of CO emission (%) 140

Reduction of CO emission (%)

100
120

g CO equivalent/g
80 100

80
60
60
40
40
20
20

0 0
Portland cement Fly ash and PCC Hot mix asphalt Asphalt rubber
concrete
Different types of pavements

Fig. 10. CO2 equivalent values for mixture productions (White et al., 2010).

Table 6
Emissions of PRA and SBS asphalt mixtures per metric ton (Yu et al., 2014).

Input-output CO2 kg CH4 g N2O g VOC g NOx g CO g SO2 g PM10 g PM2.5 g

PRA mixture Asphalt 6.7 23.0 e 12.8 30.0 23.6 30.0 6.2 e
Aggregate 1.4 4e-4 0.03 0.02 11.7 1.4 0.7 0.4 e
Rubber 1.5 7.1 0.18 2.2 3.9 4.8 5.0 1.2 0.5
PP 0.3 1.4 0.04 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.1
Mixing 22.6 5e-3 2e-3 4e-3 45.9 3.8 38.4 2.9 e
Milling of PP 0.03 0.06 e 3e-3 0.06 0.01 0.1 0.03 e
Crumb rubber manufacturing 0.01 0.03 e 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.03 e
Transportation 3.6 5.3 0.08 1.3 4.2 2.1 1.0 0.5 0.3
SBS asphalt mixture Asphalt 8.1 27.6 e 15.4 35.7 28.4 36.2 7.5 e
Aggregate 1.4 4e-4 0.03 0.02 11.7 1.4 0.7 0.4 e
SBS 5.5 20.3 0.76 9.7 14.8 16.4 12.5 3.4 1.4
Mixing 22.6 5e-3 2e-3 4e-3 45.9 3.8 38.4 2.9 e
Milling of SBS 0.7 1.1 e 0.06 1.3 0.2 2.1 0.6 e
Transportation 2.1 3.1 0.04 0.8 2.5 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.2

Notes: PRA¼ Plasticerubber asphalt, PP ¼ polypropylene, SBS¼ Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene block copolymer.

additional hazardous emissions. Overall, the AR technology was in
favor of reducing the GHG emission.
4.2. Highway construction
4.2.1. Asphalt fumes
The fumes from the construction of asphalt pavements were a
potential source of disadvantageous environmental impact on hu-
man health. The components in asphalt fume were complex, con-
sisting of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), as shown in Table 7 (Bloomquist et al., 1993).
A study done by National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) concluded that asphalt fumes could cause the acute
and chronic health issues, including irritation to the throat, nose,
and eyes (Butler et al., 2000). However, NIOSH emphasized that the
existing data from their 2000 hazard assessments of exposure to
asphalt fumes was not conclusive as a potential carcinogen (Butler
et al., 2000). The similar conclusion was obtained by a two-part
study that discussed whether the asphalt fumes were in relation
of increased lung cancer rates (Boffetta et al., 2003). The result
indicated that the relationship between lung cancer and asphalt
fumes was unclear. The PAH levels for 45 workers across 11 paving
sites were measured and the result indicated that the asphalt fumes
existed carcinogens, but the level of carcinogens was 17 times lower
than the value to the minimal carcinogenic effect (Kriech et al.,
2002).
Federal air quality and health professionals studied the fume
emissions from rubberized asphalt manufacturing and paving sites,
indicating that the rubberized asphalt emissions were as same as
conventional asphalt (Burr et al., 2001; Gunkel, 1994). A study
revealed that the rubber particles were not small enough to
become air borne or volatile as PM 10 or particulate matter
(Hartmann, 2010). According to Mcquillen et al. (McQuillen and
Hicks, 1987), the air quality during the production of rubberized
asphalt was affected by the plant type. The air quality was improved
by adjusting the plant (McQuillen and Hicks, 1987). The application
of rubberized asphalt would not contribute more undesirable
compound emissions than conventional pavements (Carlson and
Zhu, 1999a; Gunkel, 1994; Momm and Salini, 2000).
A study done by Gunkel et al (Gunkel, 1994). indicated that the
particulate matter for rubberized asphalt fumes was below the
limit value. At the same time, the result showed that paving
workers exposure to hazardous compounds in asphalt-rubber
fumes did not increase and even was below the levels required
by health organizations. Moreover, similar to the Gunkel's findings,
the results from Crockford (Crockford et al., 1995) revealed the
same conclusion that application of rubberized asphalt did not
increase the health risks of paving workers due to exposure to
 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158 149

Co-incineration Material recycling

Photochemical ozone creation…

Human toxicity (PM 10 risk)
Energy damand
Mineral resource use (iron)
Global warming potential
Nitrification potential (soil)
Nitrification potential (water)
Haman toxicity (carcinogenic risk)
Acidification potential (soil)

0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -1.2

Person equivalaents per tonne of tyers

Fig. 11. Potential environmental savings from recycling and co-incineration in person equivalents per ton of tire (Feraldi et al., 2013).

Table 7 gases including CO2, CH4 and N2O (Wang and Li, 2005). Moreover,
Chemical analysis by GC/MS of storage-tank and laboratory-generated paving the greenhouse warming potential (GWP) of these gases was
asphalt fume condensates, mg/ml per sample (Bloomquist et al., 1993).
expressed as a CO2 equivalent (Myers et al., 2000).
Chemical analyte Laboratory Tank fumes at 149
C The results shown in Table 8 indicated that the rubberized
fumes asphalt technology provided better environmental performances
149
C 316
C compared to the traditional technology over the entire life cycle
Acenaphthene 0.03 e 0.12 (Bartolozzi et al., 2012). Results obtained from the LCA analysis
Anthracene 0.46 0.0.3 0.13 showed that use of wearing courses containing rubberized asphalt
Chrysene 0.03 0.07 e produced by means of the wet technology could lead to remarkable
Benz[a]anthracene and chrysene 0.11
e e
benefits in terms of environmental effect, human health, preser-
Fluorene 0.22 0.09 0.12
Dibenzothiophene 0.57 0.24 0.09
vation of ecosystems and minimization of resource depletion
Methyl fluorenes 0.36 0.16 0.17 (Farina et al., 2017). However, application of crumb rubber in
Methyl naphthalenes 5.2 0.4 4.90 highway pavement by dry technology had no changed for carbon
Methyl chrysenes e 0.11 e dioxide emissions compared with traditional hot mix asphalts
“C2” alkyl dibenzothiophenes 1.3 1.1 0.17
(Farina et al., 2017).
“C3” alkyl dibenzothiophenes 0.88 0.85 0.1
According to Bartolozzi's report (Bartolozzi et al., 2012), the
environmental burden imposed by rubberized asphalt technology
was 5%e10% less than that imposed by traditional technology in
asphalt-rubber fumes. Meanwhile, the impact of crumb rubber on
highway construction process. The merit was a result of the thick-
emissions might be relatively small in comparison with other var-
ness decrease of rubberized asphalt road and the saving of material,
iables including asphalt content, asphalt throughput rate, mix
energy and fuel during the construction process (Bartolozzi et al.,
temperature and fueling rate of the dryer (Lo Presti, 2013). Never-
2012).
theless, the report also got the conclusion that an unpleasant smell
In Fig. 12, the results showed that the GHG emission of
existed when rubberized asphalt mixtures were produced (Cheng
rubberized asphalt was obviously higher than SBS modified asphalt
et al., 2011). At the same time, some studies concluded that the
mixture. Zhu et al. (2014). concluded that the rubberized asphalt
use of warm mix technology in rubberized asphalt could gain a
did not have obvious benefits in GHG emission reduction (Zhu et al.,
remarkable reduction of emission during field operations due to
2014). In addition, the transportation demand of materials was
the decrease of compaction and mixing temperatures (Behl et al.,
reduced due to decreased thickness of the asphalt-rubber layer,
2013; Cheng et al., 2011). According to Esenwa et al. report
thus reduceing the emission from trucks during the construction
(Esenwa et al., 2010), the visible fume of the warm mix rubberized
process (Bartolozzi et al., 2012). Meanwhile, the WMA technology
asphalt at both the plant and paver hopper were virtually
could reduce the mixing and compacting temperatures of CRMA.
nonexistent.
There was an overall reduction in pollutants emission when the mix
temperature decreased from 150
C to 120
C (Behl et al., 2013). In
4.2.2. New pavement construction addition, the emissions in production of the rubberized warm-mix
According to Park et al. study (Park et al., 2003), large quantities asphalt were lower than those of hot mix asphalt. The similar
of nature and man-made materials were used in the pavement compaction levels were achieved for rubberized warm-mix asphalt
construction phase. Meanwhile, the construction process with a lot and hot mix asphalt (Jones et al., 2012).
of energy consumption generated large quantities of greenhouse The fume emissions from rubberized asphalt manufacturing and
150 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158

Table 8
Results of environmental performances rubberized asphalt road/conventional road (Bartolozzi et al., 2012).

Impact category units LCA conventional road LCA rubberized asphalt road

Abiotic depletion kg Sb eq 690,0650983 470,4820614

Acidification kg SO2 eq 292,4172741 200,6254185
Eutrophication kg PO3
4 eq 59,41062426 40,77403416
Fresh water aquatic ecotox. kg 1,4-DB eq 6855,59203 4585,796209
Global warming (GWP 100) kg CO2 eq 46608,61182 31676,04318
Human toxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 18077,84697 12503,81109
Marine aquatic ecotoxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 18886861,13 12698961,68
Ozone layer depletion kg CFC-11 eq 0,011791892 0,008077139
Photochemical oxidation kg C2H4 eq 13,37387651 9,103604073
Terrestrial ecotoxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 191,8532325 128,1745591

Asphalt Aggregate
Transportation of raw materials (50km) Mixture mixing
Transportation of mixture (20km) Paving
Compaction

70

60
GHG emission (kg.t-1

50

40

30

20

10

0
FBAR TBAR TOR SBS modified asphalt

Fig. 12. GHG emission of rubberized asphalt mixture production (Zhu et al., 2014). Notes: The virgin asphalt content of trans-polyoctenamer asphalt mixture is 5.0%, FBAR ¼Field
blended rubberized asphalt; TBAR¼ terminal blended rubberized asphalt and Trans-Polyoctenamer (TOR) mixture; SBS ¼ Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene block copolymer.

paving sites were as same as conventional asphalt (Burr et al., 2001;
Gunkel, 1994). Meanwhile, the rubber particles were not small
enough to become airborne particulate matter. Paving workers
exposure to hazardous compounds from asphalt-rubber fumes did
not increase (Crockford et al., 1995). Meanwhile, the use of warm
mix technology in rubberized asphalt could gain a remarkable
reduction of emission during field operations due to the decrease of
compaction and mixing temperatures (Behl et al., 2013).
LCA analysis indicated that the use of rubberized asphalt pro-
duced by means of wet technology could lead to remarkable ben-
efits in terms of environmental effect, human health, preservation
of ecosystems, and minimization of resource depletion.
4.3. Rubberized asphalt pavement in service
4.3.1. Noise
Noise pollution is the presence of intrusive and unnecessary
sounds that can seriously influence human mental and physical
health. The potentially harmful effects of noise include pressure,
increase in heart rate, insomnia, the hearing loss and dysphoria
(Regecova and Kellerova, 1995). Many countries are now facing the
problem of traffic noise pollution. The tire/pavement noise is a
major factor in traffic noise problem (Herman, 1998). The noise
reduction is an important indicator in highway design taking into
account environment effects. Low-noise pavement was widely used
in many countries (Donavan, 2009). Various studies have indicated
that the application of rubberized asphalt reduces the tire/pave-
ment interface noise by 40e88% in comparison with ordinary
pavement (Bai, 2009; Cooper, 2013; Mcquillen et al., 1988; Wen and
Yang, 2008).
The rubberized asphalt was first applied to reduce the noise
problems associated with highway transportation in Brussels,
Belgium, in 1981 (Mavridou and Kehagia, 2017). Since then, Canada,
France, Germany, Austria, America, and Italy began to apply
rubberized asphalt to alleviate the problem of excessive use of tires
and road noise pollution (SCPWA, 1999). Meanwhile, many coun-
tries started the noise level assessment, indicating that traffic noise
levels significantly were reduced by the application of rubberized
asphalt. Table 9 summarized the successful application of rubber-
ized asphalt to mitigate the tire noise in different countries and
regions (SCPWA, 1999). Rubber Pavement Association stated that
the noise of tire/pavement could be reduced by approximately 50%
by means of using scarp tire rubber in open-graded mixture binder.
Moreover, the rubber particles had good sound absorption in spray
application (Zhu and Carlson, 2001).
Some studies found that the overall noise of highway is mainly
due to the tire/pavement interaction noise (Bernhard et al., 2004;
Donovan and Rymer, 2003). The factors that affected the tire/
pavement noise were pavement friction and thickness, age state,
tire vibration and rolling resistance, the type and properties of
pavement material, porosity and so on (Cesbron et al., 2009;
Ramussen et al., 2007; Sandberg and Ejsmont, 2002). Viscoelastic
properties were one of the major factors that affected the tire/
pavement noise regarding asphalt concrete mixtures (Biligiri, 2008;
Biligiri et al., 2010; Biligiri and Kaloush, 2010). Furthermore, Ongel
et al. found that asphalt rubber friction course (ARFC) mixtures
 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158 151

Table 9
Sound studies of using rubberized asphalt and resulting noise reduction (Donavan, 2005; SCPWA, 1999; Way et al., 2012).

Country Noise Level Reduction Country Noise Level Reduction

Belgium 8-10 dB (65e85%) Phoenix, AZ 10 dB (88%)

Canada Shown noise reduction Tucson, AX 6.7 dBs (78%)
France 2-3dB/3-5 dB (50e75%) Sacramento County 7.7 dB
Germany 3 dB (50%) Orange Country 3-5 dB on Open Graded asphalt
Austria 3 þ dB Los Angeles Country 3-7 dB
China Significant noise reduction Arizona, USA 9 dB

could mitigate the tire/pavement noise because of the increasing
viscoelastic properties of asphalt mixtures as an acoustic absorber
(Ongel and Harvey, 2010).
According to the reported results (Bennert et al., 2005; SCPWA,
1999; Way et al., 2012), the noise measurements of different
pavement types were shown in Fig. 13. These measurements clearly
illustrated that the ARFC surface was the quietest with a value of 96
dBA. As a result, the pavement surfaces composed of either ARAC or
ARFC exhibited a very remarkable tire/pavement noise reduction.
At the same time, the long-term noise reduction performance
impacts of rubberized asphalt pavements were studied by some
researchers (Bucka, 2002; SCPWA, 1999; Tehrani, 2015). Fig. 14
showed the traffic noise test results of rubberized and non-
rubberized asphalts (SCPWA, 1999). A 6-year study by Bollard
(SCPWA, 1999) illustrated that rubberized asphalt leaded to an
average 5 dB reduction in traffic noise levels compared to the
conventional asphalt. In addition, a 10-year study by Bucka (2002)
clearly stated that rubberized asphalt surface could moderate the
noise by 3e7 dB, where the noise reduction of non-rubberized
asphalt overlays was only 1e2 dB (Bucka, 2002).
Based on the long-term field measurements from 23 test sites
from several locations in California, USA, it could be concluded that
the rubberized asphalt overlays had lower sound intensity level
(Ongel et al., 2008). It was also found that the noise reduction of
pavement was potentially related to the air-void content of the
mixture and its pavement thickness (Ongel et al., 2008). Moreover,
Wang et al (Wang and Zeng, 2004). indicated the increased thick-
ness of overlays could reduce the traffic noise, nevertheless, the
effect was not remarkable for 15 cm or thicker overlays (Wang and
Zeng, 2004).
The damping ratio parameters were used to study the vibration
attenuation capability of materials (Schubert et al., 2010; Wang and
Ho€ eg, 2010). Moreover, damping ratios of the asphalt mixtures
were used to understand the vibration mechanism and damping
(Broutin and Theillout, 2010). Several studies were conducted that
the rubber modified asphalts with different rubber contents had
higher damping capacities than conventional mixtures (Biligiri,
2013; Wang and Zeng, 2006). Biligiri (2013) reported a similar
conclusion that rubberized asphalt conduced to higher damping
ratios which could reduce the tire/pavement noise (Biligiri, 2013).
The presence of rubber powder could lower the noise frequency
of interface between tire and pavement (Tehrani, 2015). A study
found that rubberized asphalt overlay could reduce noise effec-
tively in a frequency range between 500 and 4000 Hz, which is
identical with the inherent frequency of tire noise (SCPWA, 1999).
Particularly, McNerney et al. (1998). revealed a similar conclusion in
details, indicating that rubberized asphalt pavement could effec-
tively reduce the noise with frequency above 1600 Hz.
Field studies showed that the noise reduction effect of rubber-
ized asphalt open graded surface was directly related to traffic
speed, which was 3 dB for speeds below 50 km/h, 4 dB for speeds
between 50 and 90 km/h, 6 dB more than 90 km/h. Tests completed
in the U.S and Europe showed that a noise reduction of 4.5 dB was
achieved when used rubberized asphalt pavement at an average
speed of 40 km/h (Zhang and Tan, 2015). Bucka found that a faster
speed of traffic flow could significantly reduce tire/pavement noise
(Bucka, 2002). The result was verified by Bennert et al. by means of
studying 42 pavement overlays in New Jersey (Bennert et al., 2005).
At the same time, the generation of tire/pavement noise increased
linearly at a speed of 0.2e0.3 dB per kilometer (Bennert et al.,
2005). In sum, the reduction of noise was an environmental
benefit, where the use of CRMA lowered the noise level at tire/
pavement interface (Tehrani, 2015).

4.3.2. Tire wear

AZ 202 Random Time PCC 109.2
1-80 PCC 104.1 Feraldi et al. (2013). analyzed the compositions of new and scrap
tires and pointed out that the rubber tire mass was lost due to tread
Tire/Pavement Measurements for

Haimen Concrete 103.9

AZ 202 Long Time PCC 102 wear during the use stage, shown in Table 10 (Feraldi et al., 2013).
Concret
1-280 Ground PCC 101.2 The loss of tire tread mass was estimated to reach the values of
Various Surfaces

AZ Old AR-ACFC(Worst) 101.4 10%e20% (Schmidt et al., 2009). The loss of tire tread due to tire-
SR 138 BWC 99.9 pavement friction caused many problems. Tire wear resulted in
AZ1-10 Test SMA 99.6 the need for more tires that could increase energy consumptions
SR 138 New DGA Avg 98.3
and environmental burdens.
Ninghang G25 ARAC13 98.8
Nanjing Ring ARFC13 96
At the same time, tire dust due to tire wear contained heavy
1-5 Crumb Rubber Avg 97.8 metals, causing potential detriment to the surrounding environ-
SR 138 75mm OGAC 96.9 ment (Adachi and Tainosho, 2004; Councell et al., 2004). Even more
ARFC
AZ1-10 Test AR-ACFC 96.6 serious, most of the tire dust fall off the form of PM 2.5, PM 10 and
Rt 195 West (SHRP Section) CRM 96.2 even ultrafine particles (d < 100 nm) which could compose poten-
80 90 100 110 120 tial threat to the cardiovascular and respiratory health (Dahl et al.,
Sound Intensity Level, dBA 2006; Luhana et al., 2004). The rate of tire wear was affected by the
type and roughness of pavement. Alexandrova et al. (2007). pointed
Fig. 13. Sound Intensity Level of Tire/Pavement Measurements for Various Surfaces out that the PCC pavements wore tires down 1.4 to 2 times faster
(Bennert et al., 2005; SCPWA, 1999; Way et al., 2012). Notes: ARFC ¼ asphalt rubber
friction course; ARAC ¼ asphalt rubberized asphalt concrete; PCC¼ Portland cement
than asphalt-rubber pavements. Nevertheless, the roughness
concrete; CRM ¼ crumb rubber modifiers; OGAC¼Open Graded Asphalt Concrete; values of pavement on tire wear rate was not clear (Alexandrova
SMA ¼ stone mastic asphalt. et al., 2007). Ho €lzl et al. (2013). pointed out that tire wear might
be one of sources to produce airborne particulate matter. It was
found that tires running over concrete pavement wore down faster
than rolling over rubberized asphalt pavement (Ho€ lzl et al., 2013).

4.3.3. Leachate
 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158 153

Table 11
Summary of batch leaching and removal/reduction/retardation process results for CRAC (Azizian et al., 2003).

Test Conditions Potential toxicant Toxicant conc. (mg/l) Algal %EC50 D. magna %LC50

Short-term batch leaching 24 h Benzothiazole 0.45 17 44

Aluminum 1.5
Mercury 0.02
Long-term batch leaching 7 days Benzothiazole 0.54 25 42
Aluminum 1.81
Mercury 0.116
Flat-plate leaching Init.eday 10 Aluminum 0.04e0.24 NTE NTE
Volatilization Init.eday 7 Benzothiazole 0.42e0.040 49-NTE 38-NTE
Aluminum 1.98e1.89
Mercury 0.02e0.016
Photolysis Init.eday 7 Benzothiazole 0.44e0.437 9e5 31e34
Aluminum 1.67e1.65
Mercury 0.019e0.018
Biodegradation Init.eday 10 Benzothiazole 0.44e0.019 21-NTE NTE
Aluminum 1.62e0.04
Mercury BDL

Notes: NTE: no toxic effect. BDL:concentration below detection limit.

environment (Kayhanian et al., 2008).
The application of rubberized asphalt reduces the tire/pavement
interface noise by 40e88% in comparison with ordinary pavement.
In a word, the reduction of noise is an environmental benefit from
CRMA pavements. Tire wear might be one of the sources of par-
ticulate matter in the air while the PCC pavements wore tires down
1.4 to 2 times faster than CRMA pavements. In addition, CRMA
leachates contained a mixture of organic and metallic contami-
nants. However, leachate from rubberized asphalt pavement did
not show a measurable threat to the environment.
4.4. Maintenance
Chiu et al. (2008). compared three recycled materials (recycled
hot asphalt mixtures, asphalt rubber, Recycled Glassphalt) with
conventional HMA to provide a selection of material to apply dur-
ing pavement maintenance process. The results showed both
asphalt rubber mix and recycled hot asphalt mix decreased the
ecological burden by 23% while the Glassphalt added the ecological
burden by 19%. Overall, the asphalt rubber mixture was the best
alternative due to reducing ecological burden (Chiu et al., 2008;
Thives and Ghisi, 2017). A Dutch method (Audenaert et al., 2012),
as an index, was used to indicate the environmental effect of a
product or manufacturing process. Fig. 15 showed the ecological
burden of each material in terms of 40-year life span.
Meanwhile, the result obtained by Farina et al. (2017). was in
agreement with the conclusion that the use of rubberized asphalt
binders could reduce the ecological burden. Bartolozzi et al.
quantitatively analyzed the environmental benefits of using
rubberized asphalt in road pavements, the result showed that the
significant GHG emission saving was achieved under maintenance
stage in term of life cycle assessment (Bartolozzi et al., 2012).
In Fig. 16, the values of CO2 emission saving per cubic meter
CRMA were presented. It was concluded that, during pavement
rehabilitation, using CRMA had significant environmental benefits
compared with traditional HMA (Antunes and Murachelli, 2009). At
the same time, CRMA could present better functional and structural
performances, leading to a remarkable reduction in environmental
burden (Antunes and Murachelli, 2009). Chui et al (Chiu et al.,
2008). found that the reduction of the amount of asphalt and the
consumption of heat were the two key factors to reduce ecological
burden during rehabilitation process. The effective way to mitigate
ecological burden was to assure the quality of pavement and reduce
the heat required during rehabilitation process (Chiu et al., 2008).
During maintenance process, the use of CRMA could reduce the
ecological burden. The application of rubberized asphalt during
maintenance stage reduced GHG emission according to the life
cycle assessment. CRMA could present better functional and
structural performance, leading to a remarkable reduction in
environmental burden.
4.5. End of life
At the end of pavement service life, the pavement could be
recycled, landfilled, or simply stayed in place as part of infrastruc-
ture. The rate at which each of these options happened for various

Table 12
Metal leachate test results and allowable limits (ug/L) (Kayhanian et al., 2008).

Vashisth et al. (Vashisth et al., 1998) Kriech (Kriech, 1990) Kriech (Kriech, 1992) EPA (EPA, 2002)

Metal DGAC CRM(wet) CRM(dry) HMA HMA PCC Allowable Limit

Arsenic <5 <5 <5 10
Barium <2000 2900 <2000 2000
Cadmium 0.5 0.4 0.2 <20 <20 <20 5
Chromium 0.5 0.5 1.1 100 <10 72 100
Copper 0.4 0.5 0.4 1000
Lead BDL 2.1 BDL <200 <200 <200 15
Mercury <5 <5 <5 2
Nickel 0.8 0.7 0.8 100
Selenium <5 <5 <5 50
Silver <40 <40 <40 100
Zinc 5 11.5 2.5 5000

Notes: Values with the “less than” (<) symbol preceding them indicate that the constituent was below the detection limit for the study, DGAC ¼ dense graded asphalt concrete,
CRM ¼ crumb rubber modifiers.
154 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158

14

12

Environment Load(kPt.)
10

0
Stone Sand Asphalt Electricity Heat Diesel Transporation

Conventional HMA Recycled HMA AR-HMA Glassphalt

Fig. 15. Environmental loads of milling/overlaying one lane-kilometer of asphalt pavement for 40 years using different materials (Chiu et al., 2008).

10
9
/m3)

8
CO2 Emission Saving (kg CO2

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Hot mixes Hot mixes Hot mixes Milling Transport for
production transport laying disposal

Fig. 16. CO2 emission saving achieved for each m3 of rubberized asphalt hot mixes during rehabilitation processes (Antunes and Murachelli, 2009).

pavement types, locations, and other pavement details was not well (Carlson and Zhu, 1999b). reported that rubberized asphalt mixes
documented (Rieradevall et al., 1997; Santero, 2010). Carlson et al were successfully recycled. A study conducted quantitative analysis
of the environmental benefits of rubberized asphalt technology
used in Italy, demonstrating that rubberized asphalt technology
could reduce about 44% carbon dioxide emission compared with
14,000
traditional pavement rehabilitation, as shown in Fig. 17 (Antunes
12,000 and Murachelli, 2009).
CO2 Emission Saving (kg CO2)

10,000
4.6. Summary
8,000
Emissions of O2, N2, CO2, NOx and SO2 in the production of
6,000 rubberized asphalt mixtures were somewhat similar to those in hot
mix asphalt. Hazardous compounds in rubberized asphalt fumes
4,000
exposure to paving workers did not increase. Meanwhile, the use of
2,000 warm mix technology in rubberized asphalt could gain a remark-
able reduction of emissions during the field operations due to the
0 decrease of compaction and mixing temperatures. The environ-
Hot mixes Hot mixes Hot mixes Milling Transport for mental burden imposed by the rubberized asphalt technology was
production transport laying disposal
5%e10% less than that by traditional technology during the pave-
Fig. 17. Overall CO2 emission saving by using rubberized asphalt hot mixes (Antunes ment construction process. The application of rubberized asphalt
and Murachelli, 2009). reduced the tire/pavement interface noise by 40e88% in
 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158
comparison with traditional mixture. In addition, PCC pavements
wore tires down 1.4 to 2 times faster than rubberized asphalt
pavements. Meanwhile, the impact of rubberized asphalt pavement
on the environment was small because leachate from rubberized
asphalt pavement did not pose a measurable threat to the envi-
ronment. Moreover, the application of asphalt rubber could reduce
the ecological burden. The significant GHG emission saving was
achieved by using rubberized asphalt in the process of maintenance
according to the life cycle assessment.
5. Conclusions and further research
5.1. Conclusions
This review paper summarized the energy consumption and
environmental impact of the rubberized asphalt pavement during
the entire service life cycle. Reducing the environmental burden of
the highway infrastructure has attracted increasing attention.
Application of crumb rubber in asphalt pavement overcomes the
disposal problem of waste tires, and in return, leads to energy
savings and environmental benefits. Based on the published
research work, the following conclusions can be drawn:
C The use of crumb rubber in asphalt had great benefits in
energy saving and environmental effect compared with the
landfill disposal and energy recovery.
C Conventional production of rubberized asphalt is a high-
energy consuming process since the high viscosity requires
a higher mixing temperature and longer mixing duration,
whereas the WMA technology could lower the viscosity of
rubberized asphalt and further reduce the mixing tempera-
ture and duration, with approximately 20e25% of fuel
saving.
C The consumed energy of rubberized asphalt mixture was
generally lower than that of conventional asphalt mixture
during the construction and maintenance phases, implying
that rubberized asphalt had evident energy saving advan-
tages in the life cycle.
C The emissions of O2, N2, CO2, NOx and SO2 in the production
of rubberized asphalt mixtures were somewhat similar to
those for hot mix asphalt (ranging from þ0.5 to 10.7%).
However, emissions of CO and CH4 were much lower,
i.e., 39.7% and 61.7%, respectively.
C The noise reduction of rubberized asphalt pavement was one
of environmental benefits because 40e88% of tire-pavement
noise in a frequency range of 500e4000 Hz can be reduced
by using asphalt rubber, comparing with traditional
pavement.
C Leachate from crumb rubber modifiers regardless of wet and
dry processes did not pose a measurable threat to the
environment.
C Rubberized asphalt mixtures during pavement rehabilitation
had significant environmental benefits compared with
traditional asphalt pavements. Meanwhile, these rubberized
mixtures could present better functional and structural
performances during rehabilitation process, achieved a
remarkable reduction in environmental burden.
5.2. Further research
Rubberized asphalt had been proved prominent in energy sav-
ings and environmental benefits. However, some areas still need to
be studied further. The future research of energy consumption and
environmental impact of rubberized asphalt was given as follows.
155
C The energy consumption of rubberized asphalt pavement in
service should be studied and quantified.
C Quantitative analysis of energy consumption in recycling
stage of rubberized asphalt should be conducted.
C The environmental impact of rubberized asphalt material
during recycling stage should be analyzed.
C More case studies are recommended to be conducted to
compare various types of asphalt mixtures, including
rubberized asphalt by wet, dry and terminal blend processes
and asphalt mixture containing SBS modified binder, RAP
materials and many others.
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