Thermal Stresses Gatewood

McGRAW-HILL PUBLICATIONS IN
AERONAUTICAL SCIENCE
Jerome C. Hunsaker, Consulting Editor
THERMAL STRESSES
McGRAW-HILL PUBLICATIONS IN
AERONAUTICAL SCIENCE
Jerome C. Hunsaker, Consulting Editor
Draper, McKay, and Lees: Instrument Engineering

Vol. 1 — Fundamentals
Vol. 2 — Mathematics
Vol. 3 — Applications
Part 1. Measurement Systems
Part 2. Control Systems
Gatewood: Thermal Stresses: With Applications to Airplanes,
Missiles, Turbines, and Nuclear Reactors
Kuchemann and Weber: Aerodynamics of Propulsion
Kuhn: Stresses in Aircraft and Shell Structures

Shapiro: Principles of Helicopter Engineering
Shaw and Macks: Analysis and Lubrication of Bearings
Streeter: Fluid Dynamics

von Mises: Theory of Flight
THERMAL STRESSES
With Applications to Airplanes,
Missiles, Turbines, and Nuclear Reactors
B: E.°G ATE WOOD, Ph.D.

Research Coordinator and Research Professor
Air Force Institute of Technology
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

New York Toronto London
1957
THERMAL STRESSES
Copyright © 1957 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in the

United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 57-6390
THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YOEK, PA.

PREFACE
The advent of supersonic speeds for airplanes and missiles since World
War II hasconfronted the aircraft structural designer with new problems
involving temperatures, thermal stresses, and material properties. The
engine designer has done considerable work on these problems, but the
airframe designer is just beginning the task of trying to solve these
problems for sheet-metal-type structure. Also, the harnessing of atomic
energy has introducedcomplicated heat-transfer and thermal-stress
problems in the design of nuclear reactors. This book represents an
attempt to give basic information for attacking these problems and to
indicate possible procedures for solving the various problems associated
with elevated temperatures in airplane and missile structures, jet engines,
and nuclear reactors.
The book is not restricted to the classical thermal-stress problem of
finding the elastic thermal stresses for a given temperature distribution
in a structure with no buckling but touches on all phases of the structural-
design problem — the temperature distribution, the elastic and inelastic
thermal stresses in various structures, the combined elastic and inelastic
applied and thermal stresses, the allowable stresses for various materials
and loading conditions, the buckling, deflection, stiffness, fatigue, shock,
and flutter effects of elevated temperatures.
The method of attack on these problems is to set up the complete
problem and then simplify it by making assumptions based on the physical
situation or on experimental data. An analytical solution is obtained
for the approximated problem, which demonstrates the basic parameters
in the problem and allows charts to be constructed, showing how the
stresses vary with these parameters. Refinements in the solution are
then made by investigating the various simplifying assumptions and
obtaining correction factors. In most cases this procedure yields results
with sufficient accuracy for use in the design of the structure. Actually
the thermal-stress calculation is just one of an entire sequence of approxi
mate calculations necessary in the design of a structure. The thermal-
stress-calculation procedures as developed herein are considered to be as
accurate as some of the other steps in the design sequence, and more
accurate than the temperature based on the convective-heat-transfer
vi PREFACE
calculation and the allowable compressive stress under creep conditions.

Furthermore, the most refined calculation procedures including analog
solutions and computing-machine solutions can give results no better
than the input data. Since the input data for the temperature distri
bution and the resulting thermal stresses include physical and mechanical
properties of the material and atmosphere, which are measured quantities
with considerable scatter, the results from any calculation procedure will
have at least as much scatter.
Chapter 1 gives the thermal-stress equations, starting with simple cases
and building up to the general three-dimensional equations. In the
rest of the book, reference is made to Chap. 1 for the thermal-stress
formulas. Chapter 2 gives the temperature equations for heat conduc
tion, heat radiation, heat convection, and aerodynamic heating, and
applies them to obtain the heat-balance equations for an idealized struc
tural element on a typical aircraft or missile structure. Reference is
made in the later chapters to the temperature equations in Chap. 2.
In Chap. 3 the temperatures and thermal stresses for an idealized
structural element consisting of a skin element at one uniform temperature
joined to a stringer element at a different uniform temperature are
determined. In this case time is the only independent variable for the
idealized element. With certain assumptions concerning the aero
dynamic heating of the skin element, the heat radiation to the stringer,
and the thermal resistance of the joint between the skin and the stringer,
analytical solutions for the temperature and thermal stress are obtained.
The important parameters involving geometry, material properties, and
time are determined, and curves of maximum stress against these param
eters are constructed.
In Chap. 4 the procedures of Chap. 3 are extended to the case of one-
dimensional temperature and thermal-stress variation. With time and
the thickness dimension as independent variables, analytical solutions
are obtained for a thick plate or a beam or a multiweb box beam of an
aircraft structure. Chapter 5 gives some of the simpler two-dimensional
thermal-stress problems of particular interest, but the general two-
dimensional problem is considered in Chap. 9.
Chapter 6 is devoted to material properties, allowable stresses under
various loading conditions, and efficiencies of materials at elevated tem
peratures. Some discussion of thermal fatigue and thermal shock of
materials is given also. In Chap. 7 the stress-analysis problem of com
bining the applied stresses, thermal stresses, and allowable stresses is
considered. Particular emphasis is put on the inelastic thermal stresses,
the inelastic combination of applied and thermal stresses, and the time
at which the applied and thermal stresses are combined. In Chap. 8 the
deflection and stiffness of the structure under elevated temperatures and
PREFACE vii
thermal stresses are considered.Simple procedures are given to deter
mine the approximate deflection and stiffness of the structure and the
resultant effects upon the thermal stresses and upon nutter.
In Chap. 9 some cases of the general two-dimensional thermal-stress
problem are considered. In particular the energy and complex-variable
methods are discussed and applied to several problems.
As is evident from the above outline, the book has been prepared
primarily for aeronautical engineers working in aircraft structural
analysis and design and for students in aeronautical engineering. How
ever, because a considerable amount of the material is being published
for the first time, anyone who is concerned with or interested in thermal
stresses will find useful information in the book. Sections on the thermal
stresses in turbine blades, turbine disks, and nuclear reactors have been
included to give an idea of the problems in jet-engine design and nuclear-
reactor design. Also, a course in classical thermal-stress theory, without
regard to aircraft structure, could be based on Chaps. 1, 5, and 9.
The book is based on a course in thermal stresses given by the author
to graduate aeronautical engineering students at the Air Force Institute
of Technology. With the exception of parts of Chaps. 2 and 5, the first
eight chapters can be covered in a three-semester-hour (or four-quarter-
hour) course. The mathematical procedures used in the first eight chap
ters do not go beyond elementary partial differential equations. Chap
ter 9 requires some knowledge of the theory of complex variables and of
energy methods as used in structural analysis.
The author wishes to acknowledge the help of the Air Force Institute
of Technology and of North American Aviation, Inc., in the preparation
of the original lecture notes on thermal stresses, which led to this book.
Under the sponsorship of the Air Force Institute of Technology and North
American Aviation, the author spent several periods of time in the
Structures Group of the Missiles Division of North American Aviation
at Downey, Calif., working on thermal-stress problems and preparing
reports on analysis procedures for thermal stresses.
To his colleagues, students, former teachers, and all those who have
given help in the preparation of this book, the author expresses his
appreciation.
B. E. Gatewood
CONTENTS
PREFACE v
SYMBOLS xiii
Chapter 1. Thermal-stress Equations 1
1-1. Definition of Thermal Stress 1-

1-2. Thermal Stresses for Uniform Temperature 3-
1-3. Thermal Loads on Joints 5
1-4. Thermal Stresses for One-dimensional Temperature Distribution. . 9-
1-5. General Thermal Stress-strain Equations 12-
1- 6. Stress Function for Two-dimensional Thermal Stresses 17
Chapter 2. Temperature Equations 21
2- 1. Introduction 21
2-2. Heat Conduction 22
2-3. Heat Radiation 23
2-4. Heat Convection . 26
2-5. Aerodynamic Heating 30
2-6. Heat-balance Equations for Idealized Structure 35
2-7. Numerical Integration for Transient Temperatures 37
Chapter 3. Transient Temperatures and Stresses in Idealized Structures. 43
3-2. Calculation of Stringer Temperature for Assumed Skin Temperature. 43
3-3. Radiation from Skin to Stringer 47
3-4. Effect of Stringer upon Skin Temperature 49
3-5. Effect of Thermal Resistance of Joints on Stringer Temperatures . . 50
3-6. Comparison of Calculated and Test Temperatures
3-7. Stringer and Skin Temperatures for Constant Heat Source
3-8. Skin and Stringer Temperatures for Missile Structures
... 52
54
58
3-9. Thermal-stress Formulas for Unrestrained Idealized Structure . . 62-v
ix
X CONTENTS
Chapter 4. Thermal Stresses for One-dimensional Temperature Distri

bution 65
4-1. Introduction 65
4-2. Plates or Beams with Linear Transient Temperature on One Surface or-
Edge 66
4-3. Plates with Constant Heat Source on One Surface 73
4-4. Plates with Variable Heat Source on One Surface 7?.
4-5. Beams with Constant Heat Source on Skin 79-
4-6. Shear Lag in Beams 85
4- 7. Thermal Stresses in Turbine Blades 88
Chapter 5. Thermal-stress Problems in Two Dimensions 94
5- 1. Introduction
5-2.
5-3.
Beams with Two-dimensional Temperature Distribution
Thermal Stresses in a Wedge-shaped Wing
.... 94
94
97
5-4. Circular Plates with Temperature Function of Radius 100
5-5. Finite-difference Method for Thermal Stresses in a Turbine Disk . . 102
5- 6. Thermal Stresses in Nuclear-reactor Components 105
Chapter 6. Allowable Stresses at Elevated Temperatures Ill

6- 1. Introduction Ill
Ill"
....
6-2. Material Properties at Elevated Temperatures
6-3. Short-time Allowable Compressive Stresses (Uniform Temperature) . 116-
6-4. Short-time Allowable Stresses (Nonuniform Temperature) 127-
6-5. Creep at Elevated Temperatures 130
6-6. Creep Buckling of Columns and Plates 134
6-7. Thermal Fatigue 137
6-8. Thermal Shock 138
6- 9. Efficiencies of Aircraft Materials at Elevated Temperatures . . 140
Chapter 7. Stress Analysis at Elevated Temperatures 153
7- 1. Introduction
....
153
7-2. Inelastic Thermal Stresses for Uniform Temperature 154
7-3. Inelastic Thermal Stresses for Nonuniform Temperature 158
7-4. Combined Applied and Transient Thermal Stresses 162
7-5. Effective Areas with Thermal Stresses 165
7-6. Combined Applied and Steady-state Thermal Stresses 166
7-7. Design Procedures at Elevated Temperatures 168
Chapter 8. Thermal Effects on Deflections and Stiffness 171
8-2. Bowing of Plates and Beams 173
CONTENTS xi
8-3. Deflection of Buckled Columns 175

8-4. Deflection of Buckled Plates
....
178
8-5. Deflection of Plates under Normal Loads 179
8-6. Deflections Due to Cross-section Warping and Rotation 183
8-7. Shear Deflections 187
8- 8. Effect of Thermal Loads on Flutter 187
Chapter 9. General Procedures for Solving the Thermal-stress Equations

in Two Dimensions 194
9-2. Variational Methods 195
9-3. Thermal Stresses in Rectangular Plates 197
9-4. Buckling of Rectangular Plates 199
9-5. Methods Using Complex Variables 201
9-6. The Hollow Circular Cylinder 205
9-7. Long Cylindrical Composite Bodies 208
....
9-8. Composite Body with Cross Section as Two Eccentric Circles 211
Appendix A. Derivation of Formulas in Applied Mathematics 217
Appendix B. Properties of Air, Standard Atmosphere, and Materials . 219
Appendix C. Notes on the Thermal-stress Literature 225
INDEX 227
SYMBOLS
Since a standard symbol for a certain property in heat-transfer theory

may be identical to a standard symbol for a different property in struc
tural analysis, it is necessary to change the standard notation at times
when the same symbol from the different fields occurs in the same equa
tion. Otherwise the standard symbols are used because the meaning the
symbol should have is usually clear from the content. The following list
of symbols is arranged in groups representing general notation throughout
the book, material properties, geometric properties, loads, parameters,
and subscripts. Symbols defined and used in only one section are not
listed.
General notation
Operator (d^/dx1) + (d'/dy')
e Normal strain
1 Normal stress, psi
F Allowable stress, psi (see Table 6-3 for various allowable
stresses) ; function
9 Acceleration due to gravity, ft/sec2, in./secs
y Shear strain
i (-D*
Stress function; analytic function
Analytic function
9 Heat transfer, Btu/hr
r, 0 Polar coordinates
r, e, z Cylindrical coordinates
8 Arc length; complex variable in unit circle
i Time, hr, min, sec; complex variable on boundary of unit
circle
T Temperature, °F; temperature, °R; temperature change
from datum temperature To
T Shear stress, psi
U, V, w Displacements in x, y, z directions or r, 9, z directions
U Biharmonic function
V Velocity, ft/sec
V Temperature function
w(s) Mapping function
x, y, z Rectangular coordinates
z Complex variable
xiii
xiv SYMBOLS
Material properties
a Coefficient of linear thermal expansion, in./(in.)(°F)
c„ Specific heat, Btu/(lb)(°F)
5 Per cent elongation
E Modulus of elasticity, psi
e Emissivity coefficient
F Allowable stress, psi (see Table 6-3 for various allowable
stresses)
G Shear modulus of elasticity, psi
Convective heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F)
-
h
k Thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr)(ft)(°F); Ea; Ea/(l v)
m Reciprocal of Poisson's ratio
H Coefficient of viscosity
v Poisson's ratio
p Density, lb /in.3
a Radiation constant, Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F4), 0.1742 X 10~8 for
black bodies
Geometric properties
A, S Area, in.2
o, 6, c, d, LLength, or height, or width, or thickness, in.
c Distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber, in. ; column-end
fixity
e Gap, in.; eccentricity, in.
ec Allowable rivet deflection, in.
h„ t Skin or plate thickness, in.
K, Web thickness
/ Moment of inertia, in.4
/Torsional moment of inertia, in.4
K Buckling coefficient, Eq. (6-2)
L' L/c\ effective column length
P Radius of gyration, in.
s Rivet spacing, in.
W Plate deflection, in.
Loads
M Bending moment, in.-lb
N Torsional moment, in.-lb
p Pressure, force, psi
P Thermal load, lb
Pc Allowable rivet load, lb
P, Q Applied load, lb
q Shear flow, lb /in.
X, Y, Z Components of force, x, y, z directions
Parameters
B Thermal stress parameter, Eq. (3-5); allowable stress
parameter, Eqs. (6-1), (6-2), (6-4); optimum stress
parameter, Eqs. (6-24), (6-27), (6-29)
D Radiation parameter, Eqs. (3-11), (3-15); deflection parame
ter, Eqs. (8-11), (8-12), (8-14), (8-16), (8-18), (8-19),
(8-41), (8-44), (8-45), (8-55), (9-26); stiffness parameter,
Eq. (9-21)
jj Buckling stress parameter, Eq. (6-3)
SYMBOLS XV
H Eqs. (3-1), (3-56), (7-11)

Hb, Hc Eqs. (4-2), (4-3)
hj Joint thermal conductance, Eq. (3-24)
K Restraint coefficient, Eqs. (1-4), (1-6); buckling coefficient,
Eq. (6-2)
LM Larson-Miller parameter, Eq. (6-17)
M Maximum or crippling stress parameter, Eq. (6-9)
Ma Mach number, Eq. (2-27)
N Eq. (4-21)
Nu Nusselt number, Eqs. (2-24), (2-31)
p Eq. (4-35)
Pr Prandtl number, Eq. (2-26)
q Eq. (4-27)
r Recovery factor, Eq. (2-29)
Ri, R2 Eqs. (3-28), (3-32)
Rj Joint thermal-resistance factor, Eq. (3-25)
Rt Temperature parameter, Eqs. (8-11), (8-41), (8-46), (9-26)
Re Reynolds number, Eq. (2-25)
h Time to reach maximum velocity, or maximum temperature,
or maximum thermal stress
W Eq. (4-7)
Subscripts
1, 2, . . . , n, . . . , N Numbers to identify different elements
aw, as Adiabatic wall, adiabatic surface
A, B Points
op Applied
b Stringer; bending
cr Critical buckling
E Equilibrium
/ Fluid
i Summation subscript; initial
to Mean; median; maximum
mi Maximum initial
0 Datum; initial; median plane
R Reference
RT Room temperature
r, 0 r direction, 6 direction
s Surface; skin; plate; secant modulus
1 Tension; tangent modulus
w Wall; web
x, y, z x direction, y direction, z direction
CHAPTER 1
THERMAL-STRESS EQUATIONS
1-1. Definition of Thermal Stress. It is well known that changes in

temperature cause bodies to expand or contract. The change in length,
AL, of a bar can be written as
AL =
aL(T - To) (1-1)
where L = length of bar
T — = temperature change
To
a = coefficient of linear thermal expansion
To = initial temperature
T = final temperature
This coefficient a is the change in length of the bar per unit length due
to a change in temperature of 1°. The units for a are usually inches
per inch per degree Fahrenheit.
If all the fibers of the body are free to expand or contract, no stress
is produced by the temperature change. However, such an expansion
or contraction generally cannot proceed freely in a continuous body, so
that stresses are produced. External restraints on the body that pre
vent expansion or contraction also produce stresses in the body. These
stresses are known as thermal stresses.
The elongation of a bar of length L due to a uniform stress is /
AL =
§ (1-2)
where E is the modulus of elasticity. If the bar is completely restrained

so that it does not change length and it does not bow or buckle, the
elongation given by Eq. (1-2) must cancel the elongation given by Eq.
(1-1). Thus for complete restraint the thermal stress is
/ = -aE(T - Ta) (1-3)
where the negative sign indicates a compressive stress resisting expansion

of the bar.
If the expansion or contraction of a bar is only partially restrained,
l
2 THERMAL STRESSES
Eq. (1-3) can be written as
/ = -KaE(T - T0) (1-4)

where K represents a restraint coefficient.
In these equations, E and a actually dependent upon temperature,
are
E decreasing slowly with temperature rise and a usually increasing slowly
for temperature rise. Also E depends upon the stress-strain curve of
the material, decreasing rapidly if the stress is in the plastic portion of
the stress-strain curve. These variations will be considered in Chaps. 6 to
9. Also the combination of thermal stress with external applied stress
will be considered in Chap. 7. Approximate constant values for E and a
will be used in the derivations of the formulas and in the problems in
Chaps. 1 to 5 (see Table B-3 in Appendix B for these constant values).
Example 1-1. A steel rod 20 in. long is fastened between two walls without load
at 90°F. (a) What is the stress in the rod at -30°F? (6) If the walls deflect
0.01 in. under the pull of the rod, what is the stress at -30°F? Use a = 7(10-»)/°F
and E = 29(10") psi from Table B-3.
Solution. For part a Eq. (1-3) gives
/ = -(7)(10-«)(29)(10«)(-30 - 90) = 24,400 psi tension
For part 6, from Eqs. (1-1) and (1-2)
*L(T - To) +
^ + 0.01 = 0
or / = -Ea(T - T0)
- 0.01
f = 24,400 - WgXlO') ^^
The value of K in Eq. (1-4) for this case is
X =
1+S#^)=1-°-59=0-41
PROBLEMS
1-1. An aluminum-alloy rod with a cross-section area of 0.50 in.2 is fastened between
two walls at 90°F with a preload of 4,000 lb tension, (a) What will the stress be
at — 10°F? (6) For what temperature will the stress be zero? See Table B-3 for
a and E.
1-2. In Example 1-1 what total deflection of the walls would make the stress
zero? What would this deflection have to be if the rod were 100 in. long?
1-3. A steel wire is stretched between two rigid walls and carries a tensile load
of 4,000 lb at'100°F. If the allowable stress is not to exceed 50,000 psi, draw a curve
of minimum wire diameter against temperature. For what temperature does the
diameter tend toward infinity?
1-4. A 5-ft aluminum-alloy tube 2 in. in diameter with \ in. wall thickness is
supported between rigid walls at 80°F. At what temperature will the Euler long-
column buckling load of the tube be reached? Assume pinned ends.
1-5. Solve Prob. 1-4 if there is a gap of 0.05 in. between one wall and the end of the
tube at 80°F.
THERMAL-STRESS EQUATIONS 3
1-2. Thermal Stresses for Uniform Temperature. Consider two bars

subjected to different temperature changes. Let the initial and final
temperatures be uniform throughout each bar. If the two bars are
fastened together so that they restrain each other, then both bars must
have the same change in length from the original length at the initial
temperature. Thus from Eqs. (1-1) and (1-2)
aMTi - - +^
f-£
To) + = «2L(T2 To)
(1-5)
fiAi = —f2A2
where subscript refers to bar No. and subscript to bar No. and
2
1
1
the cross-section area of the bar. Equation (1-5) can be solved for
is
A
the stresses to give
/i= - aii?i[(Ti —
T0)
+ (AiEi/A2E2)
(0:2/0:l) (7*2
—
To)]
-KaJSi{Ti
.
- To) .
1
= Ai.
f2
(1-6)
K
- [a2(T2
- T0)/ai(Ti - To)]
1
=
+ (A1E1/A2E2)
1
which similar to Eq. (1-4). K > compressive stress and

f\ If
is
is
/i
0,
tension stress; for K < tension, and compression. If

j2
is
is
0,
is
/2
Fig. 1-1. Bars with gap.
there gap present so that the two bars may move some before they
is
a
restrain each other (see Fig. 1-1), then K in Eq. (1-6) becomes
K
- MT2 - To)/ai(Ti To)]
-
[e/aMTi - - To)]
1
=
(1-7)
(AiEi/A2E2)
+
1
where the gap in inches, To determine the value of the gap for zero
is
e
stress, set K = so that

0
= LMTi - To)
- a2(T2 - T0)] (1-8)
e
which depends upon the length L.

steel bolt with temperature change T2 — To = restrains an
If
0
a
aluminum-alloy block at Ti —
T0 = 400° on the Fahrenheit scale, then
= 0.0048L. Thus for short lengths small gaps may practically elimi
e
4 THERMAL STRESSES
nate thermal stresses. However, for large values of L, small gaps will
have little effect on the stresses.
For the case in which the two bars are of the same material so that
ai = «2 = a and Ei = E2 = E, the stresses
as given by Eqs. (1-6) and (1-7) can be writ
Aluminum
1-2 ft ten in the form
////// fi = - aE(Ti -+ T2)

- (eE/L)
1 (Ai/A2)
Steel
L=l ft
Steel
L=l ft f - Aif
(1-9)
Example 1-2. A rigid block weighing 20,000 lb

is supported by three rods symmetrically placed
(Fig. 1-2). Assuming the block to remain hori
zontal, determine the stress in each rod after a
20,000 lb temperature rise of 100°F. For each steel rod use
Fig. 1-2. Stresses in restrained At = 0.80 in.2, Ei = 3(107) psi, ai = 6.5(10-«)/°F;
rods. for the aluminum rod use A2 — 1.60 in.2, E2 = 10'
psi, a2 = 12(10-«)/oF.
Solution. From Eq. (1-5)
-
(6.5)(10-«)(1)(100) + 12(10-') (2) (100)
+^
- 2/,
3(10')
or ifi = 17,500
Also 2/!(0.80) +/2(1.60) = 20,000
so that = 18,200 psi
/2 = -5,700 psi
Note that the aluminum rod is in compression and suitable provision may have to be
made to prevent buckling.
PROBLEMS
1-6. Derive Eq. (1-6) from Eq. (1-5).

1-7. Derive Eq. (1-7).
1-8. A steel bar of area 0.18 in.2 is fastened to an aluminum-alloy bar of area
0.40 in.2 at a temperature of 70°F. If both bars are heated to 250°F, what stresses
are produced in the bars? See Table B-3 for constants.
1-9. Using the data in Example 1-2, determine the temperature rise necessary to
cause all the applied load to be supported by the steel rods.
1-10. An aluminum-alloy sleeve of inner diameter J
in. and wall thickness of
0.1 in. is slipped over a J-in. steel bolt and held in place by a nut that is turned just
snug. Compute the temperature rise to produce a stress of 10,000 psi in the aluminum
alloy.
1-11. Solve Prob. 1-10 for (a) a gap of 0.005 in., (6) a preload of 300 lb. Use
length of 10 in.
1-12. A rigid beam of negligible weight is supported and loaded as shown. For
the steel rod use Ai = 0.50 in.2, and for the aluminum rod use A2 = 1.0 in.2 Assume
the structure to be assembled at 80°F. (a) What is the load in each rod at 80°F
due to the applied load? (6) What is the load in each rod if both rods are raised
to 200°F? (c) What is the load in each rod if the steel rod is raised to 200°F and
the aluminum rod remains at 80°F?
Aluminum
£=3 ft
Steel
1 = 2 ft
|— 3 ft- 4 ft -3 ft —I
5000 lb
Prob. 1-12
1-13. In Prob. 1-12 what temperature change in the aluminum rod will relieve
the steel rod of all load? What temperature change in both rods will relieve the
steel rod of all load?
1-14. Solve Prob. 1-12 if the beam is steel with a moment of inertia oi = 8.0 in.4 I
1-15. As shown, the aluminum-alloy skin is attached continuously to an aluminum-
alloy stringer at 70°F. If the skin is raised to 450°F and the stringer is raised to
120°F, what are the stresses in the skin and stringer? Neglect buckling and bowing.
- 6.0 in. -
-Aluminum alloy skin

F^-Stringer
-Strinc area =0.25 in.2
0.064 in.
T
Pbob. 1-15
1-3. Thermal Loads on Joints. If the two bars discussed in Sec. 1-2
are fastened together with rivets or bolts which do not deflect, then the
end rivet or bolt must take all the thermal load produced by a tempera
ture change. This can be seen by an examination of Fig. 1-3. Let the
holes for the bolts be drilled in the two bars at temperature T0. For
one bar at temperature Ti and the other at temperature T2 the holes
will not be in line. However, if the end holes are forced into alignment
III II Zfc— 3i
IL_>r2
1 ^J, U u — ^3 — i
'
1 II II II II h-
1 II II II ll
Fig. 1-3. Behavior of bolted joints under thermal loads.

6 THERMAL STRESSES
and the end bolts inserted, then all the other holes will be in line. Thus
the other bolts may be inserted, but they will carry no load. On the
other hand, if the inner holes are forced into alignment and the bolts
inserted, the outer holes will not line up (Fig. 1-3).
Now if the end bolts should deflect or there should be a gap because
of oversize holes, then the other holes will not line up so that some load
will be carried by the other bolts. Also, by Eq. (1-7), this deflection
will reduce the total load to be carried. From Eq. (1-5) the magnitude
of the total load is
P =M, = -f,A, = -AiKaiEi{Tt - To) (1-10)

The distribution of the load to several rivets (Fig. 1-4) under the
assumption that each rivet deflects in proportion to the load it carries
N 2
P- * aîAi?!
P- 02^2^2, Tz
U- s -»j«-S-»J
Fig. 1-4. Notation for joints. [By permission of the Journal of the Aeronautical
Sciences, 21(9): 645-646 (1954).]
has been considered by the author (Ref. l).f This deflection may be
due to bearing on the bar, shear in the rivet, bending of rivet, etc. The
deflection e„ of rivet number n can be expressed as
—r P n = 1, 2, . . . , N (1-11)
where ec is allowable deflection of the rivets at allowable load PB and rn

is ratio of the load on rivet number n to the total load P. From Eqs. (1-5)
and (1-10) N + 1 equations can be written,
oi(Ti - To) - -j^-

P = a2(T2 t ^ -l P -l rNe°P
-
n
-^V
n
= + A2E,
«i(7\ To) (r<) «2(r2 T0)
X (r<) (1-12)
+
ecP
sPc
(r„
- rn+i) n = 1, 2, . . . , N - 1
fa) = 1
where N of rivets (Fig. 1-4). Eliminate ai(7\ — To) and

is number
aziT2 — To) by subtraction, and solve Eq. (1-12) for rn/rN to get
t This paragraph and Figs. 1-4 and 1-5 used by permission of the Journal of the
Aeronautical Sciences, 21(9): 645-646 (1954).
rN a N
Z_/ rN
t= i
— =
(2 + H) r-^
Pat
- ^=±?
r.v
n = 1, 2, . . . , AT - 2 (1-13)
ecA iî
fl + ^)
From Eq. (1-12) P can be written as
P = PoJ J =
1
+ (srN/aH)
- Mr, -
1
Po = A1E1ai{T1 - T0)
i r,)/ai(ri To)]
(1-14)
1 + (A^/A2E2)
where P0 is the load without any rivet deflection. Further the load
on each rivet becomes
rnP = r„JP0 = qnPo qn = rnJ (1-15)
Since the end rivet No. 1 carries more load than rivet No. 2, etc., the
primary value needed in analysis and design is qi for different values of
N, s/a, and H, where H may be regarded as the joint-stiffness parameter.
Figure 1-5 shows a graph of qi against H with s/a and N as parameters.
The results shown by Fig. 1-5 indicate that, for the usual values of H,
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
ecAiEi\ A2E2j
Fig. 1-5. Load Pi on end rivet or bolt. [By permission of the Journal of the Aero
nautical Sciences, 21(9): 645-646 (1954).]
8 THERMAL STRESSES
the end rivet does not take all the load Po: the deflection of the rivets
reduces the total load and divides it among all the rivets. For example,
take aluminum-alloy bars with Ei = E2 = 107 psi, Ai = A2 = 0.50 in.2,
and s = 1.00 in., Pc = 1,500 lb, ec = 0.01 in., whence H = 0.06. Hence,
for s/a = 0.01 and N = 2, Pi = 0.46F0. For this case Eq. (1-13) gives
P2 = 0.43Fo- If ec approaches zero, then H becomes large and the curves
show that the end rivet carries nearly all the load. It should be noted
from the curves that, for four or more rivets, the load on the end rivet
is nearly independent of s/a and N, some small differences occurring in
the region 0 < H < 0.10.
PROBLEMS
1-16. Derive Eq. (1-13) from Eq. (1-12).

1-17. Verify the N = 2 and s/a = 0.05 curve in Fig. 1-5 by calculating points for
the curve.
1-18. Draw curves for gi and q2 against H for the case of N = 2 and s/a = 0.05.
1-19. In Prob. 1-8 use two rivets on each end to fasten the bars together. If
P„ — 1,000 lb, ec = 0.01 in., and s/a = 0.05, what is the load on each of the two
rivets? Use s = 1.0 in.
1-20. Solve Prob. 1-19, using three rivets on each end.
1-21. If the shear strength of aluminum-alloy rivets is 30,000 psi, what size rivets
would be needed in Probs. 1-19 and 1-20?
1-22. In Prob. 1-15 let the skin be attached to the stringer by a row of x\-in.
aluminum-alloy rivets spaced at 1.0 in. Let the allowable load and deflections for
failure of the rivets be Pc = 900 lb and ec = 0.04 in. (o) If the skin stringer struc
ture is 30 in. long, will the end rivets fail? (6) If so, how many rivets will remain
when failure stops? (c) Assuming the stringer to have sufficient width, how many
rows of the TVm- rivets would be needed to prevent failure?
1-23. An aluminum-steel structure with the cross section shown is 40 in. long and
is riveted together at the ends. If the entire structure is subjected to a temperature
change of 400°F, design the end joints to resist the thermal load, neglecting buckling
and bowing.
1.50 in. 0.75
in.-|
3.00 in.
Rivets
Pbob. 1-23
1-4. Thermal Stresses for One -dimensional Temperature Distribu

tion. Consider a thin rectangular plate of uniform thickness in which
the temperature change T(y) is a function of y (Fig. 1-6) and is independ
ent of x and z. If the plate is restrained at its ends, then the elements
of the plate will have the longitudinal compressive stress [Eq. (1-3)] for
no buckling,
/, = -ccET(y) (1-16)
If the plate is free of external forces at the ends (no restraints), then to
get the thermal stresses in the plate it will be necessary to superpose on
the stresses in Eq. (1-16) the stresses produced in the plate by tensile
Fig. 1-6. Thin plate with one-dimensional temperature distribution.
forces of intensity aET(y) distributed at the ends. These tensile stresses

have the resultant force
Px = jc_caET{y)bdy (1-17)
and at a sufficient distance from the ends they will produce an approxi
mately uniformly distributed tensile stress of magnitude
Px = Fx = 1
fe
(/*) ' = v
ET(y)
a^ dy (1-18)
A 2cb 2c J_c
Further, if the temperature distribution is unsymmetrical, these tensile
stresses have the resultant moment
M,
jc_c
= aET(y)by dy (1-19)
At sufficient distance from the ends the normal bending-stress formula

a
will apply so that this resultant moment will produce bending stress
a
magnitude
of
M,y _ 3M,y 3y
J [c
(/*)»
= aET(y)y dy (1-20)
2c3b 2c' _
Thus the total stress in an unrestrained thin plate away from the ends
is
-aET(y) + aET(y)y
g
= «ET(y) dy +
£
dy (1-21)
/.
restrained in bending only, drop the last term; restrained

If
the plate
is
if
in compression only, drop the middle term.

10 THERMAL STRESSES
For a beam with the temperature varying through the depth of beam,
Eq. (1-21) has the form, from Eqs. (1-18) and (1-20),
U = -<*ET(y) +-j J aET(y)b(y) dy + ±

J aET{y)b{y)y dy (1-22)
where A = cross-section area of beam

b(y) = width of beam web or flange
It = moment of inertia about z axis through centroid of cross
section
If x and y are any axes through the centroid of the cross section of an
unsymmetrical beam, then Eq. (1-22) can be written as
/, = -
To =
aE(T0
Tm- Kix - K2y T)
IxyJTy dA - IxJTx dA
II I — 2
dA - IyjTy dA (1-23)
= hJTx
K2
7 7 — I 2
-i-
Tm = TdA
|
where = cross-section area

A
Ix = moment of inertia about x axis

= moment of inertia about
Iy
axis
y
Ixy = product of inertia

The derivation of the formulas for Ki and K2 the same as that for the
is
unsymmetrical bending stress in strength of materials (Ref. 16).

Consider the case of thick plate with the temperature varying through
a
the thickness. Figure 1-6 still applies provided considered to be

is
b
large and equal to the width of the plate and 2c taken as the plate
is
thickness. Since the plate wide in the direction and the fibers in the
is
direction must expand different amounts due to T(y), there stress

is
a
2
as well as acting on the plate. For complete restraint in both x and

f,
fx
directions put ex = e, = = in Eq. (1-27) to get

fy
and
0
0
aETM
—
1
From the discussion above for the unrestrained thin plate follows that
it
[Eq. (1-21)] for the unrestrained thick plate (away from edges)
aEny)y *
/.'.
+
(1-24)
2c-(rh>
Suppose an unrestrained thin plate is subjected to a parabolic tempera

ture variation
r-r.(i-g)
From Eq. (1-21) the stress in the plate is
fx = %aETa
- aETo -£
^1
Suppose the plate is restrained by a stringer at T = 0° located in the

center of the plate. Let the area of the stringer be kcb and be the same
material as the plate. Then from Eq. (1-21)
in plate
iaET0 in stringer
U
3(fc + 2)
If an average temperature of %T0 is used in the plate, then Eq. (1-6) can
be used to give
/. - 2k(aETo)
m+y
.
m plate
. .
iaETo . , .
/. m Strmger
W+2)
Thus the assumption of an average temperature in the plate gives the
correct stringer stress but gives only an average plate stress, which may
be much smaller than the maximum plate stress.
It mustbe remembered that the above formulas do not give the correct
stresses near the ends of the unrestrained beam or the edges of the
unrestrained plate. The stresses are two-dimensional near the ends and
edges so that either the methods of Chap. 9 or the approximate shear-lag
procedure of Sec. 4-6 must be used to get the stresses.
PROBLEMS
1-24. If an unrestrained thick plate has a temperature distribution
T = To + on -c < y < 0
(l
T = To
(l
- on 0 < y < c
|)
find the stress distributions in the plate.
12 THERMAL STRESSES
-2.0- 1-25. An unrestrained beam with the cross sec

tion shown (all dimensions in inches) is subjected to
the temperature distributions
3.0
(6) T =
To^
T = 2T0 in flanges, T = T„ in web

hi
(c)
OQ'
»*-?(' +9"
Prob. 1-25 Find the stresses in the beam in each case.
1-26. Change the beam in Prob. 1-25 to a Z section, which is unsymmetrical, and
solve Prob. 1-25 (a) and (6).
1-27. If the temperature is uniform in the cross section of a bar but varies along
the length, then for complete restraint
Find the value of K in /„ = -KaETm when
(a) 7/ - 3". |
(6) r = rm
(j)'
(C) r = r, + (Tm
- t„)
1-28. Derive Eq. (1-6) when the temperatures Tt — T0 and T2 — To in the bars
vary along the length.
1-29. What happens in Prob. 1-27 when the cross-section area of the bar varies
along its length? Solve Prob. 1-27 for
A(x) = A0 + (Am
—
A0) j
1-5. General Thermal Stress-Strain Equations. It was only a few
years after the publication in 1829 of Poisson's famous memoir (Ref. 2)
on the theory of elasticity that Duhamel (Refs. 3-5) investigated the
modifications of elasticity theory to allow for change of temperature.
At about the same time Neumann (Ref. 6) deduced the thermoelastic
stress equations in a form nearly identical to those of Duhamel. In
1873 Borchardt (Ref. 7) discussed the solutions of the Duhamel-Neumann
elasticity equations in two and three dimensions and used potential
theory to solve the circular plate and sphere for general temperature
distribution. In 1879 Hopkinson (Ref. 8) and in 1900 Alibandi (Ref. 9)
gave the thermoelastic equations essentially in the form used today.
Today almost all books on elasticity theory give the thermoelastic equa
tions. Reference is made to Timoshenko and Goodier (Ref. 10) for the
equations as given below.
To determine the relations between strains and displacements in an
elastic body, consider a small element dx dy dz of an elastic body (Fig.
A-l). Let u, v, w be the components of displacement in the x, y, z
A'
dy
v+^dx
dx
Fig. 1-7. Shear deformation.
directions, respectively. If the body undergoes a deformation, the

change in displacement in the x direction is [see Eq. (A-3)]
(du)x
= ~
where u is regarded as a function of x, y, and z. Hence the unit elonga

tion or strain in the x direction is
du
ex
= (du)x
dx dx
Similarly ey = dv/dy,
and e, = dw/dz. To determine the distortion of
the angle between the elements OA and OB, consider Fig. 1-7. The
displacement of point A in the y direction is
»A = v+-dx
while the displacement of point B in the x direction is
uB = u + 3- dy
14 THERMAL STRESSES
Thus the right angle AOB changes to the angle A'O'B', and the change
in the angle is
'*xy
_ vA
— v
Ub — u _ dv du
dx dy dx dy
which is the shearing strain between the planes xz and yz. Thus the six
strains in terms of the three displacements are
ex - du die
6y ~~
dv
dy
e. .. - dw
~dz
"Yxy
_ du
dy
Jli
dx
Ta - du +
dz
dw
dx
(1-25)
dv dw
dz dy
Since there are six strains expressed by Eq. (1-25) in terms of three
displacements, there must be compatibility relations between the strains.
Repeated differentiation and elimination of the displacements gives the
following equations of compatibility:
, d2ey d27*y
=
dy2 dx2 dx dy
d2ey d2e, d2yyi
=
dz2 dy2 dy dz
d2e, d2ex _ d2yx,
-j-
dx2 dz2 dx dz
(1-26)
d2ex dyyx dy,x dy
d
\ (
dy dz dx dx dy dz
)
d% _ -l dyxy dyy,\
A
= ^.Ti5
i
2
dx dz dy dy dz dx
\
d2e,
_ J.
^
o = dlf« ^H!t d7x*\

-|-
\(
dx dy dz dz dx dy
)
Hooke's law and the elongation due to temperature [Eq. (1-1)] can be
used to obtain the thermal stress-strain equations. If stress
is
fx
a
applied to an element (Fig. A-l) in the direction, then by Hooke's law

x
where the modulus of elasticity. Further, extension of the element

E
is
in the direction accompanied by the lateral contractions

is
x
/-
/*
= e, =
-VE -VE
y
Thus,
f,
where Poisson's ratio. three normal stresses fx, fy, and

is
if
v
are applied to the element as well as a temperature change T, then by

superposition of the strains there results
= vUy+m + «T
ex
^[/x-
ey =
g[/„
- *(/.+/.)] +aT (1-27)
* = ±[f, - »(/.+/,)] + «r
Since free thermal expansion does not produce angular distortion in an
isotropic material, the relations between the shearing stresses and shear
ing strains are unaffected by temperature. They are
= fy, — fx, —
(1-28)
q~ ~q~ ~q
where G is the modulus of elasticity in shear. The theoretical relation

(Ref. 10) between E and G is
G =
mh) (1-29)
To write the equations of equilibrium, consider the element in Fig. A-l.

Let F on the left-hand face be the normal stress fx and the shear stresses
tx, and rxy; on the bottom face/,, tx,, ry,; on the aft face/,,, r^, ry,. Let
X, Y, Z be the body-force components in the x, y, z directions, respec
tively. From Eq. (A-3) the change of fx in the x direction is dfx/dx;
the change of t^, directed in the x direction but varying in the y direction,
is drxy/dy; the change in rx,, directed in the x direction but changing in
the z direction, is drx,/dz. Thus the equations of equilibrium from sum
mation of forces are as follows:
dfx drxy dtx, _ j£

-j-
dx dy dz
dtxy dfy dry, _
y
^ (1-30)
dx dy dz
drx, dry, d/, _
,
dx dy dz
The boundary or surface conditions on the body can be written as

[Eq. (A-6)]
cos (n,x) (n,y) + rx, cos (n,z) = X,
rxy cos
+
fx
cos (n,x) + cos (n,y) + ry, cos (n,z) = Y,

fy
(1-31)
t„ cos (n,z) = Z,
f,
cos (n,x) ty, cos (n,y) +

+
where X„ Y„ and Z, are surface-force components and n the outward

is
normal to the surface.

16 THERMAL STRESSES
From the above equations it is seen that the solution for the stresses
in the general thermoelastic problem has the same procedure as for the
general elasticity problem. That solve Eq. (1-30) subject to Eqs.
is,
(1-31) and (1-26), making use of the relations in Eqs. (1-27) and (1-28).
The relations in Eq. (1-27) introduce the temperature into the problem
through Eq. (1-26).
Consider the effects of different restraints on the body when subjected
to temperature change. If the body completely restrained in every
is
a
direction by "hydrostatic" pressure p, then from Eq. (1-27)

a
= - + p)] + aT
[p
v(j>
^
This pressure distribution can by applying certain body forces
be realized
and surface pressures to the body. These forces must satisfy the equi
librium equations (1-30) and boundary conditions (1-31). Put
/»=/„=/« = ?= — rxy r" = ru, = (1-33)
^
^2v
\
into Eqs. (1-30) and (1-31) to get

aE
X - 2v dx
dT
1
v =
A, —
aET , .
_ 2v
cos {n,x)
1
aE dT
Y
Y. = - _ 2v
cos (n,y)
1
aE dT
-
Z
2v dz
1
Z. = - _ 2v
cos (n,z)
i
Now, unrestrained, the thermal stresses in the body can

the body
is
if
be obtained by superposing on the stresses in Eq. (1-33) or Eq. (1-32)

the stresses which are produced in the body by the forces in Eq. (1-34)
with reversed signs. These latter stresses satisfy the equations of
equilibrium
*h *Is ?Is =
aE *1
+
+
dx dy dz — 2v dx
1
StXy dfy dry, _ aE dT

+ +
l-2v
.
dx dy dz dy
aE dT
dr„ dry, df. ^
-
,
i~ ~*~
dx dy dz 2v dz
1
and the boundary conditions
fx cos (n,x) + rxy cos (n,y) + tx1 cos (n,z) = cos (n,x)
ctE T
cos (n,x) + /„ cos (n,y) + ry, cos (n,z) = _ ^
cos (n,?/) (1-36)
t„ cos (ra,a;) + t„, cos (n,y) + /, cos (n,z) =

_ cos (n,z)
t 2>)
together with the compatibility conditions (1-26).
PROBLEMS
1-30. Derive Eq. (1-26) from Eq. (1-25).

1-31. Write the compatibility equations (1-26) in terms of the stresses and
temperature.
1-32. Use Eqs. (1-27), (1-28), and (1-26) to determine T as a function of x, y, and z
for the case in which no thermal stress is produced in the unrestrained body. Does
the result satisfy Eqs. (1-33), (1-35), and (1-36)?
1-6. Stress Function for Two-dimensional Thermal Stresses. For the

two-dimensional plate the general three-dimensional equations in Sec. 1-5
reduce to
yxy -_ du + , dv _- 1
dy~
rxu
G
b~x
by2 dx2 dx ay
d£t Cfrxy _ qo fo0fi f0rceg

-j-
da; 3i/
(1-39)
dx dy
cos (n,x) + tx„ cos (n,2/) = X,
fx
cos (n,y) = Y, (1-40)

txy cos (n,x) +
/„
If
<t>
stress function defined such that

is
a
_ d. _- _- ^ ^
,
Jy
J*-dy'' dx2'
rxy
dxdy U-4AJ
then Eq. (1-39) satisfied. Substitution into Eq. (1-37) and then into
is
Eq. (1-38) gives the following differential equation for <t>:
V«* + aEVT = V = +
£
(1-42)
^
0
18 THERMAL STRESSES
Using Eq. (1-41), the boundary conditions in Eq. (1-40) can be written
in the form
where is the arc length on the boundary of the body.

s
Let4>
= U — V, where V is a solution of the equation (Ref. 11)
V2V = aET. Then Eq. (1-42) is equivalent to a system of two differ
ential equations
V2F = aET V4U = 0 (1-44)
Since the solutions of V2V = 0 can be included in solutions to the bihar-

monic equation V4C7 = 0, only a particular integral is needed for the
solution of V2F = aET. Thus the thermal-stress problem is reduced to
solving Eq. (1-44) with conditions (1-43).
by Eq. (1-41) with 0 = U V. - The stress will then be given
Consider a long cylinder in which the temperature is a function of the

cross section. If the stresses away from the ends of the cylinder are
desired, then the problem can be solved as a two-dimensional thermal-
stress problem. However, since e, and j, are not zero, slight modifica
tions have to be made in the above two-dimensional equations (1-37) to
(1-44). Equation (1-37) can be divided into two equations [see Eqs.
(1-27) and (1-28)],
ex
_ du
dx
_ [/. - w(f. + /„)] - ve. + (1 + v)aT
dv _
fly
dy
- Grxy
1
7«*
= E{e, - ,(f.
f,
ccT) + + fv)
(1-46)
ry, = rxx =
0
where the constant strain determined by the requirement that

is
ez
Jj.dA (1-47)
0
with as cross-section area.Eq. (1-45) solved, then Eq. (1-46) can

If
A
is
be solved at once by using Eq. (1-47). The remaining equations (1-38)

to (1-44) remain unchanged except that aE replaced by aE/(l — v).
is
In many two-dimensional problems desirable to use polar coordi

it
is
nates and rather than rectangular coordinates x and y. From Timo-

6
r
shenko and Goodier (Ref. 10), or Sokolnikoff (Ref. 13), or Love (Ref. 14),
or Sechler (Ref. 15), the equilibrium equations (1-39) can be written as
d/r , 1
~•~
drre
^
. fr —
fe _ n
U
dr r 66 r
"+" + _
r dr r
where /r and /« are the normal stresses in the radial and tangential direc
tions, respectively, and rr$ is the shear stress. This equation (1-48) is
<t>
satisfied by the stress function when
J' _
, d<t>
1
1
d2<t>
dr r2 dd2
r
dH /l dA (1-49)
j9
f
dr\rdd)
<t>
This stress function can be determined from Eq. (1-42) provided

Eq. (1-42) expressed in polar coordinates. To do this, use the operator
is
V2 in polar coordinate form,
~*~
rdr^~
(
dr2
J
dx2 dy2 r2 dd2
The above formulas give the thermal stresses throughout the entire
body for either one- or two-dimensional temperature distribution.
is a
Now, the body a plate or beam as discussed in Sec. 1-4, then may be
it
if
possible to approximate the stresses away from the ends or edges for
is a
two-dimensional temperature distribution. If the temperature T{x,y)
sufficiently smooth in x, then Eqs. (1-21), (1-22), and (1-24) can be used
to give the normal stress in the beam or plate. This result follows
fx
if
plane sections remain plane under thermal stress. Also the moment M,
in Eq. (1-19) can vary with x, and the conventional bending formula
M,c/I will give good results. The accuracy of this approximation and
the addition of higher-order terms to the Eqs. (1-21), (1-22), and (1-24)
to give more precise results for/x have been considered by Boley (Ref. 12)
(see Sec. 5-2).
PROBLEMS
1-33. Derive Eq. (1-42).
1-34. Derive Eq. (1-43).
1-35. Derive Eqs. (1-45) and (1-46).
1-36. For a steady-state temperature distribution in two dimensions, V2T —
0.
Prove that the thermal stresses in an unrestrained solid plate are zero for this temper
ature distribution. Would the same result hold for plate with hole in it?
a
1-37. Set up equations for the two-dimensional plate similar to Eqs. (1-35) and
(1-36).
20 THERMAL STRESSES
1-38. Write the compatibility equation (1-38) in terms of stresses and temperature.
1-39. Using the relations x = r cos 0 and y = r sin 8 for polar coordinates, derive
the polar form for the operator V2 in Eq. (1-50).
1-40. Write Eq. (1-37) in polar coordinates, and verify Eq. (1-42) in polar form
by using Eq. (1-38).
REFERENCES
1. Gatewood, B. E.: Thermal Loads on Joints, /. Aeronaut. Sci., 21(9) :646 (1954).
2. Poisson, S. D.: Memoire sur l'equilibre et le mouvement des corps elastiques,
Mem. Paris Acad., 8:357-570 (1829).
3. Duhamel, J. M. C. : Memoire sur le calcul des actions moleculaires developpees
par les changements de temperature dans les corps solides, Mim. inst. France,
5:440-498 (1838).
4. Duhamel, J. M. C: Seconde memoire sur les phenomenes thermo-mecaniques,
J. icole polytech. (Paris), 15:1-57 (1837).
5. Duhamel, J. M. C: Memoire sur le mouvement des differents points d'une barre
cylindrique dont la temperature varie, /. tcole polytech. (Paris), 21:1-33 (1856).
6. Neumann, F. E.: Die Gesetze der Doppelbrechung des Lichts in Comprimirten
oder ungleichformig erwarmten unkrystallinischen Korpern, Abhandl. koniglichen
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Zweiter Teil, pp. 1-254, 1841.
7. Borchardt, C. W.: Uber die Elasticitat fester isotroper Korper unter Beruch-
sichtigung der Warme, Monatsber. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, pp. 9-56, 1873.
8. Hopkinson, J.: On the Stresses Caused in an Elastic SoHd by Inequalities of
Temperature, Messenger Math., 8:168-174 (1879).
9. Alibandi, P.: Sulla Elasticite dei solidi complicata da variazoni di temperatura,
Giorn. math., 38:77-91 (1900).
10. Timoshenko, S., and J. N. Goodier: "Theory of Elasticity," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
11. Gatewood, B. E.: Thermal Stresses in Long Cylindrical Bodies, Phil. Mag., ser. 7,
32:282-301 (1941).
12. Boley, Bruno A.: The Determination of Temperature, Stresses, and Deflections
in Two-dimensional Thermoelastic Problems, /. Aeronaut. Sci., 23(l):67-75
(1956).
13. Sokolnikoff, I. S.: "Mathematical Theory of Elasticity," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill
14. Love, A. E. H. : "A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity," 4th ed.,
Dover Publications, New York, 1944.
15. Sechler, E. E.: "Elasticity in Engineering," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1952.
16. Peery, D. J.: "Aircraft Structures," sec. 7.2, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1950.
CHAPTER 2
TEMPERATURE EQUATIONS
2-1. Introduction. In order to solve the equations in Chap. for the

1
thermal stresses, it is necessary that the temperature distribution in the

structure be known. In general the temperature depends upon the heat
being applied to the structure. For aircraft structures the source of
heat may be the propulsion system, friction of the moving air on the
external surface of the structure, radiation from the sun and other
bodies, atmospheric-temperature change, etc. Thus all the components
of the heat-transfer problem are involved in determining the temperature
of the structure: conduction, convection, radiation, and heat storage.
In heat conduction the heat passes through the substance of the body
itself, analogous to electrical conduction. If the skin of the aircraft is
heated, then heat will be conducted to all components of the structure
attached to the skin. In heat convection heat is transferred by relative
motion of portions of the body. If the air moving over a surface is
heated by skin friction, then the heat is transferred through the air
to the surface by convection. In heat radiation the heat is transferred
directly between distant portions of the body by electromagnetic radia
tion, analogous to light radiation. The heated skin radiates heat to
space and to components of the structure and receives sun radiation,
stellar radiation, and radiation from the structural components. Storage
of heat energy is the change in heat content of a medium in the path of
heat transmission. It occurs when the temperature is changing with
time, and it depends upon the heat capacity of the structure and the
rate of temperature change.
The basic relations for heat transfer through a constant area in a unit
time may be written as follows [see, for example, Jakob (Ref. 1) on heat
transfer] :
q =
M (r, - T2) conduction - -M
q = hS(T, — convection
Tf)
q -
aSTthe radiation
AT
q = pcpV -tt- heat storage
21
22 THERMAL STRESSES
'
where q = heat transfer, Btu/hr • -r
= thermal conductivity,
k Btu/(hr)(ft)(°F)
A = cross-section area, ft2
L = length of conduction path, ft
= temperatures of parallel surfaces, °F
h = convective-heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F)
S = surface area, ft2
T. = temperature of surface
T, = temperature of fluid
a — radiation constant, 0.1742(10-8) Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F4)
Tab, = temperature, °K
P
= density, lb/ft3
= specific heat,
c„ Btu/(lb)(°F)
V —- volume, ft3
AT = change in temperature
At = change in time, hr
In the following sections, the significance of Eq. (2-1) as applied to
actual bodies and fluids will be examined in more detail, with emphasis"on
the heat balance existing in components of aircraft structures.
2-2. Heat Conduction. The conduction relation in Eq. (2-1) can be
written as
dQ = ■
kA^dt (->) (2-2)
V -
where dQ js the heat conducted in the direction x in the time dt. Con
sider theêlement of a solid as shown in Fig. A-l. The heat entering
the left face of the element is
F = (dQx)1 =
kdydz^dt
so that the heat change across the element is [Eq. (A-3)]
(dF)x = k(dy dz)

— I — ) dx dt = kdy dz dx dt -r—i
ox \ox / ox
Similar expressions can be written for (dF)y and {dF), for the y and z
directions. The heat stored in the, element [Eq. (2-1)] is
dT
dQ, = pcp dx dy dz — dt
ot
and the heat developed in the element is
dQd = qa dx dy dz dt
so that the heat balance gives

TEMPERATURE EQUATIONS 23
-dQd + dQ, = {dF)x + (dF)y + (dF),
whence —-
67
= —
pcp
I
\dxl
ft + JT + ay1 dz2 /J
+
pcp
= — v T+
pcp pcp
(2-3)
Solution of Eq. (2-3) for the temperature for various boundary and
initial conditions can be found in the literature (for example, see Refs. 1-8).
Solutions for the aircraft-structures problems considered in later chapters
will be given at the time the thermal stresses are obtained.
Example 2-1. Solve Eq. (2-3) for the steady-state case in one dimension, with no
heat developed.
Solution. Steady state means independent of time so that the left side of Eq. (2-3)
is zero. Thus the equation reduces to
whence T — Ax + B, which is a linear distribution.
PROBLEMS
2-1. If the boundary conditions in Example 2-1 are T — Ti at x = Xi and T = T2

at x — X2, evaluate the constants A and B.
2-2. Find the temperature distribution in a circular tube under steady-state
conditions with the temperature a function of the radius only [make use of Eq. (1-50)
in Eq. (2-3)].
2-3. Evaluate constants of integration in Prob. 2-2 for boundary conditions
T = 7\ at r = r,, T = T2 at r = rs.
2-4. Solve Eq. (2-3) for steady state in two dimensions on a rectangle with boundary
conditions
T =
f(x) y = 0, 0 < x <a
T = 0
V
= b, 0 < x < a
r = o z = 0, 0 <y <b
T = 0 x = a, 0 <y <b
Use Fourier series to get
00
m =
T
V) i —
nub .
sin
rnrx .
sinn
, (b —
—
y)nir
a„ csch
£_i a a a
n=l
a„ = - / fix) sin ax
a Jo a
2-5. Evaluate the constants in Prob. 2-4 for/(x) = To = constant.
2-3. Heat Radiation. When a body is heated, radiant energy is

emitted at a rate dependent primarily upon the temperature of the body.
Thus, when the filament of an incandescent lamp is heated electrically,
both the energy emitted per unit time and the visible radiation, or light,
are found to increase rapidly with increase in the filament temperature.
The term thermal radiation is used to describe radiant energy emitted in
consequence of the temperature of the body.
24 THERMAL STRESSES
The heat flow per unit surface area leaving a body per unit time by
thermal radiation is its emissive power W. If two small bodies of area
A i and A2 are placed in a large evacuated enclosure perfectly insulated
and allowed to come to thermal equilibrium, then the bodies will emit
radiations at the rates AiW1 and A2W2, respectively. Let energy
falling on a unit area of any small body in the enclosure be Wb, where Wb
is due to the radiation from the walls of the enclosure. Let the bodies
have absorptivities at and a2, which is the fraction of incident radiation
absorbed. Then the energy balance on the bodies has the form
WbAxU! = A!Wi and WBA2a2 = A2W2
whence WB = Wi/ai = W '2/0,2. Thus at thermal equilibrium the ratio

of the emissive power of a surface to its absorptivity is the same for all
bodies, which is known as Kirchhoff's law.
Since a cannot exceed unity, Kirchhoff's law places an upper limit on
W. Any surface having this upper limiting emissive power is called a
perfect radiator, or, since the reflectivity is zero, a black body. The ratio
of the emissive power of an actual surface to that of a black body is
called the emissivity e of the surface.
The emissive power of a black body depends on its temperature only,
and the second law of thermodynamics can be used to prove that
WB = cTih. (2-4)
which is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The proportionality con

stant a is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Its value is
=
<x 0.1742(10-8) Btu/(ft2)(hr)(°R4) (2-5)
See Jakob (Ref. 1) for a derivation of this law.

To find the radiant-energy interchange between two surfaces forming
part of an enclosure, two factors must be considered: (1) the view the
surfaces have of each other and (2) the emitting and absorbing character
istics of the surfaces. The only case in which each surface has an unob
structed view of the other alone is that of infinite parallel planes. Con
sider plane 1 of area A l and emissivity el opposite plane 2 of area A 2 and
emissivity e2. In unit time unit area of plane 1 emits eio-TY, of which the
fraction e2 is absorbed and (1 — e2)«i is reflected back toward Ai and
absorbed, etc. The resulting series expressing the absorption at A 2 is
gi, = AvTiêie, + ci(l - «2)(1
- ci)c, + «i(l - e2)2(l
- ei)2e2 + • .
•]
Since the emissivity term is symmetrical, the net interchange between

the two surfaces is
q = A1eur(Ti*
- 7V) (2-8)
The more general case of heat interchange between several bodies of

various shapes involves a geometrical-view factor F. If ^l2 is defined
as the fraction of radiation leaving black surface Ai in all directions
which is intercepted by surface A2, then the heat exchange between two
black surfaces is
q = AiFi2a(T1* TV) - (2-9)
The expression for Fn can be written as
Fu = ^
J cos Pi dwi (2-10)
where /3iis the angle between the normal to dAi and the line joining
dAi to dA2 and dwi is the solid angle under which dA2 is seen by dAi
[see, for example, McAdams (Ref. 6) or Eckert (Ref. 8)]. McAdams
(Ref. 6) shows curves for Fi2 for various surfaces.
If the surfaces are not black, it is still more difficult to get an expression
for ^l2 in Eq. (2-9) or for «i2 in Eq. (2-8). For two coaxial spheres or
cylinders whose surfaces radiate diffusely el2 has been calculated as
! i+4i(l_l)/
ei2
=
ei Az \e2
(2-11)
where A i is the surface of the smaller body.For two surfaces whose size
is small compared with their distance apart, the fraction of reflected
radiation which falls back to the radiating surface becomes so small that
it can be neglected. In this case
tU = «l«2 (2-12)
Also, if Ai is small compared with A2, Eq. (2-11) shows that approxi
mately
el2 = ti (2-13)
Thus for calculating the radiation interchange between components of

an airplane structure use can be made of Eqs. (2-7) and (2-11) to (2-13)
to arrive at an approximate expression for el2. Values for «i2 and Fi2
for other cases can be found in the literature (Refs. 1-8, 39).
PROBLEMS
2-6. The inner wall of a thermos bottle is at 212°F and the outer wall at 68°F.
The walls on the sides turned toward each otherare silvered so that t = 0.02. If «u
is given by Eq. (2-7), find the heat loss per unit
area of the inner wall.
26 THERMAL STRESSES
2-7. In Eq. (2-8) take T2 at room temperature 460 + 70 = 530°, and graph q/tu
against Ti. What conclusions can be drawn about the effect of radiation up to
1000°F?
2-8. What approximate value of «i2 between skin and stringer could be used for
the structure shown if its length is 20 in.?
I< 1 Din.
1
t
4 in.
Pbob. 2-8
2-4. Heat Convection. From the convection relation in Eq. (2-1) the
equation for heat transfer between a surface at temperature T, and a
fluid in contact with it at the temperature T/ is
q = hA(T, - Tf) (2-14)
The difficulty with this equation is that h is not a constant. This

arises in part because of the definition of Tf. The temperature of the
fluid changes its value with the distance from the surface so that a
decision as to what Tf to use must be made. Actually the complications
arise because convection is not an independent phenomenon but is a
combination of heat conduction and fluid flow. The factor h is thus
not a constant but a function of many variables which are associated
with the flow and heat conduction of the fluid. This means that the
differential equations for heat convection must consist of the equations
for fluid flow plus those for heat conduction in a moving fluid.
Newton's fundamental equation, force equals mass times acceleration,
when applied to the motion of a unit volume of fluid gives [Eq. (A-4)]
dvx ( dvx . dvx . dvx . dvx\ „ . n . „

dt
dvy dvy\
(dvy
3vy
Gy + Py+ Fy (2-15)
(dv, dv, dv, dv,\

G, + P, + F,
where = density of fluid

p
vx, vy, v,
= velocity components
Gx, Gy, G, = external forces such as gravity

Px, Py, P, = dynamic forces such as pressure
Fx, Fy, F, = friction forces caused by viscosity
If /x is the coefficient of viscosity, then the form of Fx, Fy, and F, is
Use Eq. (A-3) with F = p«x on the left face, F = pvy on the aft face, and
F = pv, on the bottom face, and sum to get total change of flow, which
gives the equation of continuity as
. dvy dv,\ dp dp dp dp _
(dvx
Tz)
+ +,
+,
,
aJ+v'£
+
(2-17)
v"4+v'£
0
dT dJ
for compressible fluids, or
*L-
p dJs =
+
+
(2-18)
0
dx dy dz
for incompressible fluids.

For a moving fluid the conduction equation (2-3) becomes [Eq. (A-4)]
dT dT =
±v2
dt dx dy dz pcp pcp
Finally, the surface condition for heat exchange

is
dq =
-k^dA (2-20)
where n of heat flow normal to the surface element dA

the direction
is
and the thermal conductivity of the fluid close to the surface. Equa
is
k
tion (2-20) has the form of Eq. (2-14) in that the coefficient can be
h
related to the system of equations through Eq. (2-20).

In
efforts to solve the above system of equations several useful con
cepts have been introduced into the heat-convection problem. First,
experience has shown that two different patterns of flow occur. If the
fluid moves in the axial direction only, regarded as laminar, or
it
is
streamline, flow. If mixing of the fluid layers occurs because of oscilla

tory motion of the particles normal to the main flow direction, then
it
is
called turbulent flow. The heat transfer under laminar-flow conditions

mainly due to thermal conduction by the molecular heat interchange
is
between the layers of the fluid. The heat transfer in turbulence mainly
is
due to the oscillatory motions of the supermolecular portions of the

fluid. Heat transfer under turbulent conditions may be many times
that under laminar conditions.
The concept of the boundary layer has proved extremely useful, not
only in heat transfer, but in fluid mechanics in general. The fluid
is
assumed to be viscous in thin boundary layer on the surface of the wall

a
28 THERMAL STRESSES
and free of friction away from the wall. This means that the viscous
terms and heat-conduction terms in the above equations are negligible
compared with the remaining terms, except for narrow regions near solid
boundaries, where the velocity and temperature gradients are of necessity
so large as not to be negligible.
The principle of similarity as applied to the above system of equations
has yielded much information on the mechanisms of the convective
processes. This principle can be applied through three procedures:
integral, differential, or dimensional. Using dimensional analysis, an
expression for the heat-convection coefficient h in Eq. (2-14) for the case
of forced convection inside a tube of diameter D can be derived as follows :
Assume
h = CvDbnWpmcpn (2-21)
where C is a constant and v is the mean velocity in the axial direction.

For the basic units use the symbols H for heat energy, t for time, L for
length, M for mass, and T for temperature. Write Eq. (2-21) in terms
of units
Htr'L-^T-1 = (r1L)aLb(Mr1L-iy{Htr1L-1T-iy(<ML-3)m(HM-iT-iy
and equate exponents for each unit.
j+n
H:
-1
1 =
= -a-f-j
t:
L: -2 = a + b — f -j — 3m
M: 0 = /
+ m — n
T: -1 = —j — n
Now these equations allow four of these exponents to be expressed in

terms of the other two,
a = m b = m — 1
f= n — m j = 1 — n
X"CCf)"(T')" (2-22)
or Nu = C Rem Pr" (2-23)
Nu =
where
^ (2-24)
is the Nusselt number,
Re = (2-25)
is the Reynolds number, and
Pr =
(2-26)
^2
is the Prandtl number.
TEMPEBATURE EQUATIONS 29
The few theoretical solutions for example, Jakob (Ref. 1, Chap. 22)
[see,
and Van Driest (Ref. 17)] of the convection equations that have been
obtained can be expressed in terms of the above nondimensional numbers
plus in some cases the Mach number
Ma = - (2-27)
a
where a is speed of sound. In these cases the theoretical solutions give

the constant C and the exponents m and n. Otherwise, these constants
must be determined experimentally, which has been done for some cases.
For example, see Jakob (Ref. 1).
Finally efforts to find the proper temperature Tf to use in Eq. (2-14)
have led to the concepts of adiabatic wall temperature Taw and the recovery
factor r. Consider Fig. 2-1, where Tf is free-stream temperature and
T, insulated plate
Thermal
boundary T, hot plate
layer
Fig. 2-1. Thermal boundary layer.
Tm, is the adiabatic wall temperature. Now the free-stream stagnation

temperature is
Vf*
Tj, =
Tf + 2gJcp (2-28)
where vf is free-stream velocity and /

is the mechanical equivalent of
heat, 778 ft-lb/Btu. The recovery factor is defined as
_ _
Tf. - Tf
*7'aw J*
J- f
. Taw
—
Tf
r (2-29)
vf2/2gJcp
which is a measure of the fraction of local free-stream dynamic tempera

ture rise, vf2/2gJcp, recovered at the wall.
Thus the heat-convection problem for high-speed flow can be summa
30 THERMAL STRESSES
rized as follows:
q = hA(Tw - T„) (2-30)
*k = Nu= fi{Re,Pr,Ma) (2-31)
(2-32)
It is necessary to evaluate Nu and r for various-shaped bodies under

several types of flow so that Eq. (2-30) can be solved for the heat transfer.
The particular convection problem important to aircraft and missile
structures is that of air flow over the surface of the aircraft body. Much
work has been done on this problem, both theoretical and experimental,
and papers on it are appearing continuously in the literature. The
following section on Aerodynamic Heating gives a brief discussion of the
present status of the problem and describes procedures to calculate
recovery factors and convective-heat-transfer coefficients for use in
obtaining the skin temperatures of the missile.
2-5. Aerodynamic Heating. The analytical investigation of the lam
inar boundary layer began in 1908 with the thesis of Blasius (Ref. 15),
who determined the velocity profiles for incompressible flow on a flat
plate with zero pressure gradient. In 1921 Pohlhausen (Ref. 16) used
these velocity profiles to calculate temperature profiles in the laminar
boundary layer of the flat plate. Since then numerous papers have
appeared which extended and modified the basic assumptions, the mathe
matical techniques, and the methods obtaining numerical results. For
lists of some of these papers as well as for discussion and analysis see, for
example, Jakob (Ref. 1), Goldstein (Ref. 11), Shapiro (Ref. 12), Kaye
(Ref. 13), Johnson (Ref. 14), Eckert (Ref. 8-10), and Van Driest (Ref. 17).
Theoretical analysis for both subsonic and supersonic laminar flow
over a flat insulated plate gives the recovery factor of Eq. (2-32) as
r — Pr* laminar (2-33)
This formula breaks down for large Mach numbers and when dissociation
occurs in the air (Refs. 9, 13). For incompressible laminar flow the
theoretical local heat transfer for a flat plate is
NuL = 0.33 (fleL)* Pr* laminar (2-34)
for Eq. (2-31) and with Taw = Tf in Eq. (2-30). For compressible flow
on a flat plate, Eq. (2-34) still applies provided Taw is used in Eq. (2-30).
However, the "constant" in Eq. (2-34) becomes a function of Mach
number for compressible flow. To avoid changing the "constant,"
Eckert (Refs. 9, 10) proposes the use of a reference temperature Tr to
use for the evaluation of the properties in both Eqs. (2-33) and (2-34).
His formula for Tr is
TR = Tf + 0.5(r„ - Tf) + 0.22(Taw - Tf)

=
0.5(5TW + Tf) + 0.22r Ma2 T, (2-35)
where y is the ratio of specific heats and r is the recovery factor. Since
it is necessary to have Tr to get y and r, an iteration procedure must be
used on Eq. (2-35) to get Tr. Experimental work on the laminar
boundary layer is reviewed by Kaye in Ref. 13.
For the turbulent boundary layer theoretical work, under assumptions
of constant eddy viscosity and constant eddy conductivity in the turbu
lent portion of the boundary layer, gives
r = Pr* turbulent (2-36)
For theoretical work on heat-transfer coefficients for the turbulent
boundary layer see Van Driest (Ref. 17), Shapiro (Ref. 12), and Kaye
(Ref. 13), where curves are given. Experimental data up to Re = 107
give
=
NuL 0.029(PeL)°-8 Pr* turbulent (2-37)
For Re up to 109 Eckert recommends the Schulz-Grunow formula
0.185 Re Pr* _„
Nul
Ar = (2'38)
(logfle)'-'".
and for large Mach numbers uses the reference temperature Tr in Eqs.
(2-36) to (2-38) to obtain the properties.
Theoretical and experimental formulas and experimental curves for
recovery factors and heat-transfer coefficients on wedges, cones, and
cylinders are given in Refs. 9 and 12 to 14. For airfoils the above formulas
can be used if the Reynolds number Re is based on the local velocity.
However, to obtain this velocity requires the solution of the aerodynamic
problem of velocity and pressure distributions on the airfoil. It is also
necessary to consider shock waves in this solution. Tables for these
calculations are given in Refs. 12, 13, 34, and 35.
Eckert (Ref. 9) discusses the effect of pressure and temperature varia
tions along the plate upon the recovery factor and heat-transfer coefficient.
The effect of pressure variation appears to be minor, but the effect of
temperature variation can be large. Eckert (Ref. 9) also considers heat
transfer at low densities such as occurs at high altitudes.
The coefficients in Eqs. (2-34) and (2-37) are point values so that at a
distance x from the leading edge of a flat plate h in Eqs. (2-30) and (2-31)
can be written [Eq. (2-34)]
hx = 0.33 - (Rex)l Pr*

x
32 THERMAL STRESSES
If the average value of h over the distance x from the leading edge is
defined as
-ifx Jo
hx dx
then hm = 0.66 (Rex)* Pr* laminar (2-39)

^
From Eq. (2-37) the average of h is
Kr = (Rex)
0 8 Pri turbulent (2-40)
0.037^
Usually, however, laminar flow exists over the front portion of the
plate and changes to turbulent flow when the critical Reynolds number
is exceeded. Thus
Kv = - / Qlx)lam dx + (hx)turb dx
x J0 Jxcr J
=
1
/
fx
(hx)turb dx - CXcr
/ {hx)tUrb dx +
C Xer
/ (hx)iam dx
Jo Jo Jo
= 0.036 - Pr»
x
[(Rex)0-*
- (Re„)0
i +
18.5(/2ecr)0-5] (2-41)
The difficulty with Eq. (2-41) is the value of Re„. Where does the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow begin? "This point is the
weakest link in the whole procedure to predict wall temperature and
heat transfer coefficients" (Eckert, page 65 in Ref. 9). See Refs. 9,
18 to 26, and 31 for information on the problem. Gazley's paper (Ref. 21)
is a review of available information and indicates effects of various factors
on boundary-layer transition. Stability theory gives the minimum criti
cal Re for incompressible flow over a flat plate as about 60,000, while
transition experiments indicate a transition range of 3 to 4 million for
incompressible flow over a smooth flat plate with negligible free-stream
turbulence. Negative pressure gradients, decrease in surface tempera
ture, and increase in Mach number tend to raise these numbers. Free-
stream turbulence, concave surface, positive pressure gradient, surface
roughness, and increases in surface temperature tend to lower these
numbers.
For latest information on the problems of aerodynamic heating, see
such journals as the Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences and Aeronautical
Engineering Review.
Example 2-2. What are the adiabatic surface temperatures on an insulated flat
plate over which air is flowing parallel to the surface at 500 mph, 1 in. and 1 ft behind
the leading edge of the plate? The free-stream air temperature is 60°F, and the
pressure is 14.7 psia (sea level).
Solution. To determine the type of flow, calculate the Reynolds number, at each
point. From Eq. (2-25)
Re = V-^
A"
where (at 60°F) v = 500 mph = 733 ft/sec

p -
0.002378 slug/ft3 (Table B-l)
M = 3.719(10-') slug/ft-sec (Table B-l)
x = 0.0833 ft and 1.0 ft
Thus Rel in. = 390,000 Rei ft = 4,680,000
so that the flow is probably laminar at 1 in. but turbulent at 1 ft. From Table B-2
the Prandtl number at 60 + 460 = 520°R is Pr = 0.71 so that [Eqs. (2-33), (2-36)]
r - Pri = 0.85 for laminar flow

r = Pri = 0.89 for turbulent flow
From Eq. (2-29)
rv^
Taw = Tf ~~f~
0 j
2gJcp
where T, = 60°F, J = 778 ft-lb/Btu, g = 32.2 ft/sec2, c„

= 0.24 (Table B-2). Thus
Taw = 98°F at 1 in. Taw = 100°F at 1 ft
Using Eq. (2-35), at 1 in.,
Tr = 60 + 0.5(98 - 60) + 0.22(98 - 60) = 87°F
For this temperature
c„
= 0.24 (Table B-2)
~j~
p = 0.002378 = 0.00226 perfect-gas law

I®
0/ + 4oU
126(10-')
" _ 32.2
= 3'92(10-7) (Table B~2)
Pr = 0.70 (Table B-2)
that there are small changes in Re, and Taw. However, the change in Taw
is
so
r,
less than 0.5° so that the free-stream temperature can be used for the properties
provided the temperature gradient small.
is
Example 2-3. Determine the rate of heat transfer from a plate ft long and ft
5
wide air flowing parallel to its length under the conditions of 1,000 mph velocity at
is
if
temperature 60°F at sea level with a plate temperature of 250°F. Neglect any shock
waves.
Solution. Assume a reference temperature of 200°F, so that properties can be
evaluated at 460 + 200 = 660°K. Then
= 0.002378(520/660) = 0.00187
p
c„ = 0.24 = 4.5(10-') Pr -
0.69 (Table B-2)
/i
Re
(1,470) (5) (0.00187) _ 3-0(1°
>
4.5(10-')
34 THERMAL STRESSES
which is probably turbulent flow. If the flow were all turbulent, then
r = Pri = 0.69* = 0.88
i„«, - ou -f
0.88(1,470)' _
~ ^W *
^^
(2) (32.2) (778) (0.24)
(3,600) (32.2)
=
fc =
3,60^ (465)(10-^)(0.24)
(0.037) (1 86) (10-')
^ o
[3-0(107)]o.80.69* [Eq. (2-40)]
= 104
q = KVA(Tw
-
Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F)
Taw) = (104) (10) (250
- 217) = 34,400 Btu/hr
From Eq. (2-35)
TR - 60 + 0.5(250 - 60) + 0.22(217

- 60) = 190°F
which is close enough to the assumed 200°F reference temperature. If the flow were
all laminar, then
T = Pri = 0.83 Tay, = 208°F
K, =
(0-66)(1f6)(1°-2) [3.0(10')]°«0.685. [Eq. (2-39)]
= 11.9 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F)
q = 4,000 Btu/hr
which indicates the large difference between laminar and turbulent heat transfer.
If it is assumed that transition occurs at Beer = 4,000,000, then the distance along
the plate for transition is
, - XXR*«
Xcr - 50-4(107)
5 "
°Q67ft b7
Rex 3.0(10')
Let raT =
^
[x„Pri + (L - x„) Pri] i[(0.67)(0.83) = + (4.33)(0.88)] = 0.87
Then Taw = 215°F fc1T = 96 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F) q = 33,600 Btu/hr

so that q is still nearly equal to the q for turbulent flow.
PROBLEMS
2-9. Solve Example 2-3 for a plate temperature of 100°F.

2-10. Determine the adiabatic surface temperature 2 ft from the leading edge of an
insulated plate traveling at Mach number = 2.5 at 30,000 ft.
2-11. Solve Prob. 2-10 at 50,000 ft.
2-12. Find the local unit heat transfer in Prob. 2-10 if the plate temperature is
250°F.
2-13. The isentropic compressible-flow equations for air about a body are (Ref. 14)
_ (Pay™
,(f)+1
/^V _
*.®r
/ Tg\
W "
Ta 4.94
~ +
Tf \Pf) Mf> V T,)
where P = pressure
subscript a = a point on the body
subscript /
= free stream
AP/q = pressure ratio at body point
and q = p/t//2/2
For given AP/q from the airfoil pressure distribution without shock waves the equa
tions give local pressure, density, temperature, and velocity at the edge of the bound
ary layer. If AP/q = —0.95 at a point on the upper surface 3 ft behind the leading
edge of an airfoil, M/ = 0.90, altitude = 30,000 ft, and the temperature of the skin
is200°F, find the local unit heat-transfer rate.
2-14. Solve Prob. 2-13 for the equivalent point on the lower surface where
AP/q = 0.1.
2-6. Heat-balance Equations for Idealized Structure. In the discus

sion in Sec. 2-5 on Aerodynamic Heating the skin or plate temperature
was assumed to be known and to remain unchanged with time. Actu
ally, this is not the case for any real structure except under steady-state
equilibrium conditions. The plate will store heat, radiate heat, conduct
heat to the internal structure, convect or conduct heat to internal fuel or
air, receive heat from the boundary air, receive heat by radiation, etc.
a
b
A, = skin thickness
Ai,=stringer area
Fig. 2-2. Idealized structural element.
To find the temperature, it is necessary to set up heat balances for the

plate and for the internal structure or internal fuel. From these heat
balances the temperatures can be determined.
Consider the idealized structural element in Fig. 2-2. Assume the
skin temperature T. to be uniform throughout the length, width, and
thickness of the skin. Assume the stringer to be at a uniform tempera
ture Tb. If there is no heat loss at the edges of the section in Fig. 2-2, if
the average length of the conducting path from skin to stringer is taken
as 6/4, if skin radiation on the inside is assumed balanced by radiation of
it,
another skin opposite and heat loss to the air inside neglected,
is
if
36 THERMAL STRESSES
then the heat balances for the skin and stringer can be written as follows
[see Eqs. (2-1), (2-8), and (2-30)]:
P.(cp).h,ba
^ = hba(Ta, - T.) - el2<r&a(7V
- 7V) - e.&a(<r7V
- G)
- 8k,h, ^
(T. - Tb) (2-42)
Pb(cp)bAba
^ = wSba(T,*
- TV) + SkX g (T, - Tb)
where p = density, lb/ft3

= specific heat, Btu/(lb)(°F)
h. = skin thickness, ft
b, a = dimensions of skin, ft
t = time, hr
t. = skin emissivity coefficient

«U = equivalent emissivity coefficient between skin and stringer
[see Eq. (2-11)]
Hi = equivalent emissivity coefficient between stringer and both
skins
a = radiation constant, 0.1742(10-8), Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F4)
0 = stellar, solar, earth, or interstellar radiation, Btu/(hr)(ft2)
h = convective heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F)
k = coefficient of thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr)(ft)(°F)
= area of stringer, ft2
Sb
= surface area, ft2, of a unit length of stringer viewed by skin in
radiation transfer
T„ skin temperature, °F [Eq. (2-29)]
= absolute adiabatic
T absolute temperature, °F
Theoretically, Eq. (2-42) can be solved for the temperatures T, and Th.
However, from Sec. 2-5, h is an involved function of temperature T,
and time so that there is no direct solution for the equations. One
procedure is to use a step-by-step solution or iteration solution for small
increments of time. Necessarily the solution can be made only for a
particular problem with numerical values. For example, Tendeland
and Schlaff (Ref. 27) used this procedure on Eq. (2-42) with radiation
omitted; Johnson (Ref. 14) used it but with the stringer omitted so
that Eq. (2-42) reduced to
P,{cP)X ~ = KTa, - T.) - e.(<r7V

- G) (2-43)
See also Refs. 28 for other cases

to 30, 38 as well as for experimental
data on skin temperatures in free flight.
2-7. Numerical Integration for Transient Temperatures. There are

many numerical procedures for integrating equations like Eqs. (2-42)
and (2-43) such as the Taylor-series method, the Runge-Kutta method,
the Picard method, etc. The Picard method iterates on each interval
as follows : If
g -/<*,»)
and (x0yo) is the given initial point, then
= + f(x,y0) dx
2/n 2/o /
Jxo
= + [X,f(x,yn) dx
2/i2 2/o
Jxo
= + dx
2/m 2/o /
Jxo
2/l,n+l = =
2/ln 2/l
Repeat the operation to get (£2,2/2), etc The integrations can be per
formed by rectangle rule, trapezoid rule, or Simpson's rule; the more
accurate the integration, the fewer the steps in each iteration.
A method such as the Picard method, although accurate, requires
considerable calculation at each step. It might be used in regions where
y is changing rapidly, but a shorter method can be used elsewhere. If
the intervals are sufficiently small, then
= -
- xi),
?/i 2/0 +f(xo,yo)(x1 x0)
= +/(a;i,2/i)(a;2 etc.
2/2 2/l
is shorter and gives sufficiently accurate results for many problems. For
Eq. (2-43) this procedure gives
r.i - - -
.A\
= T.a + T,0) e,(<rT,o4

[h(Ta. (?)] (2-44)
where T.i the skin temperature at the end of the time interval At, T,o
is
the temperature at the beginning of the time interval, and the proper
is
ties are evaluated at reference temperature based on T,o [Eq. (2-35)].

a
Calculated skin temperatures and measured skin temperatures on the

nose cone of V-2 rockets flying to 300,000 and 5,000 ft/sec are given
ft
in Refs. The calculated data by numerical integration agree

14, 29, 30.
very well with the measured data (Refs. 29, 30). Figures 2-3a and
b
show the large effects of the emissivity coefficient at high altitude and
38 THERMAL STRESSES
800
1
600
400
6
200 *io
pcpt h=0. 0986 Btu/1 t2'R
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Time since firing, sec
Fig. 2-3a. Average skin temperature of a 1-ft 32.5° cone for transient trajectory
800
j-pc 0.197 Btu/
f
><
— e = D.l
600 —<
6
400 1
— jr 0
200 /
//
/■ \ -pcp) is=0 986 Eitu/ft -€=C .1, 0. 5, 1.0
*5 r
50' 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time since firing, sec
Fig. 2-36. Average skin temperature of a 1-ft 32.5° cone for transient trajectory.
of the skin thickness or skin heat capacity throughout the entire flight.
These are calculated curves given in Ref. 14 for the trajectory of A-4 at
White Sands, N. Mex., Oct. 10, 1946 (NRL R-3030) ; the cone is assumed
to have infinite conductivity and to be insulated from the rest of the
body.
TEMPERATUBE EQUATIONS 39
Example 2-4. A point 1 ft behind the leading edge of a flat steel plate 0.10 in.
thick, which is traveling at 3,000 ft /sec at 50,000 ft, has a temperature of 700°R.
If the plate reaches 80,000 ft 10 sec later, what is the temperature of the point at
that time? Neglect shock waves, and assume no heat loss on the inside surface of
the plate.
Solution. In Eq. (2-44) p. = 484 lb/ft3 (Table B-3), (c„). = 0.16 Btu/(lb)(°F),
= 0.0083 ft, a = 0.174(10-8) assume e, = 0.5; assume = 20 Btu/(hr)(ft2). Use
ft,
G
;
time interval of sec in the calculations, and evaluate density at 60,000 ft. Assume
5
a
reference temperature of 700°R so that

a
67
= 0.0002240 = 0.000125 (Table B-l)
p
46°700
2~7)
cp = 0.24 = = 4.7(10-') Pr = 0.68 (Table B-2)
M
15132
Re = = 800,000
(3'°00ig()1(0°l7125)
Assume turbulent flow so that
= Pr* = 0.88
r
4b0 - 67 +
- 46n -_
0-88(3,000)2
la. 1050 K
1050°R
T
(2) (32.2) (778) (0.24)
= MPte = 0.0197 [Eq. (B-l)]

k
= (0.029) (0.0197) (800,000)°

8(0.88) [Eq. (2-37)]
h
= 26.5
Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F)
Equation (2-44) gives
T 1l _ 7nft
5(26.5(1,050 -
700)
-
0.5[0.174(7)«
- 20] "_ K
,
(3,600) (484) (0.16) (0.0083)
Check the assumed reference temperature by Eq. (2-35),
TR = 393 0.5(700 - 0.22(1,050 - = 690°R

+
393) 393)
which close enough to the assumed 700°R.

is
For the second step assume Tr = 700° so that c„ n, Pr, and Ta, remain the
k,
same. Evaluate density at 70,000 ft so that
= 0.000079 Re = 500,000 = 18.2 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F)

h
P
P., = 719.5 - - - = 732°R

+
(18.2(1,050 719.5) 0.5[0.174(7.195)4 20])

2-!^
which the temperature after 10 sec. Note that taking one step for the 10 sec
is
would give 739°R based on density at 60,000 ft. Thus the accuracy of the result
depends on the choice of density to be used as well as the number of increments
in
time.
Example 2-5. If the plate in Example 2-4 maintains a speed of 3,000 ft/sec at
a
constant altitude of 50,000 ft, what the equilibrium temperature of the plate?
is
Solution. Equation (2-43) applies provided the time term zero.

is
h(Ta. - T.) - e.(r2V - G) =

0
40 THERMAL STRESSES
Assume T„ and solve by trial and error for T.. Assume T, — 1000°R, and take the
reference temperature at 1000°R. Then for turbulent flow p = 0.0003622(393/1,000)
= 0.000142, cp = 0.25, n = 6.0(10-'), Pr = 0.66, Re = 700,000, r = 0.87, Ta. = 1020°,
k = 0.0262, h = 31.1, so that
31.1(1,020 - 1,000) - 0.5[0.174(10.0)4

- 20] = 620
- 860 = -240
and TR = 830°R. As a second trial assume T, = 1010°R and Tr = 850°R; then

P = 0.000163, c„
= 0.245, M = 5.35(10-'), Pr = 0.68, Re = 915,000, r = 0.88, Ta, =
1040°R, k = 0.0213, h = 31.8, so that
31.8(1,040 - 1,010) - 0.5[0.174(10.1)4

- 20] = 954
- 890 = 64
and Tr = 843°. This checks close enough so that the equilibrium temperature is
1010°R.
PROBLEMS
2-15. Continue the solution of Example 2-4 for 10 sec more, assuming the velocity
of 3,000 ft/sec is maintained straight up.
2-16. Find the equilibrium temperature of a plate moving at Mach number 3.0 at
30,000 ft. Take the plate as 10 ft long, and get the average temperature. Assume
(a) 6S = 0.1, (6) e, = 1.0.
2-17. Solve Example 2-4 if the plate is aluminum alloy instead of steel.
2-18. Solve Example 2-4 if the plate maintains its velocity at a constant altitude
of 50,000 ft.
REFERENCES
1. Jakob, Max.: "Heat Transfer," vols. I, II, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1949.
2. Carslaw, H. S., and J. C. Jaeger: "Conduction of Heat in Solids," Oxford Uni
versity Press, New York, 1947.
3. American Society of Mechanical Engineers and Institution of Mechanical Engi
neers (London): "Proceedings of the General Discussion of Heat Transfer,"
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, 1951.
4. Dunsinberre, G. M.: "Numerical Analysis of Heat Flow," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1949.
5. Boelter, L. M. K., V. H. Cherry, H. A. Johnson, and R. C. Martinelli: "Heat
Transfer Notes," University of California Press, Berkeley, Calif., 1946.
6. McAdams, W. H. : "Heat Transmission," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1954.
7. Brown, A. I., and S. M. Marco: "Introduction to Heat Transfer," 2d ed., McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
8. Eckert, E. R. G.: "Introduction to the Transfer of Heat and Mass," McGraw-Hill
9. Eckert, E. R. G.: Survey on Heat Transfer at High Speeds, WADC TR 54-70,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1954.
10. Eckert, E. R. G.: Engineering Relations for Friction and Heat Transfer to
Surfaces in High Velocity Flow, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 22(8):585-587 (1955).
11. Goldstein, S. (ed.): "Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics," vols. I, II,
Oxford University Press, New York, 1938.
12. Shapiro, A. H.: "The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid

Flow," 26-28, The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1954.
2 vols., chaps.
13. Kaye, Joseph: Survey of Friction Coefficients, Recovery Factors, and Heat
Transfer Coefficients for Supersonic Flow, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 21(2):117-129 (1954).
14. Johnson, H. A., M. W. Rubesin, F. M. Sauer, E. G. Slack, and L. Possner: A
Design Manual for Determining the Thermal Characteristics of High Speed
Aircraft, Air Force Tech. Rept. 5632, Air Materiel Command, Dayton, Ohio, 1947.
15. Blasius, H. : Grenzschichten in Flussigkeiten mit kleiner Reibung, Z. Math. u.
Physik, 56:1-37 (1908).
16. Pohlhausen, E.: Der Warmeaustausch Zwischen festen Korpern und Flussig
keiten mit kleiner Reibung und kleiner Warmeleitung, Z. angew. Math. u. Mech.,
1:115-121 (1921).
17. Van Driest, E. R.: Turbulent Boundary Layer in Compressible Fluids, J. Aeronaut.
Sci., 18(3):145-160 (1951).
18. Braslow, A. L., and F. Visconti: Investigation of Boundary-layer Reynolds
Number for Transition on an NACA 65 (214)-114 Airfoil in the Langley Two-
dimensional Low-turbulence Pressure Tunnel, NACA TN 1704, 1948.
19. Van Driest, E. R. : Calculation of the Stability of the Laminar Boundary-layer
in a Compressible Fluid on a Flat Plate with Heat Transfer, /. Aeronaut. Sci.,
19(12) :801-812 (1952).
20. Dryden, H. L. : Review of Published Data on the Effect of Roughness on Transi
tion from Laminar to Turbulent Flow, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 20(7) :477-482 (1953).
21. Gazley, C, Jr.: Boundary-layer Stability and Transition in Subsonic and Super
sonic Flow, J.
Aeronaut. Sci., 20(l):19-28 (1953).
22. Higgins, R. W., and C. C. Pappas: An Experimental Investigation of the Effect
of Surface Heating on Boundary-layer Transition on a Flat Plate in Supersonic
Flow, NACA TN 2351, 1951.
23. Lees, L. : Stability of the Supersonic Laminar Layer with a Pressure Gradient,
Princeton Univ., Aeronaut. Eng. Lab., Rept. 167, 1950.
24. Scherrer, R. : Boundary-layer Transition of a Cooled 20° Cone at a Mach Number
of 1.5 and 2.0, NACA TN 2131, 1950.
25. Scherrer, R., W. R. Wimbrow, and F. E. Gowen: Heat-transfer and Boundary-
layer Transition on a Heated 20° Cone at a Mach number of 1.53, NACA RM
A8L28, 1949.
26. Sternberg, J.: A Free-flight Investigation of the Possibility of High Reynolds
Number Supersonic Laminar Boundary Layers, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 19(11) :721-733
(1952).
27. Tendeland, T., and B. A. Schlaff: Temperature Gradients in the Wing of a
High-speed Airplane during Dives from High Altitudes, NACA TN 1675, July,
1948.
28. Stalder, J. R., and David Jukoff: Heat Transfer to Bodies Traveling at High
Speed in the Upper Atmosphere, NACA TN 1682, August, 1948.
29. Huston, W. B., C. N. Warfield, and Anna Z. Stone: A Study of Skin Temperatures
of Conical Bodies in Supersonic Flight, NACA TN. 1724, October, 1948.
30. Lo, Hsu: Determination of Transient Skin Temperature of Conical Bodies during
Short-time High-speed Flight, NACA TN 1725, October, 1948.
31. Brinich, P. F.: A Study of Boundary Layer Transition and Surface Temperature
Distributions at Mach 3.12, NACA TN 3509, July, 1955.
32. Livinghood, J. N. B., and P. L. Donoughe: Summary of Laminar Boundary
Layer Solutions for Wedge-type Flow over Convection and Transpiration Cooled
Surfaces, NACA TN 3588, December, 1955.
42 THERMAL STRESSES
33. Woolf, J. R., and L. R. Scott: Influence of Through Metal on Heat Transfer
through Aircraft Structural Sandwich Panels, ASME Paper 56-SA-23, 1956.
34. Keenan, J. H., and Joseph Kaye: "Gas Tables," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1948.
35. Ames Laboratory Staff: Equations, Tables, and Charts for Compressible Flow,
NACA Rept. 1135, 1953.
36. Korkegi, R. H.: Transition Studies and Skin Friction Measurements on an
Insulated Flat Plate at a Mach number of 5.8, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 23(2):97-107
(1956).
37. Sibulkin, Merwin: Heat Transfer to an Incompressible Turbulent Boundary
Layer and Estimation of Heat Transfer Coefficients at Supersonic Nozzle Throats,
J. Aeronaut. Sci., 23(2) :162-172 (1956).
38. Snodgrass, R. B.: Rocket Research Report No. XX, Flight Measurements of
Aerodynamic Heating and Boundary Layer Transition in the Viking 10 Nose
Cone, Naval Research Lab. Rept. 4531, June, 1955 (ASTIA AD No. 66606).
39. Goodman, S. : Radiant Heat Transfer between Infinite Parallel Plates, Natl. Bur.
Standards Rept. 4239, August, 1955.
40. Weiner, J. H. : A Method for the Approximate Solution of the Heat Equation,
WADC TR 54-427, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1955.
CHAPTER 3
TRANSIENT TEMPERATURES AND STRESSES

IN IDEALIZED STRUCTURES
3-1. Introduction. The thermal stresses in the idealized structural

element in Fig. 2-2 with the skin at temperature T, and the stringer at
temperature Tb, for no bowing or buckling, are given by Eq. (1-6) as
t - _ ^j(gijj - gffi) = _ji (— T — T I

7*
1 + {bh,EJAbEb) V«6 / (3-1)
76
= W"
AbJ°
« =
1 + (bh,E./AbEb)
where 71, and 71!, changes above datum temperature
are the temperature
T0. If this structuralelement in Fig. 2-2 is part of an aircraft or missile
structure with the skin exposed to the air, then T, and Tb are given by
Eq. (2-42). However, as indicated in Secs. 2-6 and 2-7, Eq. (2-42)
ordinarily can be solved only by a numerical-integration process. Such
a solution can be carried out only for definite flight plan of the missile or
airplane. It gives no information on the important parameters of
geometry and flight plan that govern whether the thermal stresses in
Eq. (3-1) will be large or small.
Now the temperatures as obtained from Eq. (2-42) are functions of
time so that the thermal stresses in Eq. (3-1) are functions of time.
In fact, all the thermal-stress equations of Chap. 1 involve time only
through the temperature. This neglects any inertia effects of the expan
sion of the structure caused by the temperature. This effect is small
ordinarily because of the small strains involved and the finite time
required for temperature change. For instantaneous temperature
changes, the equations of Chap. 1 must be modified to include dynamic
terms (see section on Thermal Shock in Chap. 6).
Usually, in design and analysis of structure, only the maximum thermal
stresses are needed. Thus for transient-temperature problems it may
be necessary to evaluate the temperature and hence the stresses only
for the time at which the stresses are maximum.
3-2. Calculation of Stringer Temperature for Assumed Skin Tempera
ture. One method of simplifying Eq. (2-42) is to examine results for
43
44 THERMAL STRESSES
T, and Tb obtained integration on a typical flight with a

by numerical
typical structure and select a typical curve for T, (see Fig. 2-3). With
this assumed function for the skin temperature T„ Eq. (2-42) reduces to
one equation to determine Tb,
Ph(cP)bAb
^ =
e2i<r&(7Y
- TV) + 8fc'W - r») (3-2)
Even with T, known, Eq. (3-2) cannot be solved by simple means because
of the radiation term with Tb4. As a first approximation neglect radia
tion effects (the examples in Sec. 2-7 show a small effect of the radiation
terms under the temperature range considered), and write Eq. (3-2) as
From Figs. 2-3a and 2-36 and from similar skin-temperature curves in
Refs. 1 and 2 it appears that a simple assumption for T, is
T. = Tm±
l
0<t<h
(3-4)
T. = Tm t>h
where h may be related to time to reach peak velocity, time to reach a
certain altitude, or equivalent time to reach equilibrium temperature.
Put this T, in Eq. (3-3), use the initial condition Tb — 0 at t = 0, and
integrate to get
Jl-
pb —
JJt
7V
= e—-
1
± e-B«« t > k (3-5)
im D
8A:,fo,<i
B — B lt —
bAbpb(cp)b
In Eq.(3-1) for the stresses the expression involving the temperature

is (a./ab)T, — Tb, whence from Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5)
«-T. - abTb = U_ A 1 - e-*<»>
)
t_
h B 0<t<h' ,„„,
otbTm \ab
{a \ e»-l (3-6)
abTm
For a, = «(,, which is the usual with skin and stringer being the
case
same material, the maximum value of this expression, and hence the
maximum stress in Eq. (3-1), occurs at =
<i,
(T.
- Tb\ - <r*
_ (X)_ .„
1
= =
0 1 2 34 B
5 6 7 8
Fig. 3-2. Maximum thermal stresses at t = h.
Figure 3-1 shows graphs of Eqs. (3-4) to (3-6) for two selected values
of the parameter B. Figure 3-2 shows the maximum thermal stress
against B [Eq. (3-7)].
The basic parameter in these curves is the nondimensional parameter
B [Eq. (3-5)], involving material properties, geometry, and the equivalent
46 THERMAL STRESSES
time to equilibrium. In Fig. 3-2 a small B gives large thermal stresses,

while a large B gives small stresses. From Eq. (3-5), for a given material
B may be small because of thin skin, large stringer, or small h.
Example 3-1. What is the value of the parameter B if the element of Fig. 2-2 is
aluminum alloy with 6 = 12 in., h, = 0.10 in., Ab = 0.30 in.2, and h = 1.0 min?
Solution. For aluminum alloy from Table B-3
R _ 8^75/(60)
a (12)] _
~
6<-ybA„
- Ai
hji _
y 0.10(1) _
~ 1U0
M6(0.10)(0.22) 12(0.30)
which from Fig. (3-2) would produce a large thermal stress.
Consider Eq. (3-3) for assumed skin-temperature distributions other

than that of Eq. (3-4). In fact the general solution of Eq. (3-3) for any
T, is
Tb = e-B-((;BlT,es" dt + C) (3-8)
For any given T, Eq. (3-8) can be integrated either by quadrature or by

a numerical process. For example, assume
o < t < h
(3-9)
T, = Tm t>h
whence for a, = ab
rp
' rp I
"
=
o
- 2B + - e-Bt"> >
\6-l\J)
|-3
2)
2]
[eB(B2
h
m t> t
J-
The maximum value of this expression, and hence the maximum stress,
occurs at = h. For the same value of the parameter the maximum
B
t
value given by Eq. (3-10) larger than that in Fig. 3-2. This due
is
to the fact that less heat has been supplied in the same time under the is
h
T, assumed in Eq. (3-9) so that the stringer will be at lower temperature

a
In fact from Eq. (3-3) for small Tb the temperature Tb approxi

is
Tb.
mately equal to the area under the T, curve. The area under the T,
curve up to = in Eq. (3-9) only one-half that in Eq. (3-4). This
is
<i
<
suggests for small the skin temperature of Eq. (3-9), as well as other
B
distributions, be approximated by straight line up to = similar

h
a
to Eq. (3-4) but with different based on the area under the straight
h
a
line. Using one-half the in Eq. (3-9) to get to use on Fig. 3-2 gives
B
<i
result which checks very closely the maximum value of Eq. (3-10).
a
The comparison for large not too good, but the stresses are less
is
B
important for large so that less accuracy required. Thus Fig. 3-2
B
is
can be used for various skin-temperature T, variations up to =

h,
t
and constant thereafter, provided the proper selected on the basis

is
h
of the area under the T, curve.

TRANSIENT TEMPERATURES AND STRESSES 47
In the above discussion for assumed skin temperature the radiation

between the skin and stringer has been neglected, the film coefficient
between skin and stringer contact has been neglected (perfect conduction
assumed), and the effect of the stringer upon the skin temperature in
absorbing heat from the skin has been omitted. These effects will be
examined in the following sections.
PROBLEMS
3-1. If
Tm = 450°F above room temperature, what are the maximum thermal
stresses in the skin and stringer of Example 3-1?
3-2. Solve Example 3-1 for steel instead of aluminum. Calculate the thermal
stresses for Tm = 450°, and compare results with those of Prob. 3-1.
3-3. Draw curves similar to those in Fig. 3-1 for the parameter B = 3.
3-4. Take the maximum value in Eq. (3-10), and draw a curve for the maximum
stress against B similar to Fig. 3-2. Take one-half the abscissas to get a new curve
to compare with Fig. 3-2 (this is equivalent to taking h equal to one-half the
original h), and hence check the area approximation discussed in the text.
3-5. Integrate Eq. (3-8), and derive an equation similar to Eq. (3-10) if T, varies
as a parabola up to t = t\.
3-6. In Eq. (3-6) show that for a, > otb the maximum stress occurs at t = h.
3-7. In Eq. (3-6) show that for a, < ai there is a stress reversal at a certain time
depending upon a,/ab and Bi = B/h. Show that the maximum stresses will occur
at equilibrium (t large) and either at t =- <i or at t < h.
3-8. Use the results in Prob. 3-7 to find the time at which the maximum stresses
and the zero stresses occur if B = 1, the skin is steel, and the stringer is aluminum.
3-3. Radiation from Skin to Stringer. If radiation is considered for

the case of assumed skin temperature discussed in Sec. 3-2, then Eq. (3-2)
applies,
dTb
dt
(3-11)
Bi i
bAbPb(cp)b Abpi,(cp)b
For given T, Eq. (3-11) can be solved for

by a numerical process. How
Tb
ever, on the basis of the results in Sec. 3-2, the primary interest is the
value of T, — Tb at t = h when Tb is relatively small (small values of the
parameter B in Figs. 3-1 and 3-2). Thus the TV term can be approxi
mated as the datum temperature term TV for t = h. Note that all
temperatures in Eq. (3-11) must be absolute.
Assume the skin temperature to be
so that Eq. (3-11) becomes, with the approximation on TV,

48 THERMAL STRESSES
Integration with initial condition Tb = To at t = 0 and using Eq. (3-8)

with evaluation at t = ti gives
(^V^) = - {-§F = C-R (3-14)

\ /
J- m max •** •* m
where C is the value of -{f.)m,JHTm in Eq. (3-7) and Fig. 3-2 for con
duction alone and R is the correcting term for radiation,
R =
DT 3
K^4
- 4P3 + 12P2 - 24P + 24)
- e~B(Q*
- +4Q3
- 24Q +
12Q2 24)
- Q4(l - e~B)] (3-15)
D = D1hT0' B = BA Q =
^ P =
B(l+ji)
Example 3-2. Find the value of R in Eq. (3-15) for a steel stringer with Ab =
0.20 in.2, Sb = 3.0 in.2, el2 = 0.5, T0 = 500°R, skin temperature = 1040°F, h = 1.0
min, and parameter B = 1.0.
Solution. The value of Tm from Eq. (3-12) is 1050° + 460° 500° = 1000° so -
that Tm/To = 2.0. With this value and the value B -
1, Eq. (3-15) gives R = 9.3Z».
Now
Un-" nfT>-
ll 0
w&hTp' _ (0.50)(1.74)(0.5)'(8)(1) ft ftfM2
Abpb(cp)b (60)(144)(0.20)(0.28)(0.16)
Hence R = 0.04. In Eq. (3-14) the value of C for B = 1 is C = 0.63 from Fig. 3-2.
Thus the radiation effect is small in comparison with the conduction for this case.
As the above example indicates, the effect of radiation on the thermal

stresses is ordinarily small in comparison with that of the conduction.
Even for a skin temperature of 1500°F the value of R in the example is
only approximately doubled. Necessarily, the results are affected by the
exposed area Sb and the emissivity coefficient ei2. In many cases t12
may be much smaller than the value of 0.50 used in the example.
It should be noted that neglecting the radiation is conservative for
the stress calculations. The radiation tends to raise the stringer temper
ature so that the difference between the skin and stringer temperatures is
smaller and hence the thermal stresses are smaller.
PROBLEMS
3-9. Derive Eq. (3-15).

3-10. Solve Example 3-2 for B = 0.50.
3-11. Solve Example 3-2 for skin temperature = 540°F.
3-12. If the skin temperature is constant, T, = Ta + Tm, and if 7V is approxi
mated as 2V, show that R in Eq. (3-14) is
»-»! £[('+£)'-'] 4^
3-4. Effect of Stringer upon Skin Temperature. In Secs. 3-2 and 3-3
for the case of assumed skin temperature the effect of the conduction
to the stringer upon the skin temperature has been neglected. The
tests of Ref. 3 to be nonuniform, decreasing
show the skin temperature
at the stringers and depending upon the relative size of stringer and skin.
The purpose of investigating the effect of conduction on the skin tempera
ture is not to try to determine the nonuniform distribution but to deter
is,
mine a corrected average skin temperature. That suppose Eq. (2-42)
solved for the skin temperature without using the conduction terms, but
is
using the convection and radiation terms. This gives Eq. (2-43), the
solution of which has been discussed in Sec. 2-7. Omitting the conduc
tion terms avoids the geometry of the internal structure, which would
require a complete recalculation for each change in geometry. Thus
it
appears desirable to take the skin temperature obtained from Eq. (2-43)
and modify to allow for conduction to the internal structure, at the
it
same time obtaining the temperature of the stringers.

The simplest method of modifying the skin temperature To. obtained
without conduction to use an approximation method; assume To« to be
is
the first approximation to the skin temperature when conduction present.
is
That let To« be placed in all the convection and radiation terms of
is,
Eq. (2-42) but not in the conduction term. Then solve the Eq. (2-42)
for T, and Tb. For the case of no radiation as considered in Sec. 3-2
Eq. (2-42) reduces to
dT, dTo, 8fc,/i,

— =
b
'ft
°K
,
dt dt Whep,(cp),
dTb =
Bi{T. - Tb) Br = 8kX (3-16)
s
dt
'
bAf,pb(cp)b
These equations combine to give
(T. - Tb) + (B. + B0(T, - Tb)

=
(3-17)
jt
whence [see Eq. (3-8)]
T,-Tb = e-<-B'+B* dt + d
(^jf) e<B'+B'» (3-18)
J
As in Sec. 3-2 assume
To, = Tom — < <

0
ti
t
To, = (3-19)
^
Tom
ti
t
50 THERMAL STRESSES
Then
T. - 0 < t < h
T. -
(3-20)
t > h
Tom
B. + B,
JL /£ _ - Tb\
0 < < < «l
Tom Ri VI Ôm / (3-21)
n > ti
\
t
Tom f?l Tom /
T,-Tb Tb
(3-22)
Tom Tom
Note that Eq. (3-20) has the same form as Eq. (3-6) with a, = o%, except
RiB replaces B. Thus, in Fig. 3-1, the curves apply for T, — Tb in
Eq. (3-20) if B is replaced by RiB, for Tb in Eq. (3-21) if multiplied by
l/Ri, and there will be a new curve for T, given by Eq. (3-22). The
maximum stress can be obtained from Eq. (3-7) if B is replaced by RiB.
Since the skin temperature T, will deviate more and more from the
assumed temperature T0, as time goes on, the above results will be
incorrect beyond t = h for large values of Ri. However, the maximum
— good up to that point.
B it ti,
stress occurs at t and the approximation is

Also, since Ri > conservative to neglect this effect of the stringer
is
1,
on the skin. With < RiB the stress will be larger for (Fig. 3-2).
PROBLEMS B
3-13. Derive Eq. (3-20).

3-14. Graph Eqs. (3-19) to (3-22) for = 1.0 and JS, = 1.5. Vary t/h from
B
to 4.
0
3-15. Solve Prob. 3-1 by using the factor Ri denned in this section.
3-16. By using Eqs. (3-21) and (3-22) derive an expression equivalent to Eq. (3-6)
which involves Ri and allows the skin and stringer to be different materials.
3-5. Effect of Thermal Resistance of Joints on Stringer Temperatures.

The calculations in Secs. 3-2 to 3-4 have assumed perfect conduction
across the joint between the skin and stringer or that the skin and stringer
are one integral piece. Actually the heat transfer across joint depends
a
on the metal conduction at points of contact, on air conduction, and on

radiation. The amount of heat transmitted depends upon such factors
as pressure, surface smoothness, surface flatness, and type of joint (rivet,
bonded, etc.). Barzelay, Tong, and Hollo in recent NACA Reports
(Refs. have made tests in an attempt to evaluate these factors.
5)
4,
They measured the thermal conductance across the interface joints

and reached general conclusions that the thermal conductance increases

with temperature but remains nearly constant for changes in heat flow,
that thin foils of good conducting materials inserted between the inter
faces improve the heat transfer, that common strength-giving bonding
materials produce joints with very poor thermal conductivity, and that
thermal conductance increases with pressure.
To get an idea of the effect of the thermal resistance of the joint on the
stringer temperature, consider the heat being transferred through the
skin to the stringer and the heat transferred across the joint. From
Eq. (2-42) the heat flow through the skin to the stringer is
- Tb)
Hc = (3-23)
8kMTb'
while the heat flow across the joint can be expressed as
Hj = h-ad(T, - Tb) (3-24)
where hj is the joint thermal conductance in Btu per hour per square
foot per degree Fahrenheit and d is the effective width of contact between
skin and stringer. The equivalent heat flow through two resistances in
series is
Heq = = RjHc Rj = (3-25)

(1/Hc) + (l/Hj) 1 + (8kX/hjbd)
where Rj may be regarded as the joint thermal-resistance factor. If it
is 1, there is perfect conduction; if it is zero, there is perfect insulation.
This effect can in all the results of Secs. 3-2 to 3-4 simply by
be included
replacing the parameter Bt by RjBi. The maximum thermal stress can
be obtained from Fig. 3-2 by using RSB in place of B. Note that Rj is
usually less than 1 so that the stresses will be larger.
Figure 3-3 shows a graph of Rj in Eq. (3-25) against hj with 8k,h,/bd
as parameter. Also shown is the range of hj for the test data of Ref. 4
on 75S-T6 plates under various conditions on the interfaces. From
Fig. 3-3 Rj will be near 1 in most practical cases if the parameter 8k,h./bd
is small; otherwise, for large values of the parameter, Rj may be small
regardless of practical values of This indicates that, for all
hj.
greater
hj
than about 50, the geometry of the joint may be more important in
determining Rj than the conductance coefficient For aluminum alloy
hj.
8k.h, 7,200A„
= 90
bd bd
(3-26)
for = 0.10 in., = 8.0 in., = 1.0 in. For the tests of Ref. = 26.0
h,
3,
d
b
= 3.0 in., and = 0.051 to 0.50 in. so that the parameter

is h,
to 46.
is
in.,
5
d
The primary result that the effect may be small for some joints and
52 THERMAL STRESSES
large for others. A judicious use of the test data of Refs. 4 and 5, and
of any other available data, in Eq. (3-25) will give an idea of the magni
tude of the effect.
Thus, of the three primary items omitted in the discussion of Sec. 3-2,
it appears that the radiation effect is small (Sec. 3-3), that the stringer
conduction effect on the skin can be taken care of by using a factor Ri
(Sec. 3-4) which is greater than 1, and that the thermal joint resistance
Range of hj for 75ST-6 plates face to face (Ref. 4)
0 100 200 300 400 500 500 700 800
hj
Fig. 3-3. Thermal resistance of joints.
can be approximated by a factor Rj, which is less than 1. In some cases

the product RiRj will be near 1.
PROBLEMS
3-17. Derive Eq. (3-26) for steel instead of aluminum alloy, and calculate Rj for
hj = 50, 100, 800, 1,200.
3-18. Repeat Prob. 3-17 for h, = 0.035 in., b = 4.0 in., d = 0.50 in.
3-19. Draw curves of Rj against hj for several values of hjbd, for aluminum alloy.
Would practical aircraft or missile structures give values of 8k,h,/bd as high as 1,000?
3-6. Comparison of Calculated and Test Temperatures. Barzelay and

Boison (Ref. 3) give temperature measurements in the skin and stiffener
of an aluminum-alloy panel heated uniformly by electric strip heaters.
As a function of time t the measured temperatures in the skin are between
a parabola and a straight line. They can be approximated by a straight

line with a changed h. The measured stiffener temperature curve has
the shape of the curves in Fig. 3-1 up to t = h, which will be taken as the
end point of the tests. The skin is 29 in. wide with a heavy stiffener in
the center.
Since the stiffener has 3 in. of contact with the skin, an effective skin
area of 3.00/i, will be used with the stiffener area of 5.00 in.2 Also, since
the skin is heated by radiation, the stiffener is considered to receive
direct radiation over the 3 in. of skin contact. For aluminum alloy, from
Eq. (3-15), the values of B and D are, with effective b of the specimens
as b= 26 in.,
B = lAOhA D = 6.o(io-'%r.' Ab = 5m + *h.

At, Ab
where the radiation surface is 3.0 in.2 for both direct radiation and skin
to stiffener radiation and ei2 = 0.37 (assumed). For the tests take
To = 520° K, Tm = 520° for directr adiation, Tm = T, for skin-stiffener
radiation.
A check of the skin-stiffener radiation [Eq. (3-15)] shows that it
amounts to about 0.01 T, or about 2 to 3°. Hence it will be neglected.
Table 3-1 shows calculations for the difference between skin and stiffener
temperatures using Eq. (3-14) as compared with the test difference. In
Eq. (3-14) Tm — T, is taken as the reading of temperature gage 6 located
6 in. from the stringer, which is regarded as the average skin temperature.
With this temperature the correction factor R\ discussed in Sec. 3-4 is

not needed. The factor R, in Eq. (3-25) for thermal resistance has
only 1 or 2 per cent effect.The radiation term R in Eq. (3-14) is
the direct radiation from the heaters to the stiffener and is given in
Prob. 3-12
'-"SKi+fe)4-']1^-^1-^ »*>
Equation (3-27) neglects any change in the stiffener temperature and will
give values on the high side for cases in which the stiffener temperature
is large. Also the stiffener radiates to the unheated oven walls in the
tests. For Tb = 200° the net radiation effect on the stiffener is approxi
mately zero. In Table 3-1 R in Eq. (3-23) is reduced as Tb increases
with R = 0 at Tb = 200°. The test temperature for the stiffener is
taken from temperature gage 11 in Ref. 3. Comparison of the calculated
temperature difference and the test difference in Table 3-1 shows reason
able agreement.
54 THERMAL STRESSES
Table 3-1. Comparison between Calculated and Test Temperatures f
Spec. h„ Ab, h,
B C R
T. T„ T, - T„ T, - Tb
No. in. in.2 min test test cal. test
1 0.051 5.15 7 0 097 0 95 0.05 262 45 236 217

12 0 166 0 92 0.10 233 56 191 177
18 0 250 0 88 0.14 246 79 182 167
2 0.125 5.38 10 0 325 0 86 0.07 244 75 193 169
17 0 55 0 77 0.12 231 84 150 137
24 0 78 0 70 0.18 245 122 128 123
3 0.250 5.75 12 0 72 0 71 0.07 237 102 152 135
21 1 28 0 56 0.10 228 129 105 99
30 1 83 0 46 0.11 237 153 83 84
4 0.375 6.12 15 1 29 0 56 0.06 253 133 126 120
27 2 31 0 39 0.04 242 153 85 89
41 3 51 0 28 0.00 271 197 76 74
5 0.500 6.50 17 1 83 0 46 0.04 253 142 106 111
32 3 45 0 28 0.00 250 174 70 76
44 4 74 0 21 0.00 259 193 55 60
f Test data from M. E. Barzelay and J. C. Boison, Investigation of Stresses Due to

Thermal Gradients in Typical Aircraft Structures, NACA RM 51K06, January, 1952.
Experimental stresses are also given in Ref. 3. The stresses vary in

the skin owing to the temperature variation. Also the skin bows and
buckles for the test specimens. There is a stress variation in the stiffener.
Because of these variations the stresses cannot be checked by Eq. (3-14).
However, Eq. (3-14) gives results of the same order of magnitude as the
average test values, usually larger than the tests.
3-7. Stringer and Skin Temperatures for Constant Heat Source. The
solution of Eq. (2-42) for the stringer temperature in Secs. 3-2 to 3-5
has been done for an assumed skin temperature. This procedure has
given considerable information on the parameters involved in the stringer
temperature and in the thermal stresses produced. However, it is diffi
cult to select the proper values of h and Tm for the assumed skin tempera
ture unless the actual temperature has been obtained by the procedures
of Sec. 2-7 or there is equivalent information available on similar prob
lems. In some cases Tm may be taken as the equilibrium temperature,
which can be obtained as shown in Sec. 2-7. To obtain a simple basis
for selecting h and Tm, consider the following assumption in Eq. (2-42),
which will represent approximately the temperature effects on an airplane
or missile in flight. Assume a constant heat source so that h and
in Eq. (2-42) are constant. This is approximately true for constant
altitude and constant speed. Neglect heat loss to the inside and radia
tion effects so that Eq. (2-42) becomes
^ = Bh(Ta.
- T,) - B,{T, - Tb)
^ - = B1{TS Tb) Bh = -r-^ (3-28)
b> = 7,21
8k,h, R _- 8k,h,
. r. \
b2h,p,(Cp), bAbpb(cp)b
The equations in Eq. (3-28) combine to give
Tb)
+ (Bh + B, + Br) jt (T.
- Tb)
dKT'd-
+ BtBi{T. - Tb) = 0 (3-29)
The initial conditions are

- T, Tb = 0 at t = 0
^ (T.
at
- Tb)
= BhTa. at t = 0
(3-30)
and integration of Eq. (3-29) gives
J a, Pi P2
where = fli + R2 + [(Ri + - 4fl2]i

R2)2
t>i
= Ri + R2- [(Ri + R2y -

^ 4/?2]* (3-32)
Ri
r> = ~
B, + Bi „
fl2 =
Bfc
BT- Fi
— Tb occurs at
The maximum value of T,
h = — p2
In ^ (3-33)
pi p2
By using this value of h in Eq. (3-31) to introduce nondimensional

time t/h, and by defining
Ri + - l(Ri + - 4flJ*
v p2
pi Ri +
R2
R2 + [(Bi +
R2)2
ii!2)2
- 4K2]i
(3-34)
M = p2h = In AT = hB^NR')*
Eq. (3-31) can be written as
where Jlf is in terms of the parameter N.

66 THERMAL STRESSES
Put Eq. (3-35) into Eq. (3-28), and integrate to get Tb.
&-F^M-f)-'-"h (-IHI <-»

By addition of Eqs. (3-35) and (3-36)
Trp-
Tj-
T. Tb T\
rp (3-37)
I
a, a,
■*■ a,
Att = the maximum value of T, —
is
Tb
h
(/.).
(T't a, /I max
= (XR2W""1-1" = (3-38)
J-
\
1.0
</Ta.
0.8
b/Ta,
0.6
0.4
//
/
/' >« V-T ,)/Tm

/
0.2
','
// /
/
//
i?2 = 25/6 -Ri = 15/ R2 = 25/ 24

8,
=5/3,
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

t/h
Fig. 3-4. Skin and stringer temperatures for constant heat source.
Figure 3-4 shows graphs of Eq. (3-35) to (3-37) for selected values of
the parameters Ri and R2. Note that N the same for both cases
is
shown so that Tb/Ta, unchanged. Figure 3-5 shows the maximum

is
thermal stress from Eqs. (3-38) and (3-1) plotted against i?2* with
fb
Ri as parameter. Note that thermal resistance (Sec. 3-5) can be allowed

for by replacing R2 with R2/ Rj.
Example 3-3. An airplane flying at 3,000 ft/sec at an altitude of 60,000 ft.

is
typical element of the aluminum-alloy wing structure ft behind the leading edge
A
as shown in Fig. 2-2 with = 0.25 in., = 15 in., Ab = 2.0 in.2 If the datum
h,
is
temperature of the structural element 80°F at = find the maximum thermal

0,
is
t
1.0
= 1.0
0.8
1 2
0.6
1.5
2.0
0.4
0.2
0 1234567°° 1*2)
l/2
Fig. 3-5. Maximum thermal stress for constant heat source.
stresses in the structure and the time at which they occur. Assume turbulent flow,
neglect shock waves, and assume the element is a flat plate.
Solution. For T = 460 + 80 = 540°R the Prandtl number in Table B-2 is 0.70
so that the recovery factor is
r = Pri = 0.89
and from Eq. (2-29)
rv/'
Tf + 2gJcp
from Table B-l T, = -67°F; from Table B-2 cp = 0.24, so that
T" ~ ~67 +
0.89(3,000)' _ 600 F
(64.4) (778) (0.24)
From Eq. (2-35) for T, = Ta,
Tr = -67 + 0.72(600 + 67) = 413°F
which gives Pr = 0.68, cp = 0.245, and hence
Ta, = 575°F = 495° above datum
To obtain the constant value of h to use, calculate h at t =0 and for large

t. Use
TB = 413°F for large and TR
t 67 + 0.5(80 + 67) + 0.22(575 + 67) = 148°F
for t = 0. From Table B-l
pi = 0.0002240 ,t»° ,~~i670 = 0.000145

460 + 148
at Tr = 148°F
p2 = 0.000101 at TR = 413°
58 THERMAL STRESSES
From Table B-2 (c,), = 0.24, (c,), = 0.245, Mi - 4.2(10-'), M2 = 5.4(10-'), Pri = 0.70,
Pr2 = 0.68. From Eq. (2-25)
Rei = 4,150,000
(3'°00j(24ff°°145)
•ffe2 = 2,240,000
From Eq. (B-l)

3'6°°g"C''
= = 0.0169 fc2 = 0.0225
fc,
rT
From Eqs. (2-37) and (2-24)
ht = = 21.3 Btu/(hr)(ft»)(°F)
0.029|#e°-8Prl
=
h2
17.3 Btu/(hr)(fts)(°F)
Thus an average 19.3 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F).

is
h
From Eqs. (3-32) and (3-28), assuming the joint resistance factor R,- = 1.0,
is
Ri - rr = !-53
+
1
on,
Wis _
=
W " (19.3)(15)(2.0) _
2
(12)(8)(75)(0.25)2
where = 75 from Table B-3. From Eq. (3-34)

fc.
N = 026 =
g^F^T) = 25 min
h
where Bl = 0.32 from Eq. (3-28). From Eq. (3-38)
(0.36) 0.125£aT„ 8,000 psi

|^
(A)m« = (8,000) = 15,000 psi
PROBLEMS
3-20. Solve Example 3-3 = 0.072 in., = 4.0 in., and Ab = 0.30 in.s
h,
if
3-21. Solve Example 3-3 at sea level.

3-22. Derive Eq. (3-29) from Eq. (3-28).
3-23. Derive Eq. (3-31).
3-24. Derive Eq. (3-33).
3-25. Put = in Eq. (3-35), and reduce to get Eq. (3-38).
h
t
3-26. Draw curves similar to Fig. 3-4 for R2 = and Ri = .

1
3-27. Solve Example 3-3 the thermal conductance of the joint between the skin
if
and stringer = 800 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F) and the contact width = 1.5 in.
hj
is
cf
is
3-8. Skin and Stringer Temperatures for Missile Structures. Con

sider missile which boosted at constant acceleration up to a certain
is
a
velocity and altitude which maintains in cruise condition. During

it
a
the boost phase the adiabatic temperature TM and the heat-transfer

coefficient h are changing owing to change in velocity, altitude, and
temperature. However in the cruise condition the equations of Sec. 3-6
can be used. From Eq. (2-29)
T« = T' +
SI
where for constant acceleration If TM is taken above datum, if
v = at.
Tf is assumed to decrease linearly with altitude, and if r and cp are

taken as average values (they change slowly with temperature), r = 0.88
and cp = 0.24, then approximately
Ta, = Te I
—
) vm = ato
TE = 72(10-«K2 - [To - Tf(to)}

(3-40)
where vm
— cruise velocity
<o
= time to reach cruise altitude and cruise velocity
T0 = datum temperature
The value of h during boost is an involved function of time due to
velocity changing with time, density changing with altitude and tem
perature, viscosity, Prandtl number, and specific heat changing with
temperature. If a mean value of h is assumed, then, neglecting radia
tion, Eq. (3-28) can be used for both the boost phase and the cruise
phase, provided the value of To, in Eq. (3-40) is used during boost and
Ta, = Te is used during cruise. This assumption of a mean h but
variable TM allows the heat-balance equations to be solved without using
a numerical procedure. Results for skin temperatures using a mean h
compare very well with those obtained by numerical procedures using
the variable h.
The problem thus is reduced to solving Eq. (3-28) for T, and 2\ for
TM and h given as
Ta' = Te h = huO<t<to
\to) (3-41)
Ta, — Te h — h2, t > to
Equation (3-29) becomes
~2{T'aV
~ + {Bh + B' + Bl>
- + BhB^T' -
Jt {T' Tb) T»)
- —to~- °^t^t" to (3-42)
+ (Bh + B. + Bi) jt (T. - + BhBi(T. -

Tb)
Tb) T»)
d'{T'd-
= 0 t >t0
60 THERMAL STRESSES
where Bh = Bhi for 0 < < Bh = Bh2 for The initial condi
f0,
t > to.
t
tions are
-
T. Tb = or =
0
0
f
t
(T. - Tb) = for = (3-43)
0
jt
t
=
and at
- Tb)i - r»),
to
f (T. = (r.
dt
{T' - Tb)i - dt
{T>
- Tb)2
(3-44)
where subscript refers to the solution for < < and subscript
t0
2
1
t
for > io-
t
The general solutions of Eq. (3-42) are
p—pit
r,(<) - (r'rgn)2= + ê^"
where pi and p2 are given by Eq. (3-32) with K2i = Bhi/B\ and p3 and p4
are given by the same equations but with R22 = Bhi/Bi. From the
initial conditions (3-43)
2p2 fli _ B\
/
Ul =
(p2 -Pl)(Bi«.)'V B« Pi/
(3^6)
C2=
(W2(1+£)-Cl
From Eqs. (3-44) and (3-45)
-
(3-47)
_ - rm
(I??
eP*'°
= 1^22
p,]
+
+
Q
[b.r,
4
i)
p4 p3 \R K.ô))
The maximum value of T, —

T6will occur either at = or at
to
h
If
<0,
> occurs at > then Eq. (3-45) gives

it
<i
to.
fi
= —
—-
<i
(3-48)
'
P4 P3 P3C3/
\
and the maximum value is
If the maximum occurs at h = then in Eq. (3-48) will calculate as
t0,
<i
t0, which will indicate the maximum to be at = t0.
<
h
h
From Eq. (3-28) the stringer temperature
is
and the skin temperature
is
t, - rb n
(3-51)
T
T
E E
Figure 3-6 shows graphs of the temperatures in Eqs. (3-45), (3-50),

6?
Fig. 3-6. Temperatures for missile structures.
and (3-51) against t/U for selected values of the parameters R2i, R22,
2?
l,
and Bito. These curves are similar in shape to the test curves given in
Ref.
6.
62 THERMAL STRESSES
Example 3-4. Solve Example 3-3 if the constant acceleration of the airplane is
such that it reaches the given altitude and velocity from take-off in 1.5 min.
Solution. From the calculations for h in Example 3-3, take h2 in Eq. (3-41) as
h2 = 20 Btu/(hr)(ft,)(°F). For hi in Eq. (3-41), assume an average value between
0 and h2 or hi = 10 Btu/(hr)(ft')(°F). From the other values in the example there
result
Ri = 1.53 Rn = 1.34 = 2Rn B,<0 = 0.48
From Eq. (3-32)
pi<o = 0.88 p2<o = 0.17 p,h = 1.10 p,U = 0.28
From Eq. (3-46) Ci = -0.98, C2 = 29.58, and Eq. (3-45) gives
Yt(t) = -0.9&r° 8"/'« + 29.58e-"-""/*. + 4.18 r

to
- 28.60
Y1(U) = 0.08 Y[(k) =

to
From Eq. (3-47) C3 = -2.56, C4 = 1.24, and from Eq. (3-48) h/U = 2.54, or
h = 3.81 min. From Eq. (3-49)
- ^§f-
5|?
(/.W = (2.56) (0.123)
>•«<
= " (°-46> = -O.lQaETB
From Eq. (3-40) TE = 657° - (80° + 67°) = 510°, and
(/.)m.x 10,600 psi
(/»W =
+Y§ (10,600) = 19,800 psi
PROBLEMS
3-28. Derive Eq. (3-46).

3-29. Derive Eq. (3-47).
3-30. Derive Eqs. (3-48) and (3-49).
3-31. Solve Example 3-4 the joint resistance factor between the skin and stringer
if
Rj = 0.80.
is
3-32. A missile boosted with constant acceleration to its cruise altitude of

is
and its cruise velocity of 3,500 /sec in min. typical element of the
ft
ft
70,000
2
behind the nose as shown in Fig. 2-2 with = 0.06

h,
titanium fuselage structure 10

ft
is
in., = 6.0 in., Ab = 0.20 in.s If the datum temperature 80°F at = draw
0,
is
<
6
curves for the skin temperature T„ the stringer temperature 7», and the difference
in temperatures T, — Tb for the first min of flight. Assume turbulent flow, neglect
8
shock waves, and assume the skin flat.

is
3-33. Find the maximum thermal stresses in the element of Prob. 3-32 and the
time at which they occur. Assume Rj = 0.90 for contact resistance between skin
and stringer.
3-9. Thermal-stress Formulas for Unrestrained Idealized Structure.

The stresses as calculated in this chapter by Eq. (3-1) have been for the
idealized structure of Fig. 2-2 with no bowing or buckling. This condi
tion of no bowing is equivalent to the restrained-in-bending case dis

cussed in Sec. 1-4. That for one material Eq. (3-1) the same as
is,
is is
Eq. (1-22) with the last term omitted. If the structure unrestrained
and of one material, then Eq. (1-22) applies. To obtain the stresses
for this case, replace the idealized structure
Fig. 2-2 by the structure of Fig. 3-7, in y-Skin
of
Area-A.-^
which the skin of area
1
at the temper-
A
is
,
ature T, and the web and other flange A2 tw—
-|
are at temperature Tb.
From Eq. (1-22) the stress at any point Area -Aw -
on the cross section of the form
is
=
E(a + mx - aT) (3-52)
f
'
0
where a and m are constants. Consider
V^-Area=A2
the skin to be one material and the web FlG 3.7 structural element for
and bottom flange to be different material, bending.
a
Then, since Eq. (1-22) applies only for

one material, will be necessary to use Eq. (3-52) in the equilibrium
it
equations
ffdA =0 SfxdA =
(3-53)
0
to evaluate the constants a and m, and hence obtain the stress on the
cross section. Substitute Eq. (3-52), with E, and a, for the skin and
Eb and ab for the web and lower flange, into Eq. (3-53), and integrate
to get
Aa Bbwm = E Ba =
+ +
B +
Dbwm
= EbA2 E,A. + EbAw = E,A, \EbAv
E A
= EbA2abTb E,A,a,T, + EbAwabTb

+
(3-54)
D = E3A, = E,A,a,T, + Â^Tt,
+
$EbAw
From Eqs. (3-54)

ED -
BF AF - EB ...
= mK =
- .„
,
AD -B2 (3-55)
a
AD B>
The in the skin

is
stress
- a.T.) -h(^T.-
Tb)
= E,(a + =
/.
mbw
E,ab[l + (iEbA2/EbAw)] ^
=
rj
(4E.A./EbA.) (±EbA2/EbAw) + [l2E,A,EbA2/(EbAwy]

+
+
1
which the same form as Eq. (3-1).

Stresses in the web and bottom
is
flange can be obtainedby putting Eq. (3-55) into Eq. (3-52).

Note that these results for the unrestrained case can be used for all
the temperature distributions considered in this chapter. Different
64 THERMAL STRESSES
values for the constant H are needed for the no-bowing and the unre
strained cases.
PROBLEMS
3-34. Solve Prob. 3-1 for the unrestrained case, assuming no bottom flange {A2 = 0).
Where does the maximum stress occur in the web? Compare the stresses with the
results in Prob. 3-1.
3-35. If 6w is relatively large compared with skin thickness and if the web does
not buckle, does it make any difference in the stresses what values 6«, and <w have
as long as Aw - bjtw is fixed?
3-36. An aluminum-alloy channel section at 400° above datum is attached to a
steel skin at 700° above datum. Area of the skin is 0.40 in.2, area of channel web
is 0.50 in.s, and area of bottom flange is 0.60 in.2 Find the maximum stresses in the
cross section.
3-37. Take A2 = 0 in Eq. (3-56), and write an expression for the ratio between H
in Eq. (3-1) and in Eq. (3-56). Graph this expression against the area ratio to
obtain an idea of the difference between the restrained-in-bending and unrestrained
cases.
3-38. Show that for one material Eq. (3-1) is the same as Eq. (1-22) with the last
term omitted.
REFERENCES
1. Huston, W. B., C. N. Warfield, and Anna Z. Stone: A Study of Skin Temperatures

of Conical Bodies in Supersonic Flight, NACA TN 1724, October, 1948.
2. Lo, Hsu: Determination of Transient Skin Temperature of Conical Bodies during
Short-time, High-speed Flight, NACA TN 1725, October, 1948.
3. Barzelay, M. E., and J. C. Boison: Investigation of Stresses Due to Thermal
Gradients in Typical Aircraft Structures, NACA RM 51K06, January, 1952.
4. Barzelay, M. E., K. N. Tong, and George Hollo: Thermal Conductance of Con
tacts in Aircraft Joints, NACA TN 3167, March, 1954.
5. Barzelay, M. E., K. N. Tong, and George Hollo: Effect of Pressure on Thermal
Conductance of Contact Joints, NACA TN 3295, May, 1955.
6. Tendeland, T., and B. A. Schlaff: Temperature Gradients in the Wing of a High
speed Airplane during Dives from High Altitudes, NACA TN 1675, July, 1948.
7. Ambrosio, A., and T. Ishimoto: Analytical Studies of Aircraft Structures Exposed
to Transient External Heating, vol. Ill, Thermal Response of the Skin and Support
Flange of a Structural Joint, WADC TR 54-579, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, 1955.
8. Coulbert, C. D., and Chien Liu: Thermal Resistance of Aircraft Structure Joints,
WADC TN 53-50, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1953.
CHAPTER 4
THERMAL STRESSES FOR ONE-DIMENSIONAL

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
4-1. Introduction. In Chap. 3 the case of the skin and stringer, each
at a different uniform temperature, was considered. The results obtained
there will apply to structures with
Heated surface
relatively thin skin and small stringers.
If the skin is relatively thick or
]_L
the stringer is deep, or the stringer T
becomes a full-depth web or spar, then Thick plate
the temperature will vary through the

Heated surface
skin thickness and through the depth
of the stringer or web. This variation
of temperature in one direction, in an
idealized structure, and the resulting
thermal stresses will be considered in
the following sections.
Figure 4-1 shows the cases of (1) the
thick skin and of (2) the thin skin with
Sheet and stringer
a deep stringer to be considered. In (or spar cap, or web, or rib)
case 2 the skin (plus stringer flange Fig. 4-1. Temperature varies with
against skin, if any) and the other flange time and "x" coordinate.
of the stringer are assumed to be at'
average uniform temperatures. The outside surface of the thick plate
is heated by convection from the boundary layer, and the heat is con
ducted through the thickness of the plate. Thus Eq. (2-3) for heat con
duction and Eq. (2-20) for the boundary between the air and the plate
apply, whence
dT k d2T
dt pcp dx2
dT
on x = 0
dx (4-1)
dT =
^
dx 1 (T„ - T) on x = L
T at t = 0
65
66 THERMAL STRESSES
where x and L are denned in Fig. 4-1, TM is the adiabatic boundary-layer

temperature, and k, p, cp are conductivity, density, and specific heat of
the plate.
Since ordinarily h and Ta, are involved functions of time, there are
difficulties in solving Eq. (4-1). Most of the solutions in the literature
have changed the surface condition on x = L to a simpler case by assum
ing the surface temperature as a simple function of time. See, for
example, Carslaw and Jaeger (Ref. 1), Jakob (Ref. 2), and Anthony
(Ref. 3). Heisler (Ref. 4) assumed Ta, to vary linearly with time with
h constant. Kaye and Yeh (Ref. 5) assumed both T„ and h to vary
linearly with time. The following sections derive results for some of these
cases.
The thermal stresses in the plate are given by Eq. (1-24), which can
be written as
(1
- v)fy _ (1
- v)f,
= _ T_
+ Hc +
aETE ocETe Te
Hc = T{X) AX (4-2)
ZTe fo
where Te is the equilibrium temperature. For the beam Eq. (1-22) can
be written as
fy _ T
+ Hc +
aETE Te
Hc = T{x)b{x) dx (4-3)
fo
Ih =
[ T{x)(x
- c)b(x) dx
where is the distance to the centroid of the beam cross section.

c If the
beam is unsymmetrical, Eq. (1-23) can be used.
4-2. Plates or Beams with Linear Transient Temperature on One
Surface or Edge. Equation (4-1) gives the temperature distribution for
this case provided the boundary condition on the surface x = L is
replaced by
T = TEj on x = L, 0 < t < h . .
T = TE on x = L, t > h
To solve the partial differential equation in Eq. (4-1), assume

T = F1{x)F,{t)
ONE-DIMENSIONAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION 67
so that FiF't =
Wî'F2 Wi = —
pcp
where X2 is an arbitrary constant. Solution of these ordinary differential

equations gives
Fi = Ci sin \x + C2 cos Xx
F2 = C3e-x,Tr''
so that T = e-»w"(Ct sin Xx + C6 cos Xx) (4-5)
The boundary condition dT/dx = 0 on x = 0 makes C4 = 0 in Eq. (4-5).

The condition T = 0 at t = 0 must hold on a; = L so that
XL = 0 XJ, = (2n = pn
cos + 1)
| (4-6)
To satisfy the other boundary conditions, construct a sum of terms,

one for each X„, and hence take T in the form
oo
T = Te
i+ X an exp
(- cos
^ - ?l(a;) 0 - - fi
f
n=0
r ^ - (4-7)
(-
= > t,
+
^
&« exp
&|p) cos t
IF = ^ L2
= J*i-
pCpL2
If Eq. (4-7) is put into the differential equation in Eq. (4-1), then
-fT*l (x)
= - ~h
91
= - 2WP + AiX + A2
g'2'(x) =0 02
= A3x + At
Now the condition = 0 on x = 0 requires .4i = A3 = 0, and the
dT/dx
condition T = 0 at t — 0 requires
eo
£ancos^
n=0
= ffl =
^(l-g) (4-8)
where A2 = TE/2W because gÔ on i = L. By Fourier-series

expansion
a» =
- dx -
J-L \l
C0S (4-9)
2WL U) 17
68 THERMAL STRESSES
At t = h
00
TE+ân
n=0
exp (-PnW) cos
X - 21H1 - f)
= r£ + exp (-pSW) cos
^
- A<
X6"
whence by using Eq. (4-8)
b„ = o"[l - exp (pn'T7)] 44 = 0
(4-10)
Thus, Eq. (4-7) becomes
rB
T 217 L
71=0
0 < < < h
(4-11)
T
— 2
= 1 4- — cos t > h
n=0
- exp (p„2lF)
fin = 1 17 =
^ p« = (2n + 1)
|
Figures 4-2 to 4-4 show T/TE in Eq. (4-11) plotted against different
variables with several parameters. Figure 4-2 has x/L as parameter
and t/h as abscissa with fixed W; Fig. 4-3 has x/L as parameter with
W as abscissa and t = h; Fig. 4-4 has WU/h as parameter, ta < h,
1.0
X - —
1.00/ ^
T~
j
0.8 /1 f/ J
1
1
/y ,
0.6
j /
1 I
I , ft
'/' 7 •
//
/> '/II
/11
// 1
0.4
1
/// — -W' =1.00

1
1
//
h/ /
0.2
//
/
=0.20
/ V
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Fig. 4-2. Temperature distribution with x/L as parameter.

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

W
Fig. 4-3. Temperature distribution at / = h.
0 0.2 0.4 0,6 0.8 1.0
x/L
Fig. 4-4. Temperature distribution at t = to < h.
T<u
= TEU/h, with x/L as abscissa. These curves show that W is the
basic parameter in this problem just as B was in Sec. 3-2. A large W
gives small differences in temperatures, while a small W gives large
differences in temperatures. Experimental verification of T in Fig. 3-4
for W of order of 0.1 is given in Ref. 6.
70 THERMAL STRESSES
The thermal stresses for the plate are given by Eq. (4-2), in which
WHc = Wjti -J+ V o

2
L—j pn
P(n,t) 0<t<t,
71=0
eo
WHc = W + 2 Y /3"P(n,0 < > U

n-0
TO i+ - (4-12)
£ [<^L" P(„,0
= 0 < I <
12
71=0
A] fa
00
n=0
„, A (-1)" / pn'WA
The thermal stresses for the beam are given by Eq. (4-3). Let Ai
be the area of the effective skin and stringer flange, Aw the area of the
stringer web, and A2 the area of the stringer flange away from the skin;
then in Eq. (4-3)
ae
2
wt__ 2A^+SA? +
WHc =
£ j-(-T^ + A2y{nt)
n =0
0 < t < h
j ^ [^p^"
00
TO = W +
4l]
+ r5nP(»,<) >
tl
«
-
wl
cA]
C-£
=
^TO (A. 2A0 +
g
+
(<L-%)Av
r(L-c)(-p»A. _ (4-13)
y
la^ cA2 P(n,<)

+
2
Ln-0
< <
0
h
<
TFH6 = (A. - cA
+
2AX)
[J
£
(L-c)(-l)"A. LA, -
cA2]
&nP(n,t)
+
2
Pn Pn
n=
0
>
h
t
The primary interest in Eqs. (4-2), (4-3), (4-12), and (4-13) is the loca
tion, time occurring, and magnitude of the maximum stresses. From
Figs. 4-2 and 4-4 and Eq. (4-2) the location of the maximum stresses
are as follows (T increasing) :
Restrained. Maximum compression on x = L, no tension (stress dis
tribution same as temperature in Fig. 4-3).
Restrained only in bending. Maximum compression on x = L, maxi
mum tension on x = 0.
Unrestrained. Maximum compression on x = L and x = 0, maximum
tension near x = L/2.
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2

W
Fig. 4-5. Maximum thermal stresses in thick plates.
For W < 0.10 the maximum tension stress occurs near x = L for the
beam case of Eqs. (4-3) and (4-13). This is due to the assumption
that the entire area A1 is at the surface temperature. For small W
this assumption is not very practical, whence the tension stress at
x = L/2 is taken as the more realistic value. Plots of Eqs. (4-2) and
(4-3)using Eqs. (4-12) and (4-13) for selected values of x/L against t/h
indicate these maximum stresses to occur at time t = fi. Figures 4-5
and 4-6 show graphs of these maximum stresses against W. Note that,
once the stresses on x = L are calculated for the restrained-in-bending
case and for the unrestrained case, the entire stress distribution for both
cases can be obtained by graphical means from Fig. 4-4.
72 THERMAL STRESSES
— —
i1l
1.0 i i i i 1 r i i
i
R= Restrained in bending; U= Unrestraine i
i i 1
-Compression -Ter sion
1 1 1
0.8 p u.o i
Aih 3.4, A 2/Au. -0.4 M/ Aw -1.0, A2/. 4.u,-( ).4
0.6 "- n
U.O
\\
**
\"* k
/
/ \\
r \c
^
0.4 V„ -HA I
\
\ ^<< •*y-o
n —\ V- '
>»
N
v» Of R -0.2
v. Of Jl
>\
0.2
R R
~0( U 1.0
U
0.4 0.8 1.2 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
W
Fig. 4-6. Maximum thermal stresses in beams.
From Eq. (4-11) with units of inches and minutes W gives
l-°'83(f)' for steel

(4-14)
L- 2.14(|)'
for aluminum alloy
Equation (4-14) gives a maximum permissible thickness Lm for given

h and given allowable thermal-stress level. For the unrestrained plate
in Fig. 4-5 with an allowable stress of O.lOaETE and h = 1 min
Lm = 0.7 in. for steel

(4-15)
Lm = 1.9 in. for aluminum alloy
This indicates that thick skins on airplanes and missiles will have rela
tively low thermal stresses unrestrained) except for very small values
(if
of h.
It should be noted that, the temperature curve drawn at the par
is
if
ticular time giving maximum stresses, then, instead of integrating the

entire temperature expression as in Eqs. (4-12) and (4-13), may be
it
easier to approximate the curve with simple equation or to evaluate

a
the integrals in Eqs. (4-2) and (4-3) numerically. As indicated in Chap.

the stress depends on the temperature at the point as modified by the
3,
area and moment of the area under the temperature curve. The shape
of the curve can be approximated as long as the area and moment of the
area remain unaffected.
For other work in this case of assumed temperature distribution, see

Fritz (Ref. 34).
PROBLEMS
4-1. The surface of a l-in.-thick aluminum-alloy plate is heated linearly to 600°F
from 100°F in 30 sec. What is the temperature on the inside surface of the plate
after 30 sec? If the plate is unrestrained, what is the maximum thermal stress in
the plate?
4-2. Equations (4-3) and (4-13) apply when the structure is all one material. If
the skin is one material and the rest of the beam is a different material, then Eq. (3-52)
applies. Show that the constants a and m in Eq. (3-52) are given by Eq. (3-55) with
(4-16)
where T0 = T at x = 0.
4-3. Add a value for titanium alloy to Eq. (4-15).
4-4. Check points in Fig. 4-4, and show that no terms are needed in the series of
Eq. (4-11) for W > 1.00.
4-5. A symmetrical aluminum-alloy beam has one flange of area 0.50 in.2 heated
linearly from 100°F to 500°F in 2.0 min. The web is 0.1 in. thick and 3.0 in. deep.
Find the maximum stresses in the restrained-in-bending case.
4-6. A titanium plate is heated linearly from 100°F to 800°F in 1.5 min. If the
stress in the plate is not to exceed 10,000 psi, what is the maximum thickness of the
plate?
4-3. Plates with Constant Heat Source on One Surface. This case
corresponds to Eq. (4-1) with TM = TE and h constant. From Eq. (4-5)
take
T = Ae-»w>< cos \x + B
The condition
on x = L
gives
-A\e-w sin \L = ~(TS - B - Ae~»w'' cos XL)
whence B = TB X sin XL = cos XL

^
Thus the equation for p„ is
= X„L = Pn
Pn -y cot pn (4-17)
To satisfy T = 0 at t = 0, take
ao
n =0
74 THERMAL STRESSES
•0
whence TB = ) an cos
~
L
— Af
TE cos (pnx/L)dx 2T
and o„ = = — sin
: -. (4-18)
cos2 (pnx/L) dx Pn + sm pn cos pn
fQL
— - sin P" exP (-Pn2W<i) cos (pnx/L)
Z/V
Thus =
2
1
TB p" + sin p„ cos p„
The thermal stresses are given by Eq. (4-2) with
_ sin2 pn exp (-p„2W<i)

V
H =
2
J
L4 Pn(pn + sin pn cos p„)

r°
-
(4-20)
„
lib —
. 10 V sin P"[2(! — cos
Pn) pn sin pn] exp — pn2Wt/t{)
(
-T"l^ 57 .
/
^
/-/ + sin p„
;
P« (Pn cos p„)
n=
0
For the restrained-in-bending case (term in Hb omitted) Heisler (Ref .
4)
has plotted the stress on the heated surface against the parameter
< N < 0.20 (4-21)

0
for various values of hL/k. He also plots the maximum stress on the
heated surface against hL/k. These stresses on the heated surface are
the largest stresses in the plate.
Przemieniecki (Ref. 14) has drawn curves for both the restrained-in-
bending and the unrestrained cases for the stress on the heated surface
against the parameter N in Eq. (4-21). His results are shown in Figs.
4-7 to 4-9. Cheng (Ref. 28) has obtained the maximum stresses for
various hL/k on the surface and at the center for the symmetrical case
and on both surfaces for the unrestrained case.
Figures 4-7 to 4-9 show the maximum surface stress to depend on the
parameter hL/k. For = 19.3 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F) (see Example 3-3) and
h
= 75 Btu/(hr)(ft)(°F) (Table B-3) the parameter hL/k = 0.26L,

is
k
If
in feet. the stress in the plate for
-
restrained-in-bending case
is
L
not to exceed 0.10a£/7V(l ?), then, from Fig. 4-8, hL/k = 0.36 and
< 1.38 ft. For titanium with = 10, < 0.18 ft. Thus, for values
L
L
of experienced by some guided missiles, thick skins can be used without

h
producing serious thermal stresses.

To calculate the temperatures and stresses from Eqs. (4-19) and (4-20),
necessary that the roots p„ of Eq. (4-17) be known. Table 4-1
is
it
shows some of these roots.

Table 4-1. The First Four Roots, p„, of p„ = (hL/k) cot p„t
hL/k Po Pi Ps P3
0 0 3.1416 6 2832 9 4248

0.001 0 0316 3.1419 6 2833 9 4249
0.002 0 0447 3.1422 6 2835 9 4250
0.004 0 0632 3.1429 6 2838 9 4252
0.006 0 0774 3.1435 6 2841 9 4254
0.008 0 0893 3 . 1441 6 2845 9 4256
0.01 0 0998 3.1448 6 2848 9 4258
0.02 0 1410 3.1479 6 2864 9 4269
0.04 0 1987 3.1543 6 2895 9 4290
0.06 0 2425 3.1606 6 2927 9 4311
0.08 0 2791 3 . 1668 6 2959 9 4333
0.1 0 3111 3.1731 6 2991 9 4354
0.2 0 4328 3.2039 6 3148 9 4459
0.3 0 5218 3.2341 6 3305 9 4565
0.4 0 5932 3.2636 6 3461 9 4670
0.5 0 6533 3.2923 6 3616 9 4775
0.6 0 7051 3.3204 6 3770 9 4879
0.7 0 7506 3.3477 6 3923 9 4983
0.8 0 7910 3.3744 6 4074 9 5087
0.9 0 8274 3.4003 6 4224 9 5190
1.0 0 8603 3.4256 6 4373 9 5293
1.5 0 9882 3.5422 6 5097 9 5801
2.0 1 0769 3 . 6436 6 5783 9 6296
3.0 1 1925 3.8088 6 7040 9 7240
4.0 1 2646 3.9352 6 8140 9 8119
5.0 1 3138 4.0336 6 9096 9 8928
6.0 1 3496 4.1116 6 9924 9 9667
7.0 1 3766 4.1746 7 0640 10 0339
8.0 1 3978 4.2264 7 1263 10 0949
9.0 1 4149 4.2694 7 1806 10 1502
10.0 1 4289 4.3058 7 2281 10 2003
15.0 1 4729 4.4255 7 3959 10 3898
20.0 1 4961 4.4915 7 4954 10 5117
30.0 1 5202 4.5615 7 6057 10 6543
40.0 1 5325 4.5979 7 6647 10 7334
50.0 1 5400 4.6202 7 7012 10 7832
60.0 1 5451 4.6353 7 7259 10 8172
80.0 1 5514 4.6543 7 7573 10 8606
100.0 1 5552 4.6658 7 7764 10 8871
0O 1 5708 4.7124 7 8540 10 9956
tFrom "Conduction of Heat in Solids" by H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger by

permission of the Clarendon Press, Oxford.
0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32
N=kt/pCpL2
Fig. 4-8. Thermal stresses in heated surface of plate restrained in bending. (By
permission of J. S. Przemieniecki, Transient Skin Temperatures and Stresses Attained
in High Speed Flight, Tech. Office Rept. 77, The Bristol Aeroplane Company, Ltd.,
Aircraft Division, June, 1954.)
1-0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
k/hL
Fig. 4-9. Maximum thermal stresses in plates. (By permission of J. S. Przemieniecki,
Transient Skin Temperatures and Stresses Attained in High Speed Flight, Tech. Office
Rept. 77, The Bristol Aeroplane Company, Ltd., Aircraft Division, June, 1954.)
PROBLEMS
4-7. Verify the firstthree roots pi, p2, ps for hL/k = 1.0 in Table 4-1.
4-8. Use the results of Prob. 4-7 in Eq. (4-19) to draw temperature curves against
Wt/h for x/L = 1.0 and x/L = 0.0.
4-9. A titanium-alloy plate is subjected to constant heat source at Te = 700°
and h — 30 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F). If the stress in the unrestrained plate is not to
exceed 5,000 psi, how thick can the plate be?
4-10. Figure 4-7 shows the stress to be near its maximum value for a considerable
time. If the plate is steel with thickness 2 in., use Eq. (4-21) to calculate the interval
of time involved in 0.02 < N < 0.20.
4-11. Derive Eq. (4-20).
4-12. In the theory of boundary-value problems the roots of Eq. (4-17) form a
sequence of eigenvalues which define the set of eigenfunctions cos (p„x/L). This set
of functions is orthogonal; i.e.,
[L
JO
cos
L
cos P=5 dx = 0
L (4-22)
for m n. For m = n the value is not zero. This theory was used to isolate and
evaluate the constants in Eq. (4-18). Prove the theory for this case by making the
integration in Eq. (4-22).
4-4. Plates with Variable Heat Source on One Surface. In Eq. (4-1)
assume h to be constant, and take Ta, in the form »
Ta, = TE± 0<t< to

(4 23)
Ta, = Te t ^ to
78 THERMAL STRESSES
where is time for Ta. to reach the equilibrium temperature Te-

<0 Note
that t0 may be based on the straight line approximating the actual varia
tion of Ta, up to Te- Following the procedures used in Secs. 4-2 and
4-3, the solution of Eq. (4-1) under conditions (4-23) is
T_ t
+
(x/LY - - 2(k/hL)
1
TE k 2W
30
, _2_ V sin pn exp (—pn2Wt/t0) cos (pnx/L)

-
< _<
q
Li
t
o
t
W sin pn cos p„)
+
Pn2(P«
n=0
(4-24)
- Z/V
P" sin P" exP (-P"2W<o) cos (pnx/L)
t>t
T
_
2
I
0
Te W Pn2(P" + sin p„ cos p„)
\
71=
- exp (pn2W)
0
= W p" =
X cOt P"
'
/3„
1
Note that, for feL/A; =

°o, Eq. (4-24) reduces to Eq. (4-11) for the
linear surface temperature. Heisler (Ref. shows graphs
of
prescribed
4)
Eq. (4-24) for < < for several values of hL/k. The thermal
0
to
t
stresses are given by Eq. (4-2), in which
Wtl*+2j
BO
sin p"
WHe = < <
to
t
hL L-i pn
to
n=0
00
TO ggfeQ Sln P"

V
= W + >
2
to
t-l
I
Pn
n=
0
^
to
(PînPn + 2cosPw)-2
TO ^
V
= < (4-25)
+
12
Q
fc
J
n=0
TO
BO
sin P")
-
2
= 12 g=
^P(n,0 >
<0
<
^
+i22cos
Pn
n=0
pn) exp (— p^Wt/tp)
P(n,0 = (sin
Pn2(Pn + Sin pn coS p„)
The maximum value of the surface stresses will occur at > to. Since
<i
the stress curves are rather flat (Fig. 4-7), the maximum can be deter
mined approximately by calculating the stresses for about three values
of > t0. Values for < can be read from Heisler's curves in
t0
t
t
Ref.
4.
Equation (4-1) can be solved, in manner similar to that for the linear
a
case, for other variations in Ta, such as a parabola or t" variation. How
ever, the coefficients in the series become more involved, and higher-
degree polynomials in x have to be introduced. Also, the Laplace trans
form can be used to solve the system (4-1). Kaye and Yeh (Ref. 5) used
this method with both h and Ta, having linear variations. They give
charts (Ref. 5) for obtaining the temperatures for this case and apply
the charts to a previous problem (Refs. 15, 16) solved by numerical
procedures.
For other work on plates see papers by Schneider (Ref. 17) on various
cases of heat generation, by Ness (Ref. 18) on sweat cooling, by Sprague
and Huang (Ref. 19) on edge heating, and by Ambrosio and Ishimoto
(Ref. 37) on the distinction between thin and thick plates.
PROBLEMS
4-13. Show that Eq. (4-24) reduces to Eq. (4-11) for hL/k = ».
4-14. Derive Eq. (4-25).
4-16. If W = 0.2 and hL/k = 1.0, use the results of Prob. 4-7 to draw temperature
curves against t/U for x/L = 1.0 and x/L = 0.0.
4-16. What are the maximum stresses in Prob. 4-15 for the restrained-in-bending
case?
4-17. Derive Eq. (4-24).
4-5. Beams with Constant Heat Source on Skin. Whereas the tem
perature distributions in in the plate or beam for a
Sec. 4-2 are the same
prescribed surface or edge temperature, they are not necessarily the
same for a constant heat source. Section 4-3 gives results for the plate
•26 W-Zhs
bw=2L -J
-x=<l
f
Fig. 4-10. Structural element for multiweb beam.
for a constant heat source. These results will apply to the beam only
if it is actually a plate heated on one edge, having no flange on the heated
side. For the skin exposed to a constant heat source with webs inside
(Fig. 4-10) conduction through the skin as well as the web must be
considered. The equations are
80 THERMAL STRESSES
h d'Tb
0 < x < L
dt Pb(cp)b dx2
dT. k, d2T,
dt P«(cp)« dx2
+ TT^VlT
p.{cp).h,
h
(Ta.-T.) L<x<L + b
= 0 on x = 0 (4-26)
dx
T. = Tb on x = L
' ox /
on i=L
T. = T6 = 0 at « = 0
Pohle and Oliver (Ref. 7), Schuh (Refs. 8, 9), Parkes(Refs. 10, 33), Hoff
and Torda (Ref. 11), and Goldberg (Ref. 12) have considered this set of
equations (4-26) under various assumptions and by several methods,
including Laplace transform and numerical integration.
Schuh (Ref. 8) has used numerical integration to solve the system (4-26)
and construct charts of temperature against the parameter
i
~[l
r hpb(cp)b
hph{cp)b
, , , , | (4-27)
\_kbp,(cp),h,
for various locations in the skin and web at selected times. The web
thickness equals the skin thickness in the calculations. For the skin
<, <i>
1.0 =.°*
«-20
10
«-5
0.8
0-2
0.6
<f>- Ih,b! hwL

0.4
= lhs/h w
R
0.2
3
7
0
5
1
q=Uh/khs-)V2
Fig. web stresses for
Maximum = 7.5. [By permission from H. Schuh,
R
4-11o.
Transient Temperature Distributions and Thermal Stresses in a Skin-shear Web Con
figuration at High Speed Flight for a Wide Range Parameters, Journal
of
the
of
Aeronautical Sciences, 22(12): 829-836 (1955).]

and web the same material, he gives curves (Ref .8) of stress /»,
at the
</>
center of the web against q for various ratios of = 2h,b/hwL and for
values of = 2h,/hw. Figure 4-11 shows his results for the
R
several
maximum stresses. These results are for the symmetrical box beam, or
82 THERMAL STRESSES
are equivalent to the restrained-in-bending case. Figure 4-12 shows the

time W = kh/pcpL2 at which the maximum stresses occur. Goldberg
(Ref. 12) gives curves of temperature and stress against time for a
sinusoidal heat input.
Figure 4-11 shows that, for and R relatively large, there is little
change in the stress with <p and R. This is equivalent to a thin web
attached to a thick skin, in which case the web has little effect on the skin
temperature. The skin temperature may then be taken as uniform so
that it can be determined directly without regard to the web. This
1.0
0.8
1 o.e
y
£ 0.4
\R- = 2.0, 1.0
0.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
?=i|*Ms]l/2
Fig. Time at which maximum stresses occur.
4-12. [By permission from H. Schuh,
Transient Temperature Distributions and Thermal Stresses in a Skin-shear Web Con
figuration at High Speed Flight for a Wide Range of Parameters, Journal of the
Aeronautical Sciences, 22(12): 829-836 (1955).]
assumption simplifies Eq. (4-26) into two separate equations for the
skin and for the web. If the effect of the web upon the skin is neglected,
then Eq. (3-28) gives for constant heat source
T,
Tb
= 1 - e-B"' Bh =
Pth,(Cp),
(4-28)
With the assumption of the skin temperature as given in Eq. (4-28)

and with hj the thermal conductance [see Eq. (3-24)] across the joint
between the skin and web, the problem of the temperature distribution
in the beam (Ref. 21) reduces to Eq. (4-1) with the condition
g |[7Vl-e--)-T]
= on x = L (4-29)
The solution is
= +
rB
1
-Ciexp(- <rjcosr 2/anexpV-
n— 0
~tr) cos^
? n J
hP,{cp)X p»(e,)»L' (4-30)
Ci =
—
£ —
: p„ = m,- cot p„
m,- cos <7 9 sin q
2q2 sin p„
a„ = — —
(q2 Pn2) (pn + sin p„ cos p„)
Note that, if
h replaces hs and Bh is a specified constant, then Eq. (4-30)
represents another case in Sec. 4-4 for TM = TE(l — e_B*'), a variable
heat source. If there is no resistance at the joint, or the skin and web
are integral structure, then m, = « and the expressions simplify to
Ci = sec q pn = (2n + 1)
| an =
^îj (4-31)
The thermal stresses are given by Eq. (4-3) with
A.T, + A1T1 + A2T2

AHc =
E
- exp Vj mn + ^ exp / PnWA

00
,
A.
, f, C, / . , V • 1
v- <^ J H
+ sm
L1 7 v- 2/ 3
(L - c)(A.T. + AiTi) - c^2r2

n-0
„
Ji
— = = „™
tib
C
.
+ 4„
\L . n
Cl
\L-,
(cos
- + sm
— c — —g] exp /
sin
3
1
1
, • \
q)
c «2SWA
j 2 J ^— ^
00
j. V L - •
- csinpnl exp / Pn2WfM
\- -ir)\
+ a- T 1
p« 1
1 -i-
+ sm n
( p">
2/ -^r~ J
where 4,
= skin area at temperature T,
Al = flange area any) next to skin at temperature T\
(if
A2 = other flange area at temperature T2

The temperatures Ti and T2 are given by Eq. (4-30) at x = and x =
L
0,
respectively. For different materials use Eqs. (3-52), (3-55), and (4-16).
Figure 4-13 for the restrained-in-bending case shows the maximum
thermal stresses against the parameter for several values of the joint
q
thermal-conductance parameter rrij. The curves are drawn for an aver

<tt>
age geometry of = based on Fig. 4-11. The curves show that the
5
parameter rrij for the joint may increase the thermal stresses for small
84 THERMAL STRESSES
values of q but may actually decrease the stresses for large values of q.
The time at which the maximum stresses occur is similar to Fig. 4-12,
except for small values of q, for which the time increases as my decreases.
Levy (Ref. 20) gives stresses and curvature of beams for a linear
temperature penetration part way into the beam.
Kotanchik (Ref. 13) gives test results on heating one side of a multiweb
beam. The temperature distribution is similar to that calculated in
Ref. 7 and shows some decrease in skin temperature at the web. The
temperature in the web is low, and a check of the measured stresses is
made by using average skin and web temperatures in the equations for
hjLI fe-0.( )
htb/
Fig.
0 12345678
4-13. Maximum web stresses for various joint thermal resistances (</>= 5).
[By permission of the Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 24: 152-153 (1957).]
stress in Sec. 3-9. The stresses in the skin checked very well up to
buckling of the skin. Cobb and Brouns (Ref. 27) give theoretical and
experimental temperatures and stresses for a rapidly heated box beam.
Seide, Taylor, and Harvill (Ref. 36) give curves for temperature and
stress for various geometry and material of the box beam, including
some work on contact resistance between skin and web and on end
effects. See also Quinville and Sneyd (Ref. 38) for a discussion of contact
resistance.
Example 4-1. A multiweb beam similar to Fig. 4-10 is heated on both surfaces
by a constant heat source of h = 40 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F) and TE = 500°F above datum.
If the material is aluminum alloy with h, = 0.15 in., hw = 0.08 in., 26 = 15 in.,
2L = 10 in., find the maximum thermal stress in the web.
q
_ 5 f 40(12) li la
12L75(0.15)J
The parameters and R are
.
* " (2) (0.15) (7.5) _ 5 b *p 2(0.15)
•J'75
0.08(5) -008"
From Fig. 4-11
(-/l)"aI = 0.61 for = 7.5

aiii E
(/")°" = 0.63 for « = 2.0
whence by interpolation
= 40,000 psi
(/»)m»x = (0.62) (13) (10) (500)
PROBLEMS
4-18. Solve Example 4-1 for steel.

4-19. Solve Example 4-1 for h varying from 0 to 100 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F).
4-20. Solve Example 4-1 for a joint thermal conductance of (a) hj = 100, (6)
hj = 500.
4-21. Derive Eq. (4-30).
4-22. Use Eq. (4-31) to construct the m,- = °o curve in Fig. 4-13.
4-6. Shear Lag in Beams. In the previous sections thermal stresses

have been obtained for both restrained and unrestrained long beams
and plates. These results do not apply near the ends of the beams
unless the restraint is provided at the ends. Ordinarily the beams such
as stringers, ribs, and spars are restrained along their length but are
essentially free at the ends. Unrestrained beams will always have end
—*-T — *-fx, comp. -*~fx, comp

' y
t
L
3
L, I
fx- 0
( (
1
Fig. 4-14. Thermal stresses along beam.
effects. Figure 4-14 shows an unrestrained symmetrical beam with a

symmetrical temperature distribution. Away from the ends of the beam
the stress distribution will be similar to the temperature, but at the ends
the stress must be zero. For the stress fx to change along the beam, the
stresses fv and rxy must be present. This requires the solution of a two-
dimensional stress problem with a one-dimensional temperature distribu
tion (see Chaps. 5 and 9). However, an approximate solution for the
stresses can be obtained by using shear-lag theory (Refs. 22 to 26, 35).
86 THERMAL STRESSES
Consider the beam idealized to that shown in Fig. 4-15, where the
webs take only shear loads and the stringers take only axial loads. If
the beam is assumed restrained at the ends by compression load P in
stringers Ai and a tension load 2P in stringer A 2, then this restraint can
*
t
y
O
a
<\ 1
2P- { , 2P
J 0 '■ ( A2
a
( t P OA1
l h
Free end
Fig. 4-15. Beam for shear-lag calculations.
be removed by the superposition of the reversed loads shown in Fig. 4-15.

The loads away from the end are determined by the temperature distri
bution in Fig. 4-14. From Eq. (1-37) with /„ = 0 the stress in the
stringers due to these loads will be
(4-33)
The shear flow, which is constant in the y direction, is
= h,rxy = Gh. +
3
Oh. —
(«2 Mi) (4-34)
where v = 0 for assumed infinite stiffness in the y direction. Differenti

ate Eq. (4-34) with respect to x, and substitute from Eq. (4-33) to get
D« =
^[(i + l)l«d* + E«^-T.\
where D = d/dx. Differentiate again to get
D2q — p2q =
Gh,a
a
D(T2 - T,) = 0
Gh, I 2A\ (4-35)

P2
AiaE \ A2J
The solution of Eq. (4-35) is
q = Cie~px + C2epx
(4-36)
From Figs. 4-14 and 4-15 the boundary conditions can be taken as
q = 0 for x = L, L large
P = qdx = - Ai/i at x =
(4-37)
fQL
0
This gives the shear flow as
= pPe~"x
(4-38)
q
Superposition of the loads gives zero loads in the stringers at x = and
0
stringer load variation of
a
pl =
/;gdx = p(i-e-)
P2 = 2P(1 - e~") (4-39)
The maximum load in transverse stiffener at the free end will be

a
P, = aq(0) = apP (4-40)

the web thin, will tend to buckle in shear and other transverse
is
it
If
stiffness will have to be provided along the beam until the shear becomes
small. In fact the shear flow in thin webs will tend to be constant in the
direction between stiffeners. If the shear flow is assumed constant at
x
then the minimum distance to load the stringers

is
g(0),
d
_ aAiE
V
1
,
^~*1J
|
\Gh.[\ + (2A./A,)]]
V
the web thick with relatively small flanges, or the beam plate
If
is
is
a
heated on the edges, then, with the assumption of constant shear flow
direction for distance the shear-flow variation in the direc
in
the
d,
x
tion
is
dA
[afxd.
.
(4-42)
Jy
where determined by the temperature distribution. The maximum

is
fx
load in the end stiffener will be
P, =
j*
dy (4-43)
q
used in Eq. (4-42), then Eq. (4-42) can be used

from Eq. (4-41)
If
is
d
to get approximate maximum shear flows for any unrestrained beam,

symmetrical or unsymmetrical, with symmetrical or unsymmetrical tem
perature distribution, where
where and are the stringer areas.

A
A
3
i
88 THERMAL STRESSES
Example 4-2. In Fig. 4-15 let a = 5.0 in., h. = 0.050 in., Ai = 0.80 in.8, A2 =
0.25 in.2 (5 in. of web), and/i = 10,000 psi due to temperature. Find the maximum
shear stress in the web, the maximum load in the end stiffener, and the minimum
distance over which the end effects can be balanced out.
Solution. With E/G = 2(1 + *) = 2.5, Eq. (4-35) gives p = 0.19, whence
g(0) = (0.19) (0.80) (10,000) = 1,520 lb /in.
Thus the maximum shear stress in the web is 1,520/0.050 = 30,400 psi. The maxi
mum load in the end stiffener is [Eq. (4-40)]P. = 5(1,520) = 7,600 lb, and Eq. (4-41)
gives the minimum distance d as 5.3 in. Note that, for the web riveted to the
stringers Ai, the load on the rivets will be approximately ^(0) = 1,520 lb/in. over
the end 5.3 in. Note also that d = a approximately, agreeing with the conventional
design practice of using a uniform shear flow over a distance approximately equal
to the width of tfce panel.
PROBLEMS
4-23. Solve Example 4-2 if h, = 0.10 in. and 5 in. of web is used for the area A2.
Compare results with those in the example.
4-24. Consider the beam in Fig. 4-14 to be an aluminum-alloy plate 0.25 in. thick
and 10 in. wide with a symmetrical temperature distribution
T = WOy 0 < y < 5

T = -lOOt/ -5 < y < 0
Use d = 5 in. in Eq. (4-42), and find the maximum shear stress in the plate. If the
last 2 in. of the plate is assumed to resist the stiffener load given by Eq. (4-43), will
this load buckle the plate?
4-25. Solve Prob. 4-23 for a temperature of A i at 500°F above datum and the rest
of the beam at 0°F. Assume the plate to be steel alloy, and use Eq. (4-44).
4-26. Solve Prob. 3-36 for the maximum shear flow near the ends if the web thick
ness is h, = 0.050 in.
4-7. Thermal Stresses in Turbine Blades. There can be two thermal-

stress problems in gas-turbine blades. A transient, or thermal-shock,
problem arises when the gas turbine is started or stopped. A steady-state
problem may arise if the blades are cooled. Since the heat source is
essentially constant, the transient problem for solid blades can be approxi
mated by the method of Sec. 4-3. For blades with thickness variations
Secs. 5-2 and 5-3 can be used. Lighthill and Bradshaw (Ref. 29) have
considered this transient problem, deriving solutions for the infinite plate
and wedge.
The steady-state problem for cooled blades has been considered by
Livingood and Brown (Ref. 30) and by Pollmann (Ref. 31). The primary
problem is to find the temperature distribution. Once this is done, the
thermal stresses are given by Eqs. (4-2) or (4-3). The span wise varia
tion of temperature along a solid blade can be approximated by the
second formula in Eq. (4-26) with the time term omitted,
where heat is received from the hot gases and conducted to the blade
root and turbine disk. For T, = 2\ at x = 0 (the root) and dTJdx = 0
at x = L (the tip) Eq. (4-45) gives
cosh X(L —
a;)
Ta, T, — {Ta, —
T\) cosh XL
(4-46)
X2 = h_
h,hg
For large XL, T, — Ta, at the tip. Also, as discussed in Sec. 4-5, in
many cases conduction has little effect on the distribution of the temper
ature so that Ti may be nearly equal to T0>. For the hollow blade with
allowance for cooling-air temperature change due to convection, radiation,
radial conduction, and rotation Eq. (4-45) becomes (Ref. 30)
d2T AT
hjPj (4-47)
= G2 =
F
kPah,
It
Cp (j
hjj + h„P„
G3 =
kPah,
where hi, h0, hn heat-transfer coefficients for inside cooling air, outside
gases, and nozzle radiation
= inside, average, and outside perimeter of blade
P
P0
P
»j a,
1
= angular velocity
TP
rr = radius of disk at blade root

Wa = weight flow rate of cooling air
Equation (4-47) under various approximations discussed and solved in
is
Ref. 30.
Equations (4-45) to (4-47) assume the blade temperature to be uniform
at any blade cross section. Actually
there considerable variation across the
is
cross section, particularly when the hol

low blade cooled.
Consider the blade
is
cross section shown in Fig. 4-16. The

center part of the blade between and
C
cooled more effectively than the

C"
is
blade edges, since the heat entering at

B
must first flow to to be transferred to

C
cooling air. This steady-state

is
the
a
Fig. 4-16. Blade cross section.

heat-conduction problem in tapered
a
to solved in Ref. 31.

and There
B
section also heat con

C
is
is
duction along the blade wall from to and to D, which equiv-

C
is
Fig. 4-18. Stress field for hollow turbine blade.
alent to the case in Eq. (4-47) or to Eq. (4-45) if an average h and TM are
used. Finally there is a temperature drop across the thickness of the
blade wall due to difference of inside-air temperature and outside-gas
temperature. Figure 4-17 shows the temperature field as obtained by
Pollmann (Ref. 31) for the blade in Fig. 4-16.
Since the blade cross section is unsymmetrical, Eq. (1-23) can be
used for the thermal stresses. The temperature T0 as denned in Eq.
(1-23) represents a temperature field of straight lines, which is shown in
Fig. 4-17. If the points where the two temperature fields have equal
temperature differences are connected together, there result lines of
equal temperature difference which represent, by Eq. (1-23), lines of
equal thermal stress. Figure 4-18 shows the thermal-stress field as
determined by Pollmann (Ref. 31) from the temperature fields in Fig.
4-17.
PROBLEMS
4-27. Derive Eq. (4-46).
4-28. What effect does the spanwise temperature variation given by Eq. (4-46)
have upon the thermal stresses given by Eq. (1-23)? See Sec. 5-2.
4-29. Show that the stress in the blade due to centrifugal force is
-
= >p2R2
(I A)
for a constant cross section with R the radius of the turbine disk plus length of the
blade and a measured from the blade tip toward the disk center.
REFERENCES
1. Carslaw, H. S., and J. C. Jaeger: "Conduction of Heat in Solids," Oxford Uni

versity Press, New York, 1947.
2. Jakob, Max: "Heat Transfer," vols. I, II, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1949.
3. Anthony, M. L.: Temperature Distributions in Slabs with a Linear Temperature
Rise at One Surface, "Proceedings of the General Discussion of Heat Transfer,"
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, pp. 250-264, Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, London, 1951.
4. Heisler, M. P.: Transient Thermal Stresses in Slabs and Circular Pressure Vessels,
J. Appl. Mech., 20:261-269 (1953).
5. Kaye, Joseph, and V. C. M. Yeh: Design Charts for Transient Temperature
Distribution Resulting from Aerodynamic Heating at Supersonic Speeds, /. Aero-
naut..Sci., 22:751-762 (1955).
6. Wilkes, P. R.: Thermal Effects on Channel Sections, thesis at U.S. Air Force
Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, August, 1955.
7. Pohle, F. V., and H. Oliver: Temperature Distribution and Thermal Stresses in a
Model of a Supersonic Wing, J.
Aeronaut. Sci., 21:8-16 (1954).
8. Schuh, H.: Transient Temperature Distributions and Thermal Stresses in a
Skin-shear Web Configuration at High Speed Flight for a Wide Range of Parame
ters, J.
Aeronaut. Sci., 22: 829-836 (1955).
92 THERMAL STRESSES
9. Schuh, H. : On the Calculation of Temperature Distribution and Thermal Stresses
in Parts of Aircraft Structures at Supersonic Speeds, J. Aeronaut. Set., 21 :575— 576
(1954).
10. Parkes, E. W.: Transient Thermal Stresses in Wings, Aircraft Eng., 26(298) :373-
378 (1953).
11. Hoff, N. J.: Structural Problems of Future Aircraft, 3d Anglo-Am. Aeronaut.
Conf., 1951, Roy. Aeronaut. Soc, pp. 77-114; app. I, Aerodynamic Heating and
Thermal Stresses, by Paul Torda and N. J. Hoff, pp. 103-110.
12. Goldberg, M. A.: Investigation of the Temperature Distribution and Thermal
Stresses in a Hypersonic Wing Structure, J. Aeronaut. Set., 23:981-990 (1956).
13. Kotanchik, J. N., A. E. Johnson, Jr., and R. D. Ross: Rapid Radiant-heating
Tests of Multiweb Beams, NACA TN 3474, September, 1955.
14. Przemieniecki, J. S.: Transient Temperatures and Stresses in Plates Attained in
High Speed Flight, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 22(5) :345-348 (1955); also, Tech. Office
Rept. 77, The Bristol Aeroplane Company, Ltd., Aircraft Division, June, 1954.
15. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Staff: Thermal Stresses and Deflections
in Supersonic Aircraft Wing, Air Force Tech. Rept. 5786, 4 pts., Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, Ohio, November, 1949.
16. Kaye, Joseph: The Transient Temperature Distribution in a Wing Flying at
Supersonic Speeds, Aeronaut. Sci., 17:787-808 (1950).
17. Schneider, P. J. : Variation of Maximum Thermal Stress in Free Plates, J. Aeronaut.
Sci., 22:892 (1955).
18. Ness, Nathan: On the Temperature Distribution along a Semi-infinite Sweat-
cooled Plate, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 19:760-768 (1952).
19. Sprague, G. H, and P. C. Huang: Analytical and Experimental Investigation of
Stress Distributions in Long, Flat Plates Subjected to Longitudinal Loads and
Transverse Temperature Gradients, WADC TR 55-350, Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, Ohio, December, 1955.
20. Levy, S. : Thermal Stresses and Deformations in Beams, Aeronaut. Eng. Rev., 16 :
62-70 (October, 1956).
21. Gatewood, B. E.: Effect of Thermal Resistance of Joints upon Thermal Stresses,
J. Aeronaut. Sci., 24:152-153 (1957).
22. Kuhn, Paul, and J. P. Peterson: Shear Lag in Axially Loaded Panels, NACA TN
1728, October, 1948.
23. Peery, D. J.: "Aircraft Structures," sees. 17.12-17.15, McGraw-Hill Book Com
pany, Inc., New York, 1950.
24. Gatewood, B. E. : Shear Distribution in Beams with Variable Webs, J. Aeronaut.
Sci., 16:749-753 (1949).
25. Reissner, E.: Analysis of Shear Lag in Box Beams by the Principle of Minimum
Potential Energy, Quart. Appl. Math., 4:268-278 (1946).
26. Heldenfels, R. R. : The Effect of Nonuniform Temperature Distributions on the
Stresses and Distortions of Stiff ened-shell Structures, NACA TN 2240, Novem
ber, 1950.
27. Cobb, J. O., and R. C. Brouns: Studies of Thermal Effects in Aircraft Wings,
thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1952.
28. Cheng, C. M.: Resistance to Thermal Shock, J. Am. Rocket Soc, 21:147-153
(1951).
29. J. Bradshaw: Thermal Stresses in Turbine Blades, Phil.
Lighthill, M. J., and F.
Mag., ser. 7, 40:770-780 (1949).
30. Livingood, J. N. B., and W. B. Brown: Analysis of Spanwise Temperature
Distribution in Three Types of Air-cooled Turbine Blades, NACA TR 994, 1950.
31. Pollmann, E.: Temperatures and Stresses on Hollow Blades for Gas Turbines,
NACA TM 1183, September, 1947.
32. Schmit, L. A., and F. L. Williams: The Effects of Thermal Radiation on Aircraft
Structures, pt. II, The Response of a Simple Structure to Radiant Heating,
33. Parkes, E. W.: The Alleviation of Thermal Stresses, Aircraft Eng., 26:51-53
(1953).
34. Fritz, R. J.: Evaluation of Transient Temperatures and Stresses, Trans. ASME,
76:913-921 (1954).
35. Kuhn, Paul: "Stresses in Aircraft Structures," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
36. Seide, P., E. C. Taylor, and V. A. Harvill: Thermal Stresses in Thick Skin
Multicell Wing Structures, Rept. NAl-54-482, Northrop Aircraft, Inc., July, 1954
(ASTIA AD No. 64433).
37. Ambrosio, A., and T. Ishimoto: Analytical Studies of Aircraft Structures Exposed
to Transient External Heating, WADC TR 54-579, vol. I., Thermal Response of
a "Thin" Plate under the Influence of a Constant Temperature Edge, May, 1954
(ASTIA AD No. 73860), vol. II., Thermal Response of a Finite Plate and the
"Thin" Plate Criteria, November, 1954 (ASTIA AD No. 75855).
38. Quinville, J. A., and J. M. Sneyd: Methods of Calculating Heat Conduction for
Transient Aerodynamic Heating of Supersonic Wing Structures, Rept. N Al-54-452,
Northrop Aircraft, Inc., June, 1954 (ASTIA AD No. 78265).
39. Howland, W. E., E. A. Trabant, and S. A. Hawkins: A Mechanical Computing
Device for the Analysis of One-dimensional Transient Heat Conduction Problems,
ASME Paper 56-SA-27, 1956.
CHAPTER 5
THERMAL-STRESS PROBLEMS IN TWO DIMENSIONS
5-1. Introduction. Two-dimensional thermal-stress problems involv

ing plates, spheres, and cylinders have received the bulk of the attention
in the literature since Duhamel first derived the thermoelastic equations
in 1838 (see Sec. 1-5). Some of the two-dimensional problems of interest
in design are considered in this chapter, while general methods of solving
the two-dimensional problems are considered in Chap. 9.
Thermal-stress problems in two dimensions require the solution of the
equations of Sec. 1-6 to obtain the two normal stresses fx and /„ and the
shear stress t^. The temperature may be steady-state or transient,
constant or variable in one or two dimensions. If different materials
are in the body, a constant temperature can produce two-dimensional
stresses. As seen in Sec. 4-6, a one-dimensional temperature produces
two-dimensional stresses near the ends of long beams. A short beam or
plate heated on the edges will have two-dimensional stresses.
5-2. Beams with Two-dimensional Temperature Distribution. It is
well known that the elementary beam theory of bending in strength of
materials gives very good results even though the bending moment may
have large variations along the length of the beam. In fact the two-
dimensional stresses in a simply supported beam of unit constant width
with a uniform load of p lb/in. (in Fig. 1-6 put a uniform load along the
edge y = — c) are (Ref. 1)
(5-1)
- $j (c2
- y2)x
The elementary beam theory gives only the first term in fx, gives /„ = 0,
and gives the correct rxy in this case. However, for a beam long com
pared with its depth, the second term in fx and the value of /„ are small.
Note that the stresses in Eq. (5-1) only apply away from the ends of the
beam.
94
THERMAL-STRESS PROBLEMS IN TWO DIMENSIONS 95
For more general loading on the beam, Seewald (Ref . 2) has shown that
/» has the form
_ My cPM \l(y\ _ 3M' + F

/ dx2 [2\cJ 10 \c/_
(5-2)
where F contains terms involving only fourth and higher derivatives of M.

Note that the second term checks the second term of fx in Eq. (5-1).
In most beam loadings (except near concentrated loads) the higher
derivatives of M are small so that the elementary formula gives good
results.
Boley (Ref. 3) has shown that expressions for the stresses equivalent
to Eq. (5-2) arise when the temperature of the beam varies in the x
direction as well as the y direction. He gives for the constant-width
beam
fx = fxi + =
^ (FX2) + Fx r**
Yx
+ (GW + Gx (5-3)
where fx\ is given by Eq. (1-21), Fx involves terms in the fourth- and
higher-order derivatives with respect to x, Gx involves the fifth and higher
derivatives, and
- -h
SI T dy L Ty dy + +
L
y dy
(?)
T
6
aE t1 (?)']
- -
/> ^ dy
(f)
+ 2i)
L
dy
[10
21 10
+
(?)']
i
aE -LTdy+W+^)]LTdy
-iXi-($)]LTydy (5'4)
—Gxi
Tdy-y Tydy +
jV_
Ty2 dy
)_
J_
aE
|*
/lr*-i[1+(?)]/-.IV*
5)+
ft)'
20
-(f)']/!1**
+
21
&[*+
For the in which the temperature independent of y, the
71
is
case
stresses are (Ref.
3)
96 THERMAL STRESSES
73
= -\W- c2)
SF +
ISO
- myV + 0 +
(152/4 7c4)
* . '
7T.=-kW- c2>°
Ti + 360
- °™ - g + *■>
• • •
(5-5)
5 I - - - - a?
ife
= • • •
s? 3y2)
+
c2) (^2 c2) (7c2
=
For example, take To(x/L)2 in Eq. (5-5), whence the maximum stress
T
on = +
is
c
2/
--
(£)
= t„, =
fy
<xETa
/.
0
If large compared with
I
then the stress very small. Since these
L
is
is
c,
equations do not apply at the ends of the beam, necessary that
is
it
L
be several times before they will give correct results at the center of
c
the beam (see Sec. 4-6).

It thus appears that, the temperature varies slowly with x, then the
if
terms in Eqs. (5-3) and (5-5) involving derivatives with respect to
x
will be small so that the one-dimensional formulas of Sec. 1-4 and Chap.
4
will give good results. That just as elementary beam theory gives
is,
good results with variable moment, so will one-dimensional thermal-

a
stress theory give good results for variable temperature along the beam.
a
In aircraft and missile structure the temperature ordinarily varies slowly

in the spanwise and chordwise directions, except possibly at the leading
and trailing edges of the wings. Also, the length of the beams usually
is
large compared with the depth so that the variation of the temperature
over the surface of the wing produces small thermal stresses compared
with the variation through the thickness of the wing.
For work on box beams with spanwise and chordwise temperature
variations see papers by Heldenfels (Refs.
4,
5).
PROBLEMS
6-1. If= TE{y/cy{x/LY, use Eq. (5-3) to find the stresses at the point =
T
c,
y
= L/2 in an aluminum-alloy beam 1.0 in. wide, 4.0 in. deep, and 32.0 in. long
x
(see Fig. 1-6 for coordinate system). Take Te — 500°F above datum.
5- 2. What are the stresses in beam (o) linear in and independent of x,
T
if
is
a
(6) linear in x and independent of y, and (c) linear in both x and yl

6- If = Te cos (ttx/L), find the maximum stress in the beam of Prob. 5-1.
3.
6-4. How much correction to the elementary bending formula does Eq. (5-2) give
for cantilever beam with triangle loading? Take the width constant and the
a
length twenty times the depth.

5-5. Let the beam in Prob. 4-5 be 20 in. long, and let the temperature vary linearly
from 300°F at the ends to 500°F at the center at = h. What will be the maximum
t
shear stress in the beam?

5-3. Thermal Stresses in a Wedge-shaped Wing. Considerable atten

tion has been given to the temperature and stress distributions in a
wedge-shaped wing flying at supersonic speeds (Refs. 6 to 11). Figure
5-1, from Ref. 6, shows the chord wise temperature distribution in a
wing from calculations of two-dimensional heat flow for constant accelera
tion of 32.2 ft/sec2 from a Mach number of 1.4 to 6 at 50,000 ft. Figure
2400 i i i
-Adia batic wall tempe raturt
2000
M ach n umbe r = 6
A :celer ation of lg (32.2 ft/se c2)
1600
/
t5 1200
J
-Bott Dm si rface
800 /
r
400
Top bundle
1
—
—■ ~
/
nitia --Mk Jplanf
-.it- \
ten ipera ture
'
. atM-1.4-1
2 3 4 5.5
Distance from leading edge,(ft]
-Leading edge Top surface
Bottom surface
Fig. 5-1. Chordwise temperature distribution in wedge-shaped wing. [Massachusetts
Institute of Technology Staff, Thermal Stresses and Deflections in Supersonic Aircraft
Wings, Air Force Tech. Rept. 5786, 4 pts., Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,
November, 1949 (ASTIA ATI No. 67934).]
5-2 shows the temperature variation through the thickness at the mid-
chord of the same wing in Fig. 5-1. The results in Figs. 5-1 and 5-2
were obtained by numerical integration in two dimensions. However,
a one-dimensional integration in the thickness direction gave essentially
the same results, indicating that the chordwise conduction of heat had
very little effect. There is some effect near the leading and trailing
edges, where the chordwise temperature is large. Thus the temperature
98 THERMAL STRESSES
distribution in the wing can be obtained approximately by using the

thick-plate procedures of Secs. 4-2 to 4-4 at selected chordwise points
of the wing. Use the thickness of the wing at the point, together with
the heat-transfer variation at the point.
The thermal stresses in the wing are calculated by a numerical integra
tion in two dimensions in Refs. 6 and 8. Figure 5-3, from Ref. 6, shows
the stresses for the temperature distribution in Figs. 5-1 and 5-2, based
on constant material properties of steel in the elastic range. In Refs. 10
900
800
700
600
g 500
TO
CD
E 400
300
200
100
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Station numbers for plane H— midchord

Fig. 5-2.Vertical temperature distribution at mid-ehord in wedge-shaped wing.
[Massachusetts Institute of Technology Staff, Thermal Stresses and Deflections in Super
sonic Aircraft Wings, Air Force Tech. Rept. 5786, 4 pts., Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, November, 1949 (ASTIA ATI No. 67934).]
and the stresses are obtained by superposition of the stresses due to

11
temperature variation through the wing thickness and of the stresses

due to the chordwise temperature variation, which may be taken as the
average temperature at any point along the chord. The thermal-stress
formulas for stresses in thick plates in Secs. 4-2 to 4-4 will give the stresses
at any point due to variation of the temperature through the thickness
of the wing. The stresses due to the chordwise variation can be obtained
from Eq. (4-3), where b(x) represents the varying thickness of the wing
and T(x) is the chordwise temperature distribution, obtained by averaging
the temperatures through the thickness at each point. Unless this
temperature can be approximated by an equation, it will be necessary
to evaluate the integrals in Eq. (4-3) numerically.
120
At Ma :h number=6
80
—
FVlidplane
40
/
0
Upper s jrface
-40
-80
120
./&^\ 1
/ 1
^— Lower surface
1
/ If
\\
160
o
200
X
240
\
280
\
320
\
360
\
400
1
440,
a)
00 <U1
480 *o
a>
Ml
-a .
oo OJ 1
520
liling
ladin
560
600
11 13 15
3
7
1
Station numbers
Fig. 5-3. Stress distribution in wedge-shaped wing. [Massachusetts Institute Tech
of
nology Staff, Thermal Stresses and Deflections in Supersonic Aircraft Wings, Air Force
Tech. Rept. 5786, pts., Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, November, 1949
4
(ASTIA ATI No. 67934).]
Example 5-1. Using the temperature distribution in Figs. 5-1 and 5-2, calculate
the approximate thermal stresses at the leading edge and at mid-chord on the surface
and at mid-plane. Use the same assumptions as to material properties as used in
Fig. 5-3, and compare results with Fig. 5-3.
Solution. Approximate the Mach number curve in Fig. 5-2 by symmetrical
a
6
temperature distribution above datum, with the following equation:

T,
= 25
+
600
T
100 THERMAL STRESSES
From Eq. (1-24)
(-T + 197)
— 120,000 psi on surface
U
f. 48,000 psi at mid-plane
for a = 6.5(10-«), E = 30(10«), and v = 0.3.

Approximate the average temperature in Fig. 5-1 (this should be approximately
the temperature of the point at which zero stress occurs in the thickness direction)
by a symmetrical distribution
Now dA = t(x) dx = U[\ —

(2x/c)] dx, where U is the thickness at mid-chord. Thus
Eq.(1-22) gives
= —350,000 psi at leading edge

/„
= 30,000 psi at mid-chord
/„
Thus the stress on the surface at the mid-chord is -

120,000 + 30,000 = -90,000 psi,
and at the mid-plane 48,000 + 30,000 = 78,000 psi. These two stresses check
Fig. 5-3 satisfactorily, but the leading-edge stress is considerably lower than that
in Fig. 5-3. This is primarily due to the total stress in Fig. 5-3 having the factor
— v), while only the plate stress in the above calculations has this factor. Since
1/(1
the other normal stresses fx and f, are essentially zero for the chordwise variation in
temperature, it appears that the factor 1/(1 — v) should be omitted in stress calcu
lation for chordwise temperature. Naturally the leading- and trailing-edge stresses
will be much lower owing to change in material properties, yielding of the material,
and buckling of the edges.
Note that the approximate procedure outlined here can be used for sections other
than wedge-shaped.
PROBLEMS
6-6. Assume the wing in Fig. 5-1 to have an average chordwise symmetrical
temperature distribution the same as that for W — 0.08 in Fig. 4-4. Assume the
symmetrical distribution through the thickness at the mid-chord to be the same as
that for W = 0.40 in Fig. 4-4. Approximate these two curves, and calculate the
thermal stresses at the leading edge and on the mid-chord surface and mid-plane by
superposition.
6-7. In Prob. 5-6 use the W — 1.60 curve in Fig. 4-4 at the quarter-chord point,
and calculate the quarter-chord surface and mid-plane stresses by superposition.
6-8. Suppose the chordwise average temperature distribution in Prob. 5-6 is
unsymmetrical, being the case of W = 0.08 in Fig. 4-4 for the aft half of the wing
and W = 0.16 for the forward half. Use Eq. (1-22) to obtain the thermal stresses
due to this chordwise temperature variation.
5-4. Circular Plates with Temperature Function of Radius. Consider

the case when the temperature is a function of the radial distance r only.
This gives a two-dimensional problem with a stress distribution sym

metrical with respect to the center of the plate. Equation (1-44) for
V becomes
dW \dV
(5-6)
whence
■
= j j ?y rT{r) dr dr (5-7)
Take the surface forces as zero in Eq. (1-43), whence
dU dV aE [b _, , ,
/ rT{r) dr = M (5-8)
dr dr b j0
where b is the radius of the plate. Now V*U = 0 is [Eq. (1-44)]
i±(r±)\l±(r™)]-0
r dr\ dr) dr dr
(5-9)
\-r
\
/
whence = dr2 log + + C3 log C4 = C2r2 +
U
+
C2r2 C4 (5-10)
r
for finite stresses at = From Eq. (5-8)

0.
r
=
M =
Mr2
+
u
c>
Tb izr c< (5-11)
In polar coordinates the stresses are [Eq. (1-49)]
d(U - V) d2(U
- V) = d2(U
- V)
J'
1
= +
1"
dr r2 dd2 dr2
-
r
d(U V)
1
dd
r
= rrB =
—
whence rT(r) dr
^r
fr
0
^-
(5-12)
aET M
^
=
T + ^J0 rT{r)dr =
f'rTdr
ft
Jo
b
circular plate at initial temperature T0 and, beginning from an

If
a
is
instant —
the edge of the plate maintained at the temperature zero,
is
0,
t
then the distribution of the temperature in the plate can be obtained

from Eqs. (2-3) and (1-50) as
(5-13)
where 0„ = roots of J0(/3) = 0, pn = &(^„)2/cp62. Put T in Eq. (5-12)

to get
•
2£
(5-14)
n-l
Jaeger (Ref. 23) gives tables for the stresses in Eq. (5-14) for the time
parameter N = kt/b2 varying from 0.005 to 1.0. For small values of the
parameter N the series converges very slowly so that he uses the Laplace
transform and the resulting error functions to obtain the stresses. The
maximum tangential stress, which occurs on the surface r = b and is the
largest numerical stress in the plate, is
/.-aSr.[l-4(^)' + 2f +
|(^)l + ^+...]
for small values of N.
Horvay (Ref. 24) considers the case of a transient temperature applied
to the edge of the disk and to the surface of a cylinder.
PROBLEMS
5-9. Derive Eq. (5-13).
5- 10. Obtain Eq. (5-14).
6- 11. If the plate is steel with T0 = 600°F, what are the stresses in the plate
[Eq. (5-14)] at r = 6/2 and t = 2 min?
5-12. Show that the stresses for the circular plate with a hole of radius a in its
center are
ft = N
(l + +
£ rT(r) dr - aET (5-15)
N =
^]barT(r)dr
Take the radial stress as zero on r = a and r = 6. Note that Ci in Eq. (5-10) must be
taken as zero so that the displacements of the ring will be single-valued (Sees. 9-5, 9-6).
5-5. Finite -difference Method for Thermal Stresses in a Turbine Disk.

For a circular disk rotating at an angular velocity of p radians/sec, it is
necessary to add a body-force term to the equilibrium equation (1-48),
whence for a disk of constant thickness
I (rfr) -fe + PPV* = 0 (5-16)

where p is the density of the disk. If the stresses are obtained for this
centrifugal force, then the total stress in the elastic disk can be obtained
by superposition of the thermal stresses in Eq. (5-12) and the stresses
from the centrifugal force.
<t> Equation (5-16) is satisfied by the stress
function denned by
rfr = =
+
Pp2r2
4>
(5-17)
/.
|?
Eliminate u from the strain-displacement-stress equations
€r = = (/r - "fe) 6e
= = Ue
- Vfr) (5-18)
tr
I
I
F
and substitute for the strains to get the following equation for the stress
function </>:
r20 +
r^-* + (3 + v)ppV =
(5-19)
0
The solution of Eq. (5-19)
is
_ +
y-^pVrs
r Cj
= Cir
+
(5-20)
For zero force on = on solid disk

a
r
v^
+
(3
C2 = Ci =
0
and Eq. (5-17) gives
=
^PP2a>2
- r2)
(5-21)
—+ , +—
3*
3
1
v
»"2
=
,
,
/«t
g— PP2^2 PP
g
For the total stress in rotating elastic disk of constant thickness with
a
temperature variation as function of the radius, add the stresses

a
given by Eqs. (5-12) and (5-21). However, in most practical turbine

disks, the thickness of the disk varies. Also, the properties and a
E
the disk material vary with the temperature, and the stress in parts
of
of the disk may be in the inelastic region of the stress-strain curve.

Considerable attention has been given to these factors in the literature
(Refs. 12 to 20). For design purposes the finite-difference method in
conjunction with charts as set up by Manson (Ref. 20) probably the
is
simplest and shortest.

represents the variable thickness of the disk, then Eq.
If
(5-16)
h
becomes
- hf, pV'hr' =
+
jr
(rhfr) (5-22)
0
Add the temperature strain aT in Eq. (5-18), and eliminate the displace
ment to get
+
+ y)ir/r-/9)=0
^)-(1 (5-23)
Equations (5-22) and (5-23) together with boundary conditions will give
fr and fe. However, p, E, v, a, T, and h may be functions of the radius r
so that the equations cannot be solved directly. The finite-difference
method, which is used in many engineering problems, can be used to
solve Eqs. (5-22) and (5-23).
Choose a number of discrete point stations along the radius, 0, 1, 2,
. . . , n — I, n, . . . . If A is a point halfway between point n — 1
and point n, then rA = (r„-i + rn)/2 and approximately
(rhfr)A = |(r„_lA„_i/r,n_i + rnhnfr.n)
and the slope at A is approximately
W')a =
dr
In a similar way, expressions can be written for the other variables in

Eqs. (5-22) and (5-23), whence
Tyhnjr.n - ?"n-l/tn-l/r,n-l h„f6,n + ^n-l/fl.n-l

rn — r„_i 2
+ (Pnhnrn2 + Pn-ikn-iTn-i2) — 0
^
fe,n fe,n—i Vyfr.n ■ Vn— ifr.n— l \ rp rp
iin iin
- /*,*) - /fl.n-l)]
-G<n-l
- ¥(r«
l/„ -
^
+ + Pn-l) (/r.n-l
r-O fC1 "n)(/r.n
_ %
+
, (1
g-^— j
n
= 0
|-
Or Cnfr,n — Dnfe,n = ^n/r.n-l + Gn/s.n-l —
Now the stresses at any station can be written in terms of the stresses
at station 0 (on the boundary of the hole in the disk, fr = 0, fe = fe,o)
fr.n = Ar,nfe,0 + Br,n ff.n = Ae,nf$,0 + Be,n

/r,n-l = Ar,n-ife,0 + BT>n—l ^ gg)
/fl,n_l = Ae,n-if$,0 + B$,„-i
where the coefficients Ar,n, Br,n, A$,n, and Be,n can be determined by
substitution of Eq. (5-26) into Eq. (5-25). Since /9,0 is arbitrary, the
coefficients of /»,0 and the constant coefficients must be zero, whence
Ar,n = KnAr,n-i + LnAe,n-i Ae,n = K'nAr,n-i + L'nAe,n-i

Br,n = KnBr,n^ + LnBe,n-i + M, (5-27)
Be,n = K'nBr,n-i + L'nBe,n-i + M'n
THERMAL-STBESS PROBLEMS IN TWO DIMENSIONS 105
where the terms Kn, L„, etc., are known in terms of the C„, Dn, etc., in
Eq. (5-25). For a solid disk /r,0 = fe.o, and Eq. (5-26) gives
Ar,a = Ae.o = 1 Br,o = Be,0 = 0 (5-28)

For a hollow disk
Ar,o = Br,0 = Be.o = 0 AM = 1 (5-29)
From these known coefficients the coefficients at all other stations can be
obtained by successive applications of Eq. (5-27). At the rim r = b
= k" 7 Brb
ho (5-30)
whence the stresses at all stations can now be obtained from Eq. (5-26) .
Here /r,& is the known radial rim stress, and Ar,b and Br,b are the coeffi
cients as determined in the last of the successive applications of Eq. (5-27).
The bulk of the computation in the above finite-difference procedure
is contained in the determination of the coefficients Kn, L„, etc., in Eq.
(5-27). However, if the stations are chosen according to an assigned
value of (r„ — r„_i)/r„ and if v is assumed constant as = then the
-J,
v
expressions can be simplified. If

Tn Tn — s\ nnn ^n— • En
= 0.200 ~r— = ln = Fn
l
p (5-31)
Kn =
Tn
-L„ =
nn n-l
-
then 0.834tn 0.015F n 0.104tn + 0.077F„
= L'n = 0.043t'„ + 0.767Fn
K'n 0.343i„ 0.153Fn
Mn = -(0M7inPn-i + 104p„)r„2p2 0.092F.J?; - (5-32)
- 0.920M;
0.
M'n = -(0.027inPn-i + 0.043P„)rn2p2
These equations are used in examples in Refs. 15 and 20.
PROBLEMS
6-13. Derive Eq. (5-19), and solve to get Eq. (5-20).

6-14. Derive equations similar to Eq. (5-21) for a disk with a central hole of
radius a.
6-15. Evaluate the stresses in Eq. (5-15) for = T0(r/b)', = 0.256.
T
6-16. Solve Prob. 5-15 by the finite-difference method, using stations as specified
in Eq. (5-31). Omit centrifugal forces, and assume constant properties so that
Eq. (5-32) simplifies still further. Compare these approximate results with the
exact results of Prob. 5-15.
6-17. Verify Eq. (5-32).
6-18. If the stress due to centrifugal force in steel disk not to exceed 100,000 psi,
is
a
what the limiting velocity of disk 20 in. in diameter?

is
5-6. Thermal in Nuclear-reactor Components.

Stresses In many-
cases the maximum power level of nuclear reactor determined by the
is
a
rate at which heat can be removed. This removal of heat requires the
use of coolants, which introduce a heat-transfer problem of conducting

heat through the solid components of the reactor to a surface along which
the flowing coolant receives heat by convection. The distribution of the
temperature, which is steady-state except for starting or stopping, in the
structure of the reactor causes thermal stresses. As usual, to determine
these thermal stresses, it is necessary that the temperature distribution
be determined. In a nuclear reactor this temperature distribution
depends upon the distribution of the heat sources as well as the location
of the coolant paths. The major portion of the heat arises from the
kinetic energy of the fission fragments and usually occurs within the
fuel elements, but heat is also produced from the slowing down of neutrons
and beta particles and the absorption of various gamma radiations.
Since the neutrons and gamma rays are not uniformly distributed, the
associated heat-source distribution is nonuniform in the reactor core
and structure. If this heat-source distribution is determined, the temper
ature distribution in the reactor and the temperatures of the coolant
circuits leading to the heat sink can be obtained. For a discussion of the
heat-source distribution see Glasstone (Ref. 21).
For steady-state heat conduction with internal heat sources Eq. (2-3)
applies, with the time term omitted,
-kV2T = Q
(5-33)
where Q is the heat generated per unit volume per unit time and k is the
coefficient of thermal conductivity. Consider the case of the temperature
distribution in a moderator structure pierced with regularly spaced
coolant channels. Assume that the region surrounding each circular
coolant channel constitutes an insulated cylinder with a uniform heat
source and an internal convective boundary. Let b be the outer radius
and a the inner radius of the cylinder. Then Eq. (5-33) gives [see
Eq. (1-50)]
d'T
dr1
1
r dr
-r
dT _- 1 d
dr\
( dT\
dr J
_ _ Q
k
(5-34)
^- = 0 on r = 6 T = Ta on r = <
dr
The solution is
Note that Ta can be determined from the coolant temperature Tf by

using the condition k(dT/dr) = h{Ta — Tf) on r = a and Eq. (5-35)
to get
/
The thermal stresses in the hollow cylinder are given by Eq. (5-15)
with fr and fe replaced by (1 — v)fr and (1 — v)fe and from Eq. (1-46)
and (1-47), where
/. = E(e. - aT) + v{jr + ft)

\l rf. dr = 0
(5-36)
whence by using Eq. (5-15) for the cylinder
(1
-
(1
-
(1-- v)f. = 2N - aET
(5-37)
(1 =
(1
- v)(fr + fe)
N rT dr
a2 J a
Use T - Ta in Eq. (5-35) in place of T in Eq. (5-37) to get
Pifr = P,(l-£\- Fi(r) Pi/, = 2P2 - F2(r)
'*)-(i-5D(i-^+*5(S-'+»hd
F,(r) = -4 (4 - ) + 8 -2 In -
/
1
\a2 a2 a
The maximum numerical stresses in Eq. (5-38) are the tangential and
axial tensile stresses on r = o,
(Pi/*)»»x = (Pi/sU* = 2P2 onr = o

(5-39)
The maximum radial stress is tension occurring at
40)
which for 4 < (b/a) < 12 gives approximately
(iVr)m« « 0.75F2 + 2.25 - 1.27 on = 2a

(5-41)
jjj
The maximum compression stresses, smaller in magnitude than the tensile

stresses, occur on = for and near = for /«. Figure 5-4 shows
f,
a
b
r
r
b
graph of the parameter P2 against b/a, from which the maximum stresses
in Eqs. (5-39) and (5-41) can be obtained at once. Glasstone (Ref. 21)
shows graphs of Pifr, Prfe, and PJ,
in Eq. (5-38) against r/a with b/a
as parameter.
Thompson (Ref. 22) considers the hollow cylinder with the heat source
a function of the radius and solves in particular the case of Q = constant
f or a < r < c and Q = 0 f or c < r < b. For other work on temperature
distributions and thermal stresses in nuclear-reactor components see, for
example, Glasstone (Ref. 21) and Thompson and Rodgers (Ref. 25).
12
Fig.
3 456789 b/a
5-4. Parameter P2 for thermal stresses in thick-walled cylinders.
PROBLEMS
5- 19. Derive the expressions for/x in Eq. (5-37).
6- 20. Derive Eq. (5-38).
5-21. By using Fig. 5-4 graph r/a in Eq. (5-40) against b/a.
5-22. If the hollow cylinder is uranium-aluminum alloy with Q = 10' Btu/(hr) (ft3),
a — in., and physical properties the same as those for aluminum, how large can 6 be
if the stress in the cylinder is not to exceed 40,000 psi?
5-23. Many reactor designs have plate-type fuel elements which can be idealized
as an infinite slab with a uniformly distributed heat source. Use Eq. (5-33) with
Q constant to find the temperature distribution in the slab. Take T = T0 at x = 0,
the center of the slab, and T = Z\ at x = ±L, the surfaces of the slab.
5-24. Use Eq. (4-2) to get the stresses in the slab of Prob. 5-23.
REFERENCES
1. Timoshenko, S., and J. N. Goodier: "Theory of Elasticity," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill

2. Seewald, F. : Die Spannungen und Formanderungen von Balken mit rechteckigen
Querschnitt, Abhandl. Aerodyn. Inst. Tech. Hochsch. Aachen, 7:11 (1927).
3. Boley, B. A.: The Determination of Temperature, Stresses, and Deflections in
Two-dimensional Thermoelastic Problems, /. Aeronaut. Sci., 23(l):67-75 (1956).
4. Heldenfels, R. R.: The Effect of Nonuniform Temperature Distributions on the
Stresses and Distortions of Stiff ened-shell Structures, NACA TN 2240, November,
1950.
5. Heldenfels, R. R. : A Numerical Method for the Stress Analysis of Stiffened-shell
Structures under Nonuniform Temperature Distributions, NACA TN 2241,
November, 1950.
6. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Staff: Thermal Stresses and Deflections
in Supersonic Aircraft Wings, Air Force Tech. Rept. 5786, 4 pts., Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, Ohio, November, 1949 (ASTIA ATI No. 67934).
7. Kaye, Joseph: The Transient Temperature Distribution in a Wing Flying at
Supersonic Speeds, /. Aeronaut. Set., 17:787-807 (1950).
8. Eisenhardt, G. H., and W. M. Rohsenow: Calculation of Thermal Stresses in a
Wedge-shaped Wing, /. Aeronaut. Set., 18:115-123 (1951).
9. Kaye, Joseph, and V. C. M. Yeh: Design Charts for Transient Temperature
Distribution Resulting from Aerodynamic Heating at Supersonic Speeds, J.
Aeronaut. Sci., 22:751-762 (1955).
10. Durham, F. P.: The Effect of Flight and Configuration Variables in Diamond-
shaped Supersonic Wings, /. Aeronaut. Sci., 18:755-766 (1951).
11. University of Colorado Staff: Thermoelastic Effects Due to Aerodynamic Heating
in Supersonic Wings, Air Force Tech. Rept. 6351, 3 pts., Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, Ohio, August, 1953 (ASTIA AD Nos. 2628, 27724, 27725).
12. Stodola, A.: "Steam and Gas Turbines," vol. 1, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1927; reprinted, Peter Smith, New York, 1945.
13. Thompson, A. S. : Stresses in Rotating Disks at High Temperatures, /. Appl.
Mech., 13:A45-A52 (1946).
14. Holms, A. G., and R. D. Faldetta: Effects of Temperature Distribution and Elas
tic Properties of Materials on Gas Turbine Disk Stresses, NACA Rept. 864, 1947.
15. Manson, S. S.: Determination of Elastic Stresses in Gas Turbine Disks, NACA
Rept. 871, 1947.
16. Millenson, M. B., and S. S. Manson: Determination of Stresses in Gas Turbine
Disks Subjected to Plastic Flow and Creep, NACA Rept. 906, 1948.
17. Leopold, W. R. : Centrifugal and Thermal Stresses in Rotating Disks, /. Appl.
Mech., 15:322-326 (1948).
18. Tumarkin, S.: Methods of Stress Calculation in Rotating Disks, NACA TM 1064,
1944.
19. Manson, S. S.: Stress Investigations in Gas Turbine Discs and Blades, Quart.
Trans. SAE, 3:229-239 (1949).
20. Manson, S. S.: Direct Method of Design and Stress Analysis of Rotating Disks
with Temperature Gradient, NACA TN 1957, October, 1949.
21. Glasstone, S.: "Principles of Nuclear Reactor Engineering," chap. 11, D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1955.
22. Thompson, A. S.: Thermal Stress in Power-producing Elements, J. Aeronaut. Sci.,
19(7) :476-480 (1952).
23. Jaeger, J. C: On Thermal Stresses in Circular Cylinders, Phil. Mag., ser. 7,

36:418-428 (1945).
24. Horvay, G. : Transient Thermal Stresses in Circular Disks and Cylinders, Trans.
ASME, 64:127-135 (1954).
25. Thompson, A. S., and O. E. Rodgers: "Thermal Power from Nuclear Reactors,"
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1956.
CHAPTER 6
ALLOWABLE STRESSES AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURESf
6-1. Introduction. The previous five chapters have been devoted to

determining the temperature and hence the thermal stresses in various
typical components of the aircraft and missile structure. The calcula
tions have been made on the assumption that the thermal stresses were
in the elastic range of the stress-strain curve for the structural materials.
Before investigating thermal stresses or combined thermal and applied
stresses in the inelastic range of the stress-strain curve, it will be necessary
to determine properties of the material as a function of
the mechanical
temperature. Also, to design the structure to support the applied and
thermal stresses, it is necessary to know the allowable stresses of the
material under various loading and temperature conditions. This chap
ter will be devoted to these problems of determining the material behavior
under load and the allowable stresses.
Although considerable data on material properties at elevated tempera
tures have been obtained in the last few years, many more data are
needed. Since new data are being obtained all the time, it is thought
best to include only a small number of data to use in the examples and
problems and to give references for the latest available material properties.
Approximate procedures for calculating buckling and ultimate allow
able compressive stresses for both short-time and long-time loading are
given. In some cases, more accurate but longer methods are available
for these calculations, but it is felt that in an actual design the tempera
ture data, the material-property data, the applied-load data, and the
stress-calculation procedures do not warrant great precision in the allow
able stress calculations. In fact various methods are used to calculate
allowable crippling stresses at room temperature. On some sheet-metal
cross sections the methods may disagree up to 15 per cent, but then the
test data on some cross sections may scatter +15 per cent.
6-2. Material Properties at Elevated Temperatures. With the advent
of temperature and time into the stress analysis of aircraft structures it
becomes necessary more than ever to define the factors involved in the
particular structure and to determine the material properties associated
t This chapter is based on Ref. 139, Wright Air Development Center Technical Note
56-380 by the author, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1956.
Ill
with these factors. Table 6-1 shows a possible listing of the independent
factors that can be used to define almost any structural problem, includ
ing fatigue, dynamic, and high-temperature problems. In each of these
problems the physical and mechanical properties, which are functions of
Table 6-1. Factors Defining Structural Problem

1. Material and alloy
2. Soaking temperature
3. Temperature when loads applied
4. Time to apply load: Slow, strain rate, temperature rate
5. Time to soak at temperature
6. Time load is carried: Short, long
7. Load variation: Increases uniformly, varied, thermal, combined
8. Deflection: Elastic, plastic, buckling, creep
9. Stress concentration: Smooth, notched, joint
10. Direction of load: Longitudinal, transverse, perpendicular
11. Specified stress: Minimum, probability, test, calculated
12. Alloy products: Sheet, extrusion, casting, forging, tube
13. Geometry: Sheet thickness, formed sections, extruded sections, assembly, test
specimen
14. Corrosion
some or all of the factors in Table 6-1, are needed. The primary physical
constants needed in aircraft structures are listed in Table 6-2. The
mechanical constants or, more correctly, the allowable stresses as defined
by type of stress and of the local cross section of the structural component
are listed in Table 6-3.
Table 6-2. List op Physical Constants Needed in Aircraft Structures

1. p, density, lb /in.'
2. cp, specific heat, Btu/(lb)(°F)
3. a, coefficient of linear thermal expansion, in./(in.)(°F)
4. k, thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr)(ft)(°F)
5. a, radiation constant, Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F4), 0.1748(10-8) for black bodies
6. «, emissivity coefficient
7. h, convective-heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft')(°F)
One method of identifying the large literature on material properties

is to check in Table 6-1 the factors considered in any particular report
and then list the given allowable stresses on the basis of Table 6-3. The
accumulation of the problems and the associated solutions will show
what combinations in Table 6-1 have not been examined and what data
in Table 6-3 are missing on any particular problem. There are no data
on many of the combinations in Table 6-1, and on many combinations
only a few of the allowable stresses in Table 6-3 have been obtained.
Some of the literature on material properties and allowable stresses is
listed at the end of the chapter. Figures 6-1 to 6-4 show data for the
ALLOWABLE STRESSES AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES 113
Table 6-3. List op Allowable Stresses Needed in Aircraft Structures

Stress-strain curves: Tension, compression, shear
1.
Tangent modulus curves: Tension, compression, shear
2.
3. Secant modulus curves: Tension, compression, shear
4. Stress-time-temperature-strain data: Tension, compression, shear
5. E and G, tension, compression, shear
6. v, Poisson's ratio; S, per cent elongation
7. Fu, ultimate stress, tension, compression, shear, bearing, bending
8. Fy, yield stress, tension, compression, shear, bearing
9. F„, compression buckling, plates, instable sections, stiffened plates
10. Fcc, compression crippling, plates, instable sections, stiffened plates
11. Fc, column, stable sections, instable sections, stiffened plates
12. F„ shear modulus, torsion
13. F,cr, shear buckling, instable panels
14. F,w, shear ultimate, diagonal tension
15. Fur, bending buckling, instable sections
16. Fbcc, bending crippling, instable sections
17. Fm, mean stress for repeated stress
18. R, combined stress factor
100
1 1
-Compression
E- -Tens ion~
80
60
Ftu
40
Fey
20 IIlonge tion
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

2YF1
Fig. 6-1. 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy-clad sheet: mechanical properties (i hr soaking
time).
following combinations in Table 6-1 : (1) 2024-T3-clad aluminum alloy;

(2) soaked at test temperature; (3) test temperature, room to 700°F; (4)
test load appliedslowly; (5) soaked J hr; (6) short-time loading; (7) load
increaseduniformly; (8) elastic and plastic deflections; (9) smooth test
specimens; (10) longitudinal loading; (11) minimum test stresses; (12)
1.25
F = 4 0,000 psi
?r
1.00 j '
t ie U Sift —
s—Via
0.75
Strc in (in /in.Jl
0.50
/
/ /
0.25 V
0- Room temp. 200°F 300°F

/ 400T 500°F
/ 600T
Fig. 6-2. 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy-clad sheet: short-time compressive stress-strain
curves (J hr soaking time).
\ \
1.0
V
0.8
1
,v
\ L A \ Vs
\
0.6
\ \ 400
\
\
50
600°
EJ1
w \\\
1
:
3C 0=F-
0.4 2C 0°F-
Ro om te Tip. -
\\
\
V
u\
0.2
\
\
00T
W
600° »00°F )°F

\
inuuin lerrip.
\
300T--
\
\W
\
Ir
10 20 30 10 20 30 40
0
Stress (ksi)
Fig. 6-3. 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy-clad sheet: tangent and secant E in compression
hr soaking time).
(i
sheet material; (13) test specimens used; and (14) tested in air. From
the allowable stresses in Table 6-3, Fig. 6-1 shows (5) E for tension and
compression; (6) per cent elongation (5); (7) ultimate tension stress
(Ff„) (8) yield-tension (^j,) and yield-compression (F^) stresses.
; Figure
6-2 shows (1) short-time compressive stress-strain curves. Figure 6-3
shows (2) compression tangent modulus curves and (3) compression
secant modulus curves. Figure 6-4 for physical properties in Table 6-2
shows (2) specific heat cp, (3) coefficient of thermal expansion a, (4)
thermal conductivity k. Table 6-4 gives some approximate data on
emissivity coefficients, item 7 in Table 6-2.
14.0 0.25 r
13.6 0.24 Mea 1 a f om 6 8T 860
(i l./in. F|10<
tu/lb° F]
13.2 0.23 840
a cp Mean k
k
i y' Btu-in./ft2hr°F]
12.8 0.22 820
ss
12.4 0.21 800
0.20
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
2TFI
Fig. 6-4. 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy-clad sheet: thermal properties.
Table 6-4. Emissivity Coefficients
Emissivity
Material and condition
coefficient
Aluminum alloy (clad)

As received, or polished 0.03
Untreated surface, or oxidized at 400°F for 48 hr 0.05
Zinc chromate paint 0.55
Camouflage green paint 0.70-0.80
Stainless steel
As received, or received and oxidized at 800°F for 48 hr 0.35
Polished, or polished and oxidized at 800°F for 48 hours 0.25
As received and oxidized at 1200°F for 48 hr 0.50-0.70
Sandblasted 0.50
Chromic and sulfuric blackened 0.55
It should be noted that, if the material is heated very rapidly while

under load, Heimerl and Inge (Ref . 69) have obtained test data showing
considerable increase in yield and ultimate strengths above those in
Fig. 6-1. Conversely, if the material is soaked at an elevated tempera
ture and then tested at room temperature, the properties may be much
lower than the unheated room temperature values (see pages 106 and 107,
Ref. 1).
Since the allowable compressive stresses in Table 6-3 involving buck
ling, crippling, and column stresses depend upon the geometry of the
structure, it is necessary to use theoretical or empirical formulas or non-
dimensional curves from test data to calculate these stresses. Sections
6-3 to 6-6 give procedures to calculate these stresses, while Sec. 6-7
considers the fatigue problem, Sec. 6-8 considers the thermal-shock prob
lem, and Sec. 6-9 considers optimum stresses and material efficiencies.
6-3. Short-time Allowable Compressive Stresses (Uniform Tempera
ture).! This section gives formulas and charts for determining the com
pressive stresses listed in items (9) to (11), (13), (15), and (16) in Table
6-3, under that particular combination of factors in Table 6-1 which
includes in factor (4) load applied slowly but (6) carried for a short time
in which (8) no creep occurs under (3) various temperatures.
At room temperature the allowable compressive stresses depend upon
the stress-strain curve of the material (see Refs. 34 to 65 for some of the
literature at room temperature; Ref. 35 gives a bibliography up to 1951).
Several authors (Refs. 66 to 68) have shown that the allowable compres
sive stresses at elevated temperatures for short-time loading also depend
upon the stress-strain curve at the particular temperature. This means
that the same procedures can be used at elevated temperatures as at room
temperature to calculate the short-time allowable compressive stresses.
The well-known formulas for column buckling Fc and plate buckling
Fcr can be written as (Ref. 35)
TT2E ,fPy_ i
t)Fcy \L'J B2
KE
(tV _ i
.
F^ =
T]Fcy T7/
where L' —
L/c* with c the column-end fixity
K = edge-support coefficient for plates
E —
elastic modulus
Fey — yield stress
=
77 function of stress-strain curve in terms of Et and E, (tangent
and secant moduli) and depends on type of cross section
t The discussion on room-temperature procedures in this section and Figs. 6-5, 6-7,
Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 18(10) :657-
6-9, 6-12 are used by permission of the
664 (1951).
Stowell (Ref . 34) gives expressions for ij for different type sections. How
ever, these values can be approximated by two values (Ref. 35),
E,
for plates
\ +
\ i1 + 3
w) (6-3)
jj = for columns
-gf
For 2024-T3-clad aluminum alloy at given stress and temperature,
ij
can be calculated from values of Et and E, given in Fig. 6-3.
To solve for Fc and F„ in Eqs. (6-1) and (6-2) with given material
a
and geometry, necessary to determine by trial and error from Eq.
it
is
17
(6-3) and tangent and secant moduli curves for the material at the given
temperature. Also curve of Fc/Fcy and Fcr/F^ against can be drawn
B
a
at given temperature by assigning values to Fc/Fcy or F„/Fcy, reading

a
Et and E, from curves, calculating by Eq. (6-3), calculating by Eq.
B
r\
(6-1) or (6-2), and plotting the results.

The labor of solving Eqs. (6-1) and (6-2) by trial and error or by draw
ing a curve can be considerably reduced by using an approximate equa
tion for the stress-strain curve. Ramberg and Osgood (Ref. 36) and
Ramberg and Miller (Ref. 37) have shown that the stress-strain curves
for many metals (aluminum alloys, steel alloys, magnesium alloys, etc.)
at room temperature can be approximated very closely by
eE
where n the stress-strain shape factor (Refs. 36, 37). This gives
is
E E
E' =
(WW,)-l Et = (6-5)
+ + (3n/7)(F/^)-i
1
1
which can be put into Eq. (6-3) for t\. The stress-strain curves of the
aluminum and magnesium alloys at room temperature can be approxi
mated closely (Refs. 35, 38) by n = 10. Further, study of the stress-
a
strain curves in Ref. for 24S-T3 at various temperatures and various

3
soaking times indicates that the curves can be approximated by Eq. (6-4)
and that n varies from to 12. Some values are shown in Table 6-5.
7
Curves in Ref. 30 indicate that n > 10 up to 1200°F for 4340 steel,

stainless steel W, and Inconel X. If compressive allowable stresses are
cut off at F^, then n > 10 conservative in comparison with n = 10.
is
In Ref. n = 10 will approximate magnesium alloy up to 600°F and

3,
titanium alloy up to 1000°F.

Thus the nondimensional stress-strain curve in Eq. (6-4) with n = 10
approximates most of the aircraft metal alloys at room and elevated
If n = 10 put into Eq. (6-5), then in Eq. (6-3) can
is
temperatures.
17
be calculated and finally curves of Fc/Fcy and Fcr/Fcy against can be

B
Table 6-5. Values of n for Stress-Strain Equation (6-4)

(2024-T3)
Temperature, °F Soaking time, hr n (approx.)
78 10
i
212 2 7
212 2 7
212 10 8
212 100 7
212 1,000 10
300 ^, 2, 10, 100, 1,000 10
400 1 9
400 2 12
400 10, 100, 1,000 7
500 1,2 10
500 10 7
500 110, 1,000 10
600 1 10
600 2, 10 8
drawn, which will apply at all temperatures. Figure 6-5 shows these
curves, in which S = FJFcy or Fcr/Fcy. Also shown is Johnson's parabola
for short columns, which differs little from the column curve in Eq. (6-1),
4[1
- (Fc/Fcc)]
1
B1
(6-6)
where B is defined in Eq. (6-1). For sections that do not fail by local
instability, Fcc = Fcy;otherwise, Fcc is the crippling stress of plates,
formed or extruded sections, or stiffened plates. Table 6-6 shows com
parison of test data (Ref. 70) and values calculated from Fig. 6-5 for
75S-T6 columns at various temperatures.
Table 6-6. 75S-T6 Column Allowable Stresses
T, °F E/10> Fc/1,000 L/p Fc.i./1,000 /W1.000
300 9.4 51.0 100 8.8 9.0

300 9.4 51.0 26 47.0 48.0
500 7.0 16.0 90 8.5 7.5
500 7.0 16.0 38 14.5 14.0
600 5.2 8.5 120 3.5 3.5
600 5.2 8.5 35 7.5 6.7
For columns with eccentricity e the maximum extreme fiber stress Fc,
is (Ref. 63)
„ P , Mc PL , eAc A
(6-7)
2 \ElJ 2 \fJ
where B is defined in Eq. (6-1). This gives
(Fc/Fcc)*
-
1 .k
(6-8)
B 2 cos-l {(eAc/I)/[(Fcc/Fc) 1]}
which is plotted in Fig. 6-5.

Provided the value of K is known for the cross section, Eq. (6-2) and
Fig. 6-5 will give the buckling stress for plates, formed sections, extruded
sections, and stiffened plates. Lundquist and others of the NACA
(Refs. 39 to 41) have derived procedures for calculating values of for K
various sections. Figures 6-6 to 6-11 show values for plates, angles K
(Ref. 35), channels and Z's in compression (Ref. 42), plates stiffened
with Z stiff eners (Kef. 44), and plates stiffened with angle stiff eners
(Ref. 45).
The maximum allowable stress or ultimate allowable stress is the allow
able crippling stress for local failure of a section and is the allowable
column stress for column failure in either the long or the short column
13
12
11
10
Simply supported sides

(compression!
-
One side free
(compression]
0.385
Fcr=m)2 -\
"6" for shear is the smaller dimension of the plate
1
a/b
Fig. 6-6. K for compression, shear, and bending of flat plates.
range. In most cases the allowable crippling stress, which may be higher
than the buckling stress owing to the fact that the edges and corners
of the section may be able to carry higher stresses than the fiat elements
and which may involve yielding in the corner, must be determined from
empirical formulas or curves obtained from tests. The NACA has done
some theoretical work on calculating maximum stresses (Refs. 56,
57, 60).
On the basis of tests several procedures have been set up to determine

curves that may be used to obtain crippling stresses for design of any
type of section (Refs. 35, 52, 53, 58, 61 to 65). Schuette's procedure (Ref.
62) can be modified and extended by the use of Eqs. (6-2) to (6-5) to
give the maximum stress for any section for which K can be obtained.
0.2
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
6l/62
Fig. 6-7. K and M values for angles in compression. [By permission of the Journal of
the Aeronautical Sciences, 18(10): 657-664 (1951).]
Schuette (Ref. 62) shows that for a certain range of values of F„ the
maximum stress F^ can be expressed in the form
F
*• cc F
* max
Ct
6 = = M MB-
F~
*■cy T~
1 cy \riFj (6-9)
where M
depends upon the geometry of the section. Figure 6-12 shows
a plot of Eq. (6-9) for selected M values. The maximum stress is taken
as equal to the buckling stress to the left of the intersection of Eqs. (6-9)
and (6-2). M values for various sections as based on test data (Refs. 35,
62, 44) are given in tables on Figs. 6-7 to 6-11. For sections in which K
is not available procedures as in Ref. 52 or 61 can be used. For stiffened
plates effective areas can be used (see Sec. 7-4).
A formula for many materials at room and elevated temperatures to
bw M-extrusions;
JW-formed in
formed in "O"
tw "2" cond.
cond.
0-25 0.85 0.80

40 0.75 0.67
75 0.67 0.60
bp
\ I 1
t
.*— *
bw
-J-
bF
t
V.— bw -4
K
1 \bwj
0.5
For Z's and Cs

with hooks
l bF
Fig. 6-8. K and M values for channels and Z's in compression.
replace Eq. (6-9) for plate elements is given by the NACA in two 1956
reports (Refs. 65, 84). The formula is
Fcc = 1.60(E,Fcu)i (6-10)

-h
where E„ is the secant modulus at the stress Fcc.

The above discussion of buckling has been for a' uniaxial load and a
uniform temperature on the cross section. Section 6-4 is concerned with

stress variation on the cross section due to temperature change, while
Sec. 9-4 considers buckling in a two-dimensional stress problem.
It should be noted that columns subjected to local crippling failure
M
Af-extrusions;
b. Af-formed in
formed in "O"
t. "7" cond.
cond.
0-25 0.85 0.80

40 0.75 0.67
75 0.67 0.60
i
•^Compression leg
1.20
Tj '-f
/ .i-
*w bw
', -1.5C
1.00
^
May be different i n
«L» 1 «j» t
u a IU I irun
comp ressic >n leg
0.80
ko
0.60
0.40
0.20 _ ft
r-=K Y
)
0 2 4 6 8 10
f>w /b.
Fig. 6-9. K and M values for channels and Z's in bending. [By permission of the
Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 18(10): 657-664 (1951).]
follow approximately Johnson's parabola [Eq. (6-6)], where Fcc is the

crippling stress. Thus, when Fcc is obtained as the maximum stress in
Fig. 6-12, then it is used to obtain a B for reading the column stress in
Fig. 6-5.
Example 6-1. For a 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy-clad formed channel in Fig. 6-8 with
bF = 1.0in., bw = 2.0 in., tw = tF = 0.072 in. at 400°F find the buckling and crippling
stresses. If the channel is 30 in. long and fails as a pin-ended column about an axis
parallel to the flanges, find the allowable column stress.
Solution. From Fig. 6-8 with 6*./6w = 0.50 and tw/tF = 1.0. K = 2.62. From
Fig. 6-1 at 400°F, E = 9.3(10») psi, and Fcy = S1,000 psi. Equation (6-2) gives
*-£(&)'
From the plate curve in Fig. 6-5 S = F„IFcy = 0.83, whence
F„ = 0.83(31,000) = 25,700 psi
' '
I
I
'
M=0.80 for all -r
t«
For Z's with hooks, use t— =0.3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
bw/b,
Fig. 6-10. K and M values for Z-stiffened panels in compression.
Although M can be obtained from Fig. 6-8, it is not applicable for this section (see
Fig. 6-12 for B = 0.99). If the channel is formed in the T condition, the yield
stress in the corners is increased so that the ultimate strength is larger than for a
channel formed in the O condition and then heat-treated. If the channel is formed
in the O condition and heat-treated, Fig. 6-12 gives Fcc = F„ = 25,700 psi. If it is
formed in the T condition, Fig. 6-12 gives Fcc = 0.90(31,000) = 27,900 psi.
To determine the column stress, calculate
/ = (2)(1.0)(0.072)(1.0)2 +
°-072(2 °)3
ai9 ^4
whence p = (//A)* = 0.81 in. and from Eqs. (6-1) and (6-6)
= ~ = 0.77 Fc = 0.67(27,900) - 18,700 psi

(|)2
Mathauser and Deveikis (Ref. short-time tests as well
129) have made
as creep tests (see Sec. 6-6) on 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy Z-stiffened panels.
There are four stiffeners on the 6.0-in. panel with b,/t, = 2.0/0.040 = 50,
bp/K = 0.4, bw/b, = 0.27, and tw/tF = 1.00, whence, from Fig. 6-10,
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 6-11. K and M values for angle-stiffened panels in compression.
K = 4.8. Table 6-7 shows the comparison of the test stresses (Ref. 129)
with the stresses calculated by Figs. 6-5 and 6-12 or Eqs. (6-9) and (6-6).
An end fixity of c = 3.75 is used in the column-stress calculation, and
the crippling stress is increased 11 per cent to allow for four stiffeners on
three skin panels. Note the large increase in the stresses for the 10-hr
soaking period at 400°F. This result is a propertyof 2024-T3 aluminum
alloy, but not necessarily of other alloys. It emphasizes the wide varia
tions in the same material due to different temperature histories.
1.2
- Formed in /"-condition
24 ST
R 303 T. - Extrusions or formed in O-condition

1.0
0.8
-Fee1 MM J, l/2
0.6
0.80=
0.4
060
0.4 8
0.2
E uckli ig str iSS-'
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
B
Fig. 6-12. Allowable
crippling stresses. [By permission of the Journal of the Aero
nautical Sciences, 18(10): 657-664 (1951).]
Table 6-7. Short-time Tests of 2024-T3f
Exposure F„ (cal.), Fc (cal.),

T (test), Fc (test),
time, hr, Fc„, ksi ksi, L/p ksi,
°F ksi
at 400°F Eq. (6-9) Eq. (6-6)
Room 0 43.0 31.2 18.3 31.0 33.0

36.3 30.4 30.4
64.6 28.5 28.5
92.4 25.8 25.2
400
i 37.5 28.0 18.3 27.9 30.1
36.3 27.3 28.8
64.6 25.8 25.3
92.4 23.6 23.2
Room 10 61.0 40.7 18.3 40.5 44.5
36.4 39.4 41.8
64.1 36.3 38.2
91.4 31.7 29.0
400 10 43.0 31.2 18.1 31.1 34.2
36.4 30.4 32.6
64.0 28.5 27.6
91.5 25.8 21.8
f E. E. Mathauser and W. D. Deveikis, Investigation of the Compressive Strength

and Creep Lifetime of 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy Skin-Stringer Panels at Elevated
Temperatures, NACA TN 3647, May, 1956.
126
PROBLEMS
6-1. Solve Example 6-1 at room temperature.

6-2. Find the crippling stress of a 0.050- by 1.5- by 1.5-in. titanium angle at
700°F if E = 14(10«) psi and Fcy = 85,000 psi.
6-3. If the angles of Prob. 6-2 are put on a 0.070-in. titanium plate at 6.0 in.
spacing, what are the buckling and crippling stresses for the stiffened panel at 700°F?
6-4. Calculate the bending buckling and crippling stresses for Example 6-1.
6-5. Draw a curve of column stress against temperature for a 2024-T3 aluminum-
alloy rectangular bar 2.0 by 4.0 in., pin-ended, and 25.0 in. long.
6-6. Use the channel of Example 6-1 as the stiffener on a stiffened 2024-T3 panel
48 in. wide, and design the stiffened panel to buckle at a load of 300,000 lb at 400°F.
What is the total cross-section area of your design?
6-4. Short -time Allowable Stresses (Nonuniform Temperature). In

the previous section the temperature was taken as uniform for the entire
structural element so that no thermal stresses were present and the
material properties were the same across the cross section. If the temper
ature varies across the cross section, then several effects are produced:
(1) the material properties vary on the cross section owing to the temper
ature variation; (2) the unrestrained structure will bow (see Sec. 8-2),
introducing eccentricities; and (3) thermal stresses may be present.
These factors will affect both the tension and the compression allowable
stresses for the structure.
Consider a long plate subjected to a symmetrical temperature distri
bution and a tension load P. The distribution of the stress on the cross
section due to both thermal load and applied load is
-aTE, SE,aT dA + P
F = + E.
SE,dA
where E, is the secant modulus, which is a function of the temperature

and the stress. In terms of strains the equation can be written as
fE,aT dA +P
e = -aT + (6-H)
JE. dA
The allowable ultimate tension stress can be obtained by examining

Eq. (6-11) and a set of short-time tensile stress-strain curves. Assume
a 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy plate to have a symmetrical linear temperature
distribution from 400°F on the edges to 200°F at the center (Fig. 6-13).
If stress-strain curves are drawn as in Fig. 6-2 for 200, 300, and 400°F,
then curves of constant strain can be drawn for any load P in Eq. (6-11)
as
P
6op (6-12)
JE.dA
Figure 6-13 shows these curves (dotted) for selected values of eap. Note
that these curves cannot actually exist. For the case of Fig. 6-13 they
represent an applied strain with the thermal stresses omitted. The actual
stress distribution depends upon the sequence of application of the applied
load and the temperature change. If the temperature change occurs
first and the external load is applied second, then the solid curves of
Fig. 6-13 are obtained from Eq. (6-11). Although the solid and dotted
curves are drawn for the same eap, the external loads are not quite the
same in the inelastic region. Even with the same external load, it is
apparent that in the inelastic region the thermal stresses decrease and
practically disappear so that the ultimate stress is essentially the average
200T 300T 400°F

Center of plate Edge of plate
Fig. 6-13. Combined tensile and thermal stresses.
of the ultimate stresses on the stress-strain curves for the temperature

range, or approximately the value of Ftu at 300°F in Fig. 6-1. However,
the yield stress is first reached in the center of the plate, and there will
be some permanent strain in the center before the yield stress on the
300°F curve is reached.
If the external load is applied first, then the stress is uniform on the
cross section. When the temperature change occurs, failure may occur
if the average allowable stress at the elevated temperature drops below
the original applied stress. Otherwise, unloading occurs on parts of the
cross section. If
the applied stress is in the inelastic region, the unload
ing is elastic, while the loading is inelastic, so that, for a fixed load, the
applied strain must become larger. For a fixed external load a trial-and-
error procedure must be used to get the final stress distribution.
If the temperature distribution across the plate is unsymmetrical, then

the load P will be eccentric to the neutral axis owing to bowing of the
plate and to the change in the neutral axis produced by the variation in
E,. In fact the neutral axis and effective moment of inertia may be
expressed as
- SE.y dA _ {Ee(y
- yNA)2 dA
VNA Ieff (6-13)
-JWTdl JWdA
which depends upon the stress level. There is little effect in the elastic
range, but there is a large effect in the inelastic range for large temperature
gradients. The analysis of the strains can be made by adding the bend
ing strain to Eq. (6-11) and plotting the strains in the same way as in
Fig. 6-13, provided the temperature change occurs before the applied
load.
Consider Eq. (6-11) and Fig. 6-13 for the case in which P is a compres
sion load. For no buckling the yield stress is reached first on the edge
of the plate. For the plate as a column about an axis perpendicular to
the plate a column curve may be constructed as follows: Assume eap in
Eq. (6-12), which determines P. Use this eap in Eq. (6-11) to get e and
hence E, from Fig. 6-3. This procedure assumes the temperature
change is applied before the external load. Calculate
(EI).„ = Jy2Et dA (6-14)

and evaluate L'/p from
*2A(EI)eJf
PI (6-15)
A graph of Fc —
P/ A against L'/p gives the column curve for the par
ticular symmetric temperature distribution. Figure 6-14 shows the
column curve for plates with the temperature distribution in Fig. 6-13,
plotted on the basis of the scales in Fig. 6-5 with Fcy the yield stress for
T = 300°F. The column curve from Fig. 6-5, which applies for uniform
temperature, is also shown for comparison.
For the unsymmetrical temperature distribution, strains due to the
bending stresses must be included and allowance made for eccentricity
due to bowing and shift in the neutral axis. Equation (6-13) will give
the neutral-axis shift provided Et is used for the column instead of E,.
Consider the case of a plate supported by stringers along the edges
and loaded by a compression load P on the ends. Let the edge stringers
be at a uniform temperature Tb and the plate at a higher uniform temper
ature T,. Equation (6-11) gives the strain in the plate and in the string
ers. When the strain in the plate reaches ecr = K(t/b)2, the plate will
buckle. The buckling stress in this case is given by Fig. 6-5. Note
that, when e = e„ in Eq. (6-11), the load P may be tension or compression
depending upon the temperatures and geometry. In many cases the

thermal stresses alone will buckle the plate. If the stringers are assumed
to take all the additional applied load after buckling, then the ultimate
or maximum load that the plate and stringers can take is unaffected by
the thermal stresses (provided the deep buckles do not have a destabiliz
ing effect). Of course, the thermal stresses may cause a permanent set
in the plate even with no applied load (see Chap. 8).
;
Inifor m ten iperal ure o 300 F
0.4
ônu liforrr tern; >erature (F g6-l
^\
0.2
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
B
Fig. 6-14. Column stresses for nonuniform temperature.
PROBLEMS
6-7. At what temperature will an unloaded 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy plate 6 in.

wide and 0.072 in. thick buckle if the edge stringers are at temperature 0°F and each
has an area of 0.50 in.2?
6-8. How thick should the plate in Prob. 6-7 be in order for the plate to buckle
at 400°F?
6-9. Repeat the construction of Fig. 6-13 for the case in which the temperature
varies linearly from 600°F at the edge to 400°F at the center. Use stress-strain
curves as given in Fig. 6-2.
6-10. Construct Fig. 6-14 for the temperature distribution given in Prob. 6-9.
6-11. What is the column stress from Fig. 6-14 for a bar 6 in. thick in the direction
of temperature variation? Use L = 200 in. with pinned ends.
6-5. Creep at Elevated Temperatures. Materials used in aircraft

structures creep at elevated temperatures so that the structure may have
large deformations if the load is carried for long periods of time. In
order to keep these deformations below permissible values, it may be
o.oio r
/r=41.0 ks i
R = 0.975
0.008 400
38.0 1
J
.952
.9031 i. 6.0
356
0.006
34.0
,
—
.808
0,004 f~
0.002
%
f.-'- >hort time st ress
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hr]
Fig. 6-15. Compressive creep curves for 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy plates at 400°F;
b/t = 20; 10-hr exposure at 400°P prior to loading.
That
is,
necessary to reduce the applied stresses on the structure.
it
is
necessary that an allowable stress be used which permits only a certain
specified amount of deformation in a specified time.
The usual stress-strain curve at the given temperature cannot be
obtained in this case because the strain depends upon the time as well
as the stress. However, for given load or stress at given temperature,
a
a
strain-time curve can be obtained by test. Typical strain-time curves
a
for several stresses at given temperature are shown in Fig. 6-15 (Ref.
a
family of curves drawn for different stresses, then cross
If
is
129).
a
a
plot of stress against strain can be made for any fixed time. This gives
family of apparent stress-strain curves with time as parameter.
a
a
These are designated as iso-stress-strain curves by Shanley (Ref. 108)

and Micks (Ref. 109). Figure 6-16 shows compression iso-stress-strain
curves (Ref. 129) for 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy plates with b/t = 20 at
400°F.
Because of difficulties in obtaining test data at each temperature for
various periods of time, efforts have been made to combine the tempera
ture and time variables into one parameter so that information on creep
might from short-time test data. Most of this work has
be obtained
been based upon rate-process theory (Refs. 77, 85), which appears to
hold for such diverse processes as creep, tempering, diffusion, tension,
and compression of metals. The rate at which such processes take place
under given conditions can be expressed in the form
= Ae-<*/RT
(6-16)
r
where = a constant
A
= activation energy for material and process

Q
= gas constant
T R
and = temperature, °R
If the creep rate assumed to be inversely proportional to time, then
is
Eq. (6-16) becomes
or T(C log = log = Q(F

+
(6-17)
t)
e
|
where the time to rupture or to specified strain, a constant, and

is
is
C
a
t
Q(F) indicates that the activation energy depends on stress. This tem
perature-time parameter T(C + log designated as the Larson-Miller
t),
parameter (Refs. 85, 77), checks test data over a wide range of times and
temperatures for many steels, high-temperature alloys, and aluminum
alloys. Although a universal value of = 20 checks the test data
C
reasonably well, Heimerl (Ref. 77) shows that better correlation can be
obtained by using different values of for different alloys. Heimerl
C
(Ref. 77) also discusses several other parameters that have been proposed
to correlate temperature-time data. Figure 6-17 shows the correlation

of test data (Ref. 77) for tensile rupture, creep rate, and time to 1 per
cent strain for 24S-T3 aluminum alloy, using the Larson-Miller parameter.
Now each iso-stress-strain curve in Fig. 6-16 corresponds to a particular
value of the Larson-Miller parameter. This suggests the possibility of
70
—r~r
Temp., "F
o 90
60 - 212
"9
o 300
o- 300
» 300
50 v 400
V *- 450
-oa>- * 450
' 600
40
30
20
Creep rate
1% strain •
10
Rupture
i
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26xl03
Rupture, r(17 + log t) or creep rate, TOO-log r]
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28x103
1% strain, T(17 + log t|
Fio. 6-17. Master rupture and creep curves for 24S-T3 aluminum alloy.
constructing a family of iso-stress-strain curves, using the Larson-Miller

parameter to identify the curves. To correlate short-time stress-strain
curves and creep data, the Larson-Miller parameter for small strains
can be obtained from short-time stress-strain data by assuming the stress
at a given strain to act for a time equal to the strain divided by the strain
rate used in the short-time test. The parameter for large strains can be
obtained from creep data such as the 1 per cent strain curve in Fig. 6-17.
Figure 6-18 shows the iso-stress-strain curves based on the compressive

stress-strain curves of Fig. 6-2 and tensile creep data, which are assumed
to be the same in compression as in tension. Also shown in Fig. 6-18
are master creep curves for various strains. Note that the short-time
stress-strain curves are for ^ hr exposure time.
For some materials at some temperatures an equation (Refs. 70, 84, 108)
has been used to represent the iso-stress-strain curves,
e = AeBFtK + J (6-18)
|T+460|(20 + log10t)/103
Fig. 6-18. 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy-clad sheet: master creep curves.
where e is the strain at any time t produced by stress F, E is the elastic
modulus, and A, B, and K depend upon temperature. Values of A, B,

and K for 75S-T from 300 to 600°F and for 24S-T from 400 to 500°F are
given in Refs. 70 and 84.
6-6. Creep Buckling of Columns and Plates. The allowable compres
sive stresses under creep conditions can be approximated by using the
iso-stress-strain curves as if they were actual stress-strain curves (Refs. 2,
That take the slope of the iso-stress-strain
is,
84, 98, 109, 113, 130).

curves as Et, the points as E„ etc., and use the same column and buckling
formulas as at room temperature. the yield stress on the curves
If
is
Fcy
and an n value [Eq. (6-4)] can be determined, then the procedure of Sec.
6-3 can be used. However, the iso-stress-strain curves tend to have the
form of Eq. (6-18) rather than Eq. (6-4) so that may not be possible
it
to use an n value in Eq. (6-4). On the other hand, Figs. 6-16 and 6-18
indicate that n < 10 may give a fair representation of the curves. Based
on the 0.2 per cent offset yield stress in each case, Fig. 6-16 shows graphs
of Eq. (6-4) for n = 10 and n = 5. Thus curves based on n values
can be used to approximate the iso-stress-strain curves, and in particular
the curves of Figs. 6-5 and 6-12 based on n = 10 can be used provided
it is recognized that they are conservative for stresses greater than F^
and slightly unconservative for stresses from about 0.5Fcy to F^.
Mathauser and Deveikis (Ref. 129) have made creep tests on 2024-T3
aluminum-alloy Z-stiff ened panels (see Sec. 6-3 and Table 6-7 for descrip
tion of the panels and short-time tests on the panels) for creep times up to
about 6 hr at 400°F after soaking 10 hr at 400°F. Table 6-8 shows com
parison of test stresses with calculated stresses. The stresses are calcu
lated by using the test creep time to obtain Fcy (0.2 per cent offset) from
Fig. 6-16, whence Eqs. (6-9) and (6-6) are used for Fcc and Fc. See dis
cussion on Table 6-7 for geometry of the panels.
Table 6-8. Creep Tests of 2024-T3 at 400°Ff

(Tested after 10-hr soak at 400°F)
Fcc (cal.), Fc (cal.),

Creep time Fcy, ksi, Fc (test),
ksi, L/p ksi,
t, hr Fig. 6-16 ksi
Eq. (6-9) Eq. (6-6)
0.25 39.0 29 0 18 9 28 8 30.5

0.20 39.0 29 0 18 7 28 8 30.1
0.68 38.5 28 6 18 8 28 4 28.9
1.48 37.0 27 6 18 7 27 4 28.4

1.20 37.5 28 0 18 7 27 8 28.1
3.69 36.0 26 9 18 3 26 7 27.3
4.09 36.0 26 9 18 9 26 7 26.8
0.38 39.0 29 0 37 1 28 2 28.6

0.82 38.0 28 3 37 2 27 5 27.5
1.24 37.5 28 0 37 0 27 2 26.8
6.02 35.5 26 6 36 3 25 9 26.0
0.79 38.5 28 6 64 9 26 3 26.5

1.58 37.0 27 6 64 7 25 4 25.4
3.14 36.0 26 9 64 6 24 8 24.8
4.48 36.0 26 9 64 2 24 8 24.6
2.85 36.5 28 3 92 5 22 9 21.4

6.52 35.5 26 6 92 5 22 2 21.2
t E. E. Mathauser and W. D. Deveikis, Investigation of the Compressive Strength

and Creep Lifetime of 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy Skin-Stringer Panels at Elevated
Temperatures, NACA TN 3647, May, 1956.
Table 6-8 shows that, for creep times under 10 hr, the procedures of
Sec. 6-3 are applicable when the iso-stress-strain curves of Fig. 6-16 are
used. For longer creep times Fig. 6-18 is applicable for approximate
calculations. King (Ref. 133) has made creep tests up to 256 hr on
2024-T4 and 7075-T6 machined, integrally stiffened panels. His column
is so short that essentially the maximum stress is the crippling stress Fcc.
Buckling occurs beyond the yield stress so that the buckling and crippling
stresses are on the cutoff in Fig. 6-5 or 6-12 (assuming the cutoff to apply
in creep and using n = 5 to represent the creep curve). If the Larson-
Miller parameter is calculated for Bang's tests (Ref. 133) and the yield
stress read from Fig. 6-18 for his room-temperature yield of 50,000 psi
for 2024-T4, then the resulting Fce = l.2Fcy checks his test data (the
tests are 0 to 15 per cent higher than the calculated values). Also the
strain curve of e = 0.010 in Fig. 6-18, based on {F^rt = 50,000 psi,
checks the test data to about the same accuracy as the 1.2Fc„ stresses.
Mathauser and Deveikis (Ref. 84) show that Eq. (6-10) checks the test
data closely for plates when E, and from iso-stress-strain
Fcy are taken
curves as in Fig. 6-16. They also show that the Larson-Miller parameter
correlates the plate strength for each b/t ratio tested, with the curve for
b/t = 20 being nearly the same as the tensile rupture curve.
For cases in which Eq. (6-18) applies, Fcy can be calculated. Put
e = Fcy/O.IE in Eq. (6-18) to get (here Fcy is defined in terms of a slope
of 0.7.E rather than the usual 0.002 strain offset)
Fcy = 2.Z2EAtK exp (BF

cy)
(6-19)
which can be solved for Fcy for particular case by trial and error or by
a
graphing. By differentiating Eq. (6-18) the tangent modulus is obtained

in the form
= ABEtKeBF
4
(6-20)
1
hit
which gives the column stress as
*2E/(u/Py
F= + ABEtK exp (BFc)
K° ZL>
6
from which Fc can be obtained by trial and error.

There considerable literature on theoretical calculations for column
is
creep buckling as well as experimental data on creep (see Refs. 70 to 98,

114).
Example 6-2. Solve Example 6-1 the channel section to have life of 100 hr.
if
is
Solution. The Larson- Miller parameter

is
TM -
~~ (400 +460) _
(20 + log 100) = 1Qn
ltfU
1,000
From Fig. 6-1 and Fig. 6-18, E = 9.3(10") psi, F„ = 0.33(40,000) -

13,200 psi.
Equation (6-2) gives B = 0.65, and, from the plate curve for 24S-T in Fig. 6-5,
F„/Fcy = 1.06, and F„ = F« = 14,000 psi. For the column, B = 0.80, and Fc =
0.84(14,000) = 11,800 psi.
Test data for 75S-T columns in Ref. 70 plotted against the Larson-Miller parameter
give about 12,500 psi for the L/p and Larson-Miller parameter of this problem.
PROBLEMS
6-12. Solve Example 6-2 for a life of 10 hr.

6-13. Solve Prob. 6-6 for a life of 100 hr.
6-15. The constants in the iso-stress-strain equation (6-18) for 75S-T aluminum
alloy at 600°F are A = 2.64(10"7), B = 1.92(10-»), K = 0.66, E = 5.2(10'), and t in
hours. Solve Eq. (6-21) for the column stress of a 75S-T column at 600°F with
L'/p = 40 and I = 10 hr.
6-7. Thermal Fatigue. The fatigue problem at room temperature is

concerned with the number of stress cycles a material can take before it
ruptures. The thermal-fatigue problem is concerned not only with the
stress cycles but also with the temperature cycles, not only with rupture
but also with deformation arising from creep. On the basis of these
factors the various thermal-fatigue problems may be listed as follows.
1. Uniform Temperature, Alternating Stress, Zero Mean Stress. This
problem is similar to the case of room-temperature fatigue. SN curves
(Refs. 1, 102, 110) can be obtained as for room temperature. Completely
reversed stress tests on wrought N-155 alloy (Ref. 102) show fatigue
strengths of the order of 40 to 60 per cent of the ultimate tensile strength
for temperatures from room to 1500°F. However, as the temperature
and time period increase, the fatigue strength increases relative to the
static creep rupture strength until it is twice the rupture strength at
1500°F and 500 hr time. This means that under conditions where creep
occurs the material can take a cyclic load of larger magnitude than a
steady load for fracture in time periods longer than some limiting value.
On the N-155 alloy (Ref. 102) the knee on the SN curve tends to dis
appear at elevated temperatures.
2. Uniform Temperature, Alternating Stress about Steady Mean Stress.
For the N-155 alloy (Ref. 102) increasingly higher percentages of alter
nating stress on the steady stress for creep rupture in 50, 150, and 500 hr
are required to change the rupture strength appreciably as the tempera
ture increases. At 1500°F the alternating stresses approach the com
pletely reversed fatigue strength before a substantial reduction in fracture
time occurs. The alternating stresses appear to have little effect on the
second stage of creep when superimposed on the mean stress.
3. Uniform Temperature, Intermittent Load and Constant Load, Inter

mittent Temperature. This problem has been considered by several
authors (Refs. 20, 22, 23). In many cases the creep rupture is unaffected
by the intermittent load or the intermittent temperature. However,
acceleration of creep and rupture is induced by intermittent loading
where such processes as overaging, relaxation, recrystallization, and loss
of ductility occur. Retarding of creep and rupture occurs in those alloys
where increase in ductility and creep recovery develop because of the
intermittent loading. Intermittent heating accelerates creep and rupture
in cases where susceptibility to intergranular oxidation and cracking is
aggravated by thermal stresses.
4. Intermittent Temperature, Thermal Stresses. Coffin (Refs. 20, 99)
has considered this problem, obtaining some test data on stainless steel.
When the structure is restrained, it is possible for sufficiently large tem
peratures to produce thermal stresses in the inelastic region of the stress-
strain curve (see Sec. 7-2). When the temperature is reduced to its
original value, because of previous plastic action, the stresses must reverse
their direction and may produce a reversed plastic flow. Thus, a cyclic
thermal loading can cause cyclic thermal stresses which may produce
reversed plastic flow with each cycle. This causes severe fatigue of the
material, and failure may occur after a few hundred cycles. Coffin's
results (Ref. 99) show a life of 200 cycles on annealed stainless steel for a
temperature change of 100 to 600°C, 20,000 cycles for 250 to 450°C.
See Sec. 7-2 for stress-temperature curves in inelastic region.
5. Intermittent Temperature, Applied Stress, Thermal Stress. Parkes
(Ref. 101) considers this problem for a multiweb wing by taking the
web at 0° and letting the skin heat up, then the web heat up, then the
skin cool off, and finally the web cool off. Thus, for large skin area in
comparison with web area, the web is subjected to large thermal stresses.
The applied stresses are the bending stresses on the wing. Four stress-
strain states can arise in the wing, (a) permanent elasticity, (6) shakedown
to elastic state, (c) alternating plasticity, and (d) incremental collapse.
Case a arises when the combined stresses in the web are elastic. Case b
corresponds to yielding of part of the web on the first cycle, but, with
thermal stress less than the yield stress, there is no further yielding on
subsequent cycles. Case c corresponds to problem 4 discussed in the
previous paragraph in which the thermal stress exceeds the yield stress.
Case d involves permanent set in the skin and web on each cycle, which
continues to increase with large deformation after several cycles.
6-8. Thermal Shock. If a body is subjected to a steep transient-
temperature gradient so that large thermal stresses are produced, a
condition of thermal shock is introduced. Such a condition arises when a
body at one uniform temperature is immersed in a medium at a different
temperature. Since some materials are affected by the rate at which

the stress is applied, these materials may respond quite differently under
thermal-shock conditions than under ordinary thermal stress or applied
stress. Some materials are embrittled by rapid application of stress
so that they may be unable to withstand a thermal-shock stress which
would cause little effect if applied slowly.
Brittle and ductile materials react differently to thermal stress. Since
the thermal stress arises from the strain due to temperature expansion,
brittle materials, which can endure very little strain before rupture, may
fail under the thermal shock. Ductile materials, which can undergo
large strains before rupture, can usually absorb the thermal shock.
However, ductile materials may fatigue under repeated application of the
shock. See Sec. 6-4 and Chap. 7 for the behavior of ductile materials,
where it is shown that the inelastic stresses under shock conditions are
much smaller than the elastic stresses which apply to brittle materials.
For the case of the brittle plate subjected to a constant cooling source
(quenching) on both surfaces (Sec. 4-3), Manson (Ref. 123) has shown
that the equilibrium temperature to produce tension failure in the surface
can be approximated as
kFu 3.25(1 - v)
Ea hL
(6-22)
The expressions kFu/Ea and Fu/Ea are designated as thermal-shock

parameters. These parameters give an idea of the relative thermal-shock
resistance of different brittle materials. However, the two parameters
do not order the materials in the same way (Ref. 123) so that it is neces
sary to consider the expected range of hL/k and use the proper parameter.
In the case of rapid heating the surface stress is compressive, and
surface failure may occur as a result of spalling, or as a result of the shear
stress induced by the compression. Failure may occur, however, not at
the surface but at the center of the plate, where the largest tensile stress
is developed. This maximum tensile stress depends upon the heating
time and the conductivity. In the poor conductor only the fibers very
near the surface are affected by the short interval of the thermal shock.
High compressive stresses occur in the surface, but they may not cause
failure. The tensile stress at the center is low because the high compres
sion in a few fibers is counteracted by the entire plate. In the good
conductor the compressive stress at the surface may be lower at a given
time, but more fibers are in compression so that the tensile stress at the
center is larger. Thus, under certain conditions, a good conductor may
be worse than a poor one for thermal shock. Since infinite conductivity
causes no stress, there is some optimum conductivity. However, since

the stresses depend also on the heating time, no simple relation is apparent
for judging the brittle materials under these conditions. The precise
application must be studied in detail to select the best material.
Another factor involved in Eq. (6-22) and in the above discussion of
selection of the best brittle material is that of the temperature distribu
tion at the time of maximum stress. Since the physical properties vary
with temperature, the question is what values to use when the tempera
ture varies through a wide range in the plate thickness. Probably the
best value for the conductivity is an average between the initial tempera
ture and the temperature at maximum stress.
Since sudden application of loads to a structure produces dynamic
stresses and deflections through vibration of the structure, it is possible
that thermal-shock conditions may produce dynamic effects. This
requires the addition of inertia terms into the thermal-stress equations of
Chap. 1, whence time will occur in the thermal-stress equations other
than as a parameter in the temperature terms. Boley (Ref. 124) has
considered this dynamic problem for a constant-step heat input on the
edge of a beam. His results show the deflections to oscillate at the lowest
natural frequency of the beam about the static deflection without inertia
effects. If the beam is very shallow (thin plate), the dynamic deflection
may be twice the static deflection; there is little dynamic effect for deep
beams or thick plates (h, > £ in.) (see Ref. 124 for details). It should
be noted that, for sufficiently high on the surface, Boley's
temperatures
results (Ref. 124) may be modified considerably by the inelastic effects.
Some other work on thermal shock is given in Refs. 125 to 128.
6-9. Efficiencies of Aircraft Materials at Elevated Temperatures.
There is considerable literature (Refs. 105 to 109, 115 to 122) on the prob
lem of material efficiencies and optimum stresses for structural elements
in compression. Since the most efficient structure to take a given load is
the one with the least weight, the parameter for comparing the efficiencies
of materials can be taken as F/p = allowable stress/density. The most
efficient has the largest value of F/p. However, there are
structure
many allowable stresses F depending upon type of load, geometry, and
temperature: tension, shear, column, plate buckling, stringer crippling,
panel buckling, etc. The most efficient material for one stress may not
be the most efficient for a different type of loading or for a different
temperature. Figure 6-19 shows the compressive yield stress efficiency
of two steel alloys, two titanium alloys, two aluminum alloys, and one
nickel alloy (Ref. 107) as plotted against temperature.
The optimum allowable stress for columns and plates not only depends
upon the geometry and temperature but also depends upon the magnitude
of the load to be carried. This means that the most efficient material
for column stress at one load may not be the most efficient at a different
load. It is possible to analyze this problem of geometry and load effects
by the combination of geometry and load into one parameter, designated
as a structural index. For the case of a column of given length L to take
a given load P equate the column buckling stress to the applied stress
[Eq. (6-1)],
(jj
P
Fc = r,Ear2 = =
/
A
Fe _ E_ PY J_
£
so that =
(
s
(6-23)
FcyVi AFcy2Ly B2
V
where P/L2, involving both the given load and the given length, may be
designated as the structural index.
800
-Stainless W
SAE 4340
RC-130B
400 Inconel X
V ^-XA78S-T6
75S-T6
400 800 1200

T,
°F
Fig. 6-19. Variation of compressive-yield-stress-density ratio with temperature.
the column buckling assumed to follow Euler's curve and John

If
is
son's parabola in Fig. 6-5, then Eq. (6-23) by the use of Eq. (6-6)
becomes
±
_Fc = B2 >
2
Fcv
Fc
4
B2 < (6-24)
2
+ B4
4
B
VCX AFcy2L2)
Against the parameter Eq. (6-24) graphs the same as Euler's curve in
B
Fig. 6-5 and slightly above Johnson's parabola, but having the end points
the same as the parabola. In the parameter are terms for the column
B
end fixity, the cross-section geometry, the material properties, and the
structural index. For a given structural index Eq. (6-24) can be used to
compare different materials provided the end fixity c and cross-section
parameter p2/ A remain invariant for the different materials. The com
parison can be made at different temperatures and for creep conditions
provided the proper E and Fcy are selected from short-time stress-strain
curves, or from iso-stress-strain curves (Figs. 6-3 and 6-18). Figure 6-20
shows comparisons made for some titanium alloys, steel alloys, and alumi
num alloys against short-time temperature for c(p2/A)(P/L2) = 50 psi
(Ref. 107). For the parameter = 200 psi Ref. 107 shows considerable
change in the efficiencies, RC-130B is best up to 350°, stainless W from
350 to 750°, RC-130B from 750 to 950°, Inconel X from 950° up.
800 r
For a given value of P/L2 the comparison of materials in Fig. 6-20

requires the invariance of the end fixity c and the cross-section parameter
P2/A. Ordinarily c can be the same, but the invariance of p2/A may be
difficult to maintain. The solid circle and square are always invariant,
but for the thin-wall tube (the most efficient column for no support in
any direction)
where D is the average tube diameter and t is the wall thickness. How
ever, there is a limit to the D/t ratio because of local buckling of the walls.
If the local buckling stress is equated to the column stress, then the opti
mum value of D/t and hence p2/ A can be obtained. For this value of
p2/ A the highest possible stress for the tube is obtained. Shanley (Ref.
108) gives
)OPt
(6-26)
2
(t
0
P/L2/
where = 0.40, based on tests, and independent of material. How
is
fc2
ever, the optimum p2/ depends upon material (E) and upon the struc
A
tural index. This means that the materials will compare differently for
this case from that shown in Fig. The parameter in Eq. (6-24)
B
6-20.
for the optimum tube becomes
With this in Eq. (6-24) the most efficient tube for each material can
B
be compared. If the parameter c(p2/A) (P/L2) = 50 psi used in Fig. 6-20

assumed to represent the best aluminum-alloy tube with = 107 psi,
E
is
then for the best tube in the other materials (constant and P/L2)
c
[Eq. (6-26)]
(£)-»(£)'
0
(?)
= 71 for steel
h.
A9-r
c
= 57 for titanium
(5)
0r Inconel X
C
f
Z
These values give smaller value for in Eq. (6-24) and hence larger
B
a
stresses in Eq. (6-24). That

is,
there less separation of the curves

is
in Fig. 6-20 for optimum tubes, all the curves being closer to 75S-T6 at
room temperature.
formed or extruded section restrained to act as
If
the column
is
a
column about one axis, the problem of comparison becomes more difficult.
The section has local buckling and crippling, which determines one
arrangement of the area to get the highest stress while the column requires
a different arrangement of the area. As indicated in Sec. 6-3, for the
short column range not permissible to equate the crippling and
it
is
column stresses to get an optimum arrangement, since tests indicate that

the crippling stress essentially becomes a cutoff stress for the column.
The column follows Johnson's parabola up to the crippling stress at
L/p = (see Ref. 63). However, by using the procedures and curves
0
of Sec. 6-3, best cross section can be obtained for a given material and
a
for given structural index P/L2. Just as for the tube, the p2/A of this
a
section may not remain invariant when transformed to a different mate

rial. If all the dimensions are proportioned to maintain p2/A, then the
crippling stress may change, which changes the column stress. Also, il
may not be possible to proportion the section because of space limitations,
standard gages, and attachments to the skin. Furthermore, as for tubes,
the p2/ A should be changed to that value which gives the best cross-
section in the new material. Since the best section occurs for a definite
relation between the crippling stress and the column stress, p2/ 'A can be
expressed in terms of stress and material properties [Eq. (6-26)], which
will require that p2/A change from material to material to produce the
best section. The problem is to find the best section for each material.
Further, the best section for some materials may not be a practical one.
To obtain a relation between the crippling stress and column stress
at the optimum condition and to allow for the crippling stress to be the
cutoff for the column stress, take the crippling stress as given by Eq.
(6-9) and put it into Eq. (6-6) to get the column stress. The proper M
can be selected so that Eq. (6-9) can be used to represent the inelastic
buckling and crippling stresses up to the cutoff in Fig. 6-12. Also, let
M be assumed constant in the determination of the optimum b/t ratio.
Then the optimum b/t ratio for channel and Z sections of Fig. 6-8 is
(bj\ 1
[UPIO FJ 1 V
W/.„( & P/L2)
fA
2 V k1CTT2
, + Q(tF/tw)(bF/bw) (6-28)
, K
[I + 2(tF/tw){bF/bw)}2 Kitw
where K is given in Fig. 6-8 as a function of tF/tw and bF/bw. The term
hiK*, which is independent of material, can be optimized by selecting
tF/tw and bF/bw and using Fig. 6-8. This optimum value may be limited
by practical dimensions and requirements of standard thicknesses; the
load and the material will influence any modifications in the best value.
The optimum column stress for the b/t ratio in Eq. (6-28) is
F\ = /27M2cr2kiKi E* -P\*
F \ 64 FJV)
-
tc _ O
4
Fcc
which applies for crippling stresses below the cutoff (Fig. 6-12). If the
crippling stress has the cutoff value, then the optimum b/t ratio is the
largest value on the cutoff.
The optimum arrangement for plates and stiffened plates is still more
involved than for columns. Several cross-section parameters similar to
p2/ A may be present. The structural index takes the form Pi/b, where
P, is the load intensity in pounds per inch and b is the plate width.
Considerable work has been done on these plate problems (Refs. 105 to
109, 115 to but in many cases it is assumed that the cross-section
120),
parameters remain invariant when different materials are compared.
Although in many cases fair comparisons can be obtained with this
assumption, in other cases it is possible that unfair comparisons may be
made in the sense that the heavier materials may appear worse than they
actually are in comparison with the lighter alloys. A procedure similar
to that used above for the channel-section columns can be used for
stiffened plates. When p2/ A is expressed in terms of b,/t, (Fig. 6-10),
several geometry constants involving ratio of area in skin to area in
stringers, centroid of stringers, etc., result (Ref. 115). Optimum values
on these geometric constants as a group may or may not carry over to
other materials, depending upon load and practical arrangement. If
they carry over exactly and if the column stress equals the buckling
stress for all stresses, then the optimum curves for various materials and
temperatures in Ref. 117 can be used to compare aircraft materials.
PROBLEMS
6-17. Plot Eq. (6-24) on Fig. 6-5, and compare with Euler's curve and Johnson's
parabola.
6-18. A pin-ended column of 24S-T3 aluminum alloy 30 in. long is to take 100,000 lb
at 400°F. What is the minimum cross-section area of a solid circular column (a) for
short-time loading? (6) for a life of 100 hr?
6-19. Solve Prob. 6-18 for a circular tube. What are the tube diameter and wall
thickness?
6-20. Solve Prob. 6-18 for a channel section. What are the dimensions of the
channel? Can a ^-in. bolt be put through the flange?
6-21. Solve Prob. 6-20 for titanium with Fcy = 100,000 psi and no creep.
6-22. Derive Eq. (6-28).
6-23. Derive Eq. (6-29).
6-24. Equations (6-28) and (6-29) were derived on the assumption that optimum
column stress would occur in the short column or inelastic range. Show that this
assumption is correct by showing that the long column or elastic formula gives a
lower stress.
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58. Semonian, J. W., and J. P. Peterson: An Analysis of the Stability and Ultimate
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the Influence of Riveted Connections between Sheet and Stringer, NACA TN
3431, March, 1955.
59. Johnson, J. H., Jr., and R. G. Noel: Critical Bending Stress for Flat Rectangular
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60. Stowell, E. Z.: Compressive Strength of Flanges, NACA TN 2020, January,
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61. Cozzone, F. P., and M. A. Melcon: Nondimensional Buckling Curves — Their
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62. Schuette, E. H.: Observations on the Maximum Average Stress of Flat Plates
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63. Peery, D. J.: "Aircraft Structures," chap. 14, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
64. Anderson, M. S.: Compressive Crippling of Structural Sections, NACA TN 3553,
January, 1956.
65. Anderson, R. A., and M. S. Anderson: Correlation of Crippling Strength of Plate
Structures with Material Properties, NACA TN 3600, January, 1956.
66. Heimerl, G. J., and W. M. Roberts: Determination of Plate Compressive
Strengths at Elevated Temperatures, NACA TN 1806, February. 1949.
r
67. Mathauser, E. E., and C. Libove: Preliminary Investigations of Strength Char

acteristics of Structural Elements at Elevated Temperatures, NACA RM
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68. Zeitlin, E. A.: Allowable Stresses for Thin Metal Structural Elements at Ele
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69. Heimerl, G. J., and J. E. Inge: Tensile Properties of 7075-T6 and 2024-T3
Aluminum Alloy Sheet Heated at Uniform Temperature Rates under Constant
Load, NACA TN 3462, July, 1955.
70. Mathauser, E. E., and W. A. Brooks, Jr.: An Investigation of Creep Life-time
of 75S-T6 Aluminum Alloy Columns, NACA TN 3204, July, 1954.
71. Johnson, R. D., A. P. Young, and A. D. Schwope: Plastic Deformation of
Aluminum Single Crystals at Elevated Temperatures, NACA TN 3351, April,
1955.
72. Schwope, A. D., F. R. Shober, and L. R. Jackson: Creep in Metals, NACA TN
2618, February, 1952.
73. Libove, C:
Creep Buckling of Columns, J.
Aeronaut. Sci., 19(7):459-467 (1952).
74. Libove, C: Creep Buckling Analysis of Rectangular Section Columns, NACA
TN 2956, June, 1953.
75. Frey, D. N., J. W. Freeman, and A. E. White: Fundamental Effects of Cold
Work on Some Cobalt-Chromium-Nickel-Iron Base Creep Resistant Alloys,
NACA TN 2586, January, 1952.
76. Manson, S. S., and A. M. Haferd: A Linear Time Temperature Relation for
Extrapolation of Creep and Stress Rupture Data, NACA TN 2890, March, 1953.
77. Heimerl, G. J.: Time Temperature Parameters and an Application to Creep and
Rupture of Aluminum Alloys, NACA TN 3195, June, 1954.
78. Kempner, J.: Creep Bending and Buckling of Linearly Viscoelastic Columns,
79. Kempner, J.: Creep Bending and Buckling of Nonlinearly Viscoelastic Columns,
80. Kempner, J., and S. A. Patel: Creep Buckling of Columns, NACA TN 3138,
January, 1954.
81. Ness, N.: Time Dependent Buckling of a Uniformly Heated Column, NACA TN
3139, January, 1954.
82. Mathauser, E. E.: Investigation of Static Strength and Creep Behavior of an
Aluminum Alloy Multiweb Box Beam at Elevated Temperatures, NACA TN
3310, November, 1954.
83. Mordfin, L.: Creep and Creep Rupture Characteristics of Some Riveted and
Spot Welded Lap Joints of Aircraft Materials, NACA TN 3412, June, 1955.
84. Mathauser, E. E., and W. D. Deveikis: Investigation of the Compressive
Strength and Creep Lifetime of 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy Plates at Elevated
Temperatures, NACA TN 3552, January, 1956.
85. Larson, F. R., and J. Miller: A Time-Temperature Relationship for Rupture and
Creep Stresses, Trans. ASME, 74(5) :765-775 (1952).
86. Hoff, N. J.: Rapid Creep in Structures, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 22(10) :661-672 (1955).
87. Dix, E. H., Jr.: Aluminum Alloys for Elevated Temperature Service, Aero.
Eng. Rev., 15(l):40-48 (1956).
88. Dorn, J. E. : Some Fundamental Experiments in High Temperature Creep, J.
Mech. Phys. Solids, 3(2):85-116 (1955).
89. Orr, R. L., O. D. Sherby, and J. E. Dorn: Correlations of Rupture Data for
Metals at Elevated Temperatures, Trans. Am. Soc. Metals, 46:113-128 (1954).
90. Marin, J.: Interpretation of Creep and Long Time Test Data, Proc. Soc. Exptl.
Stress Anal., 11(2):207-212 (1954).
91. Sherby, O. D., and J. E. Dorn: An Analysis of the Phenomenon of High Tem
perature Creep, Proc. Soc. Exptl. Stress Anal., 12(1):139-154 (1954).
92. Pao, Yoh-Han, and J. Marin: The Creep Deflections of Beams and Columns,
presented at the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences annual meeting, January,
1953, Preprint 406.
93. Pao, Yoh-Han, and J. Marin: An Analytical Theory of the Creep Deformation
of Materials, J. Appl. Mech., 20:245-252 (1953).
94. Hult, J. A. H.: Critical Time in Creep Buckling, J. Appl Mech., 22 :432 (1955).
95. Wahl, A. M., G. O. Sankey, M. J. Manjoine, and E. Shoemaker: Creep Tests
of Rotating Disks at Elevated Temperature and Comparison with Theory,
J. Appl. Mech., 21:225-235 (1954).
96. Pao, Yoh-Han, and J. Marin: Deflection and Stresses in Beams Subjected to
Bending and Creep, /. Appl. Mech., 19:478-484 (1952).
97. Symposium on the Thermal Barrier, November, 1954, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York.
98. Carlson, R. L., and A. D. Schwope: A Method of Estimating Allowable Load
Capacities of Columns Subject to Creep, Proc. 2d U.S. Natl. Congr. Appl. Mech.,
1954, pp. 563-568, American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
99. Coffin, L. F., Jr.: Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal Stresses on a Ductile
Metal, Trans. ASME, 76:931-950 (1954).
100. Freudenthal, A. M., and J. H. Weiner: On the Thermal Aspects of Fatigue,
J. Appl. Phys., 27(1) :44-50 (1956).
101. Parkes, E. W.: Wings under Repeated Thermal Stress, Aircraft Eng., 26 :402-406
(1954).
102. Cooperative Investigation of Relationship between Static and Fatigue Proper
ties of Wrought N-155 Alloy at Elevated Temperatures, NACA TN 3216, April,
1955.
103. Gerard, G.: Life Expectancy of Aircraft under Thermal Flight Conditions,
J. Aeronaut. Sci., 21 :675-680 (1954).
104. Symposium on Thermal Fracture, compiled by W. D. Kingery, J. Am. Ceram.
Soc, 38:1-54 (1955).
105. Gerard, G.: Buckling Efficiencies of Plate Materials at Elevated Temperatures,
J. Aeronaut. Sci., 22:194-196 (1955).
106. Clark, J. W.: Buckling Efficiencies of Plate Materials at Elevated Temperatures,
J. Aeronaut. Sci., 22:659 (1955).
107. Heimerl, G. J., and P. J. Hughes: Structural Efficiencies of Various Aluminum,
Titanium, and Steel Alloys at Elevated Temperatures, NACA TN 2975, July,
1953.
108. Shanley, F. R.: "Weight-Strength Analysis of Aircraft Structures," McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
109. Micks, W. R.: A Method for Determining the Effects of Elevated Temperatures
on Structural Design and Weight, Rand Rept. P-498, March, 1954.
110. Ferguson, R. L.: A Further Investigation of the Effect of Surface Finish on
Fatigue Properties at Elevated Temperatures, NACA TN 3142, March, 1954.
111. Predvoditelev, A. A., and B. A. Smirnov: Theory of Dynamic Creep, NACA TM
1330, September, 1955.
112. Smith, G. V.: "Properties of Metals at Elevated Temperatures," McGraw-Hill
113. Baer, H. W.: Prediction of Very Short Time Creep Buckling from Very Short
Time Tensile Creep Properties, Proc. 2d U.S. Natl. Cong. Appl. Mech., 1955,
pp. 569-576, American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
114. Rosenthal, D., and D. Hasanovitsh: Creep Buckling of Columns, WADC TR

54-402, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1954.
115. Micks, W. R.: A Method of Estimating the Compressive Strength of Optimum
Sheet-Stringer Panels for Arbitrary Material Properties, Skin Thickness, and
Stiffener Shapes, /. Aeronaut. Sci., 20(10) :705-715 (1953).
116. Jackson, L. R., and S. A. Gordon: The Application of a New Structural Index
to Compare Titanium Alloys with Other Materials in Airframe Structures,
ASME Paper 56-AV-10, March, 1956.
117. Schnitt, A., M. A. Brull, and H. S. Wolko: Optimum Stresses of Structural Ele
ments at Elevated Temperatures, ASME Paper 56-AV-ll, March, 1956.
118. Gerard, G.: Thermostructural Efficiencies of Compression Elements and Mate
rials, ASME Paper 56-AV-12, March, 1956.
119. Heimerl, G. J., and P. F. Barrett: A Structural Efficiency Evaluation of Titanium
at Normal and Elevated Temperatures, NACA TN 2269, January, 1951.
120. Dow, N. F., and W. A. Hickman: Comparison of the Structural Efficiency of
Panels Having Straight Web and Curved Web Y-section Stiffeners, NACA TN
1787, January, 1949.
121. Gordon, S. A.: The Selection of Materials for High Temperature Applications in
Airframes, TML Rept. 13, Battele Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, August,
1955 (ASTIA AD No. 69675).
122. Rosen, B. W.: Analysis of the Ultimate Strength and Optimum Properties of
Multiweb Wing Structures, NACA TN 3633, March, 1956.
123. Manson, S. S.: Behavior of Materials under Conditions of Thermal Stress,
NACA TN 2933, July, 1953.
124. Boley, B. A.: Thermally Induced Vibrations of Beams, J. Aeronaut. Sci.,
23(2):179-181 (1956).
125. Cheng, C. H.: Resistance to Thermal Shock, /. Am. Rocket Soc, 21:147-153
(1951).
126. Maxwell, W. A., and R. W. Smith: Thermal Shock Resistance and High Temper
ature Strength of a Molybdenum Disilicide-Aluminum Oxide Ceramic, NACA
RM E53F26, October, 1953.
127. Sadowsky, M. A.: Thermal Shock on a Circular Surface of Exposure of an
Elastic Half Space, J.
Appl. Mech., 22:177-182 (1955).
128. Williams, F. L.: The Combined Effects of High Intensity Heating and Dynamic
Loading on a One Cell Box Beam, Massachusetts Institute of Technology M.S.
thesis, 1955 (ASTIA AD No. 71541).
129. Mathauser, E. E., and W. D. Deveikis: Investigation of the Compressive
Strength and Creep Lifetime of 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy Skin-Stringer Panels
at Elevated Temperatures, NACA TN 3647, May, 1956.
130. Carlson, R. L.: Time-dependent Tangent Modulus Applied to Column Creep
Buckling, ASME Paper 56-APM-13, June, 1956.
131. Hoff, N. J.: Stress Distribution in the Presence of Steady Creep, Proc. Conf.
High-speed Aeronaut., 1955, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn.
132. Zuk, W.: Creep Buckling of Plates at Elevated Temperatures, Aeronaut. Sci.,
23(6):610-611 (1956).
133. King, C. W.: Creep Buckling of Integrally Stiffened Aluminum Alloy Panels,
134. Gerard, G.: "Minimum Weight Analysis of Compression Structures," New York
University Press, distributed by Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1956.
135. Hoff, N. J
, and others: Theory and Experiment in the Solution of Structural
Problems, WADC TR 55-291, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1956.
136. Brahtz, J. F., and A. Dean: An Account of Research Information Pertaining to

Aerodynamic Heating of Airframe, WADC TR 55-99, pt. II, 5 vols., Wright-
Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1955.
137. Kempner, J., and N. J. Hoff: Bibliography of Creep for Structural Engineers,
WADC TN 56-40, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1956.
138. Lin, T. H.: Creep Stresses and Deflections of Columns, Appl. Mech., 23:214—
218 (1956).
139. Gatewood, B. E.: Allowable Stresses in Aircraft and Missile Structures at Ele
vated Temperatures, WADC TN 56-380, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, 1956.
CHAPTER 7
STRESS ANALYSIS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
7-1. Introduction. The usual stress analysis at room temperature

requires that an applied stress be obtained on the basis of the applied
loads and that an allowable stress be obtained for the material under the
particular type of loading condition. Table 6-3 for the various allow
See
able stresses. At elevated temperatures thermal stresses and creep may
be added to the problem so that several different stress-analysis problems
can arise. They may be listed as in Table 7-1.
Table 7-1. Stress-analysis Problems at Elevated Temperatures
Prob. Time Applied load Thermal load Allowable stress
A Short Yes No Yes

B Short No Yes Yes
*C Short Yes Yes Yes
D Long Yes No Yes
E Long No Yes Yes
F Long Yes Yes Yes
The approach to problem A in Table 7-1 is the same as at room tem

perature: determine the applied stress, and obtain the allowable stress
by the procedures of Sec. 6-3. The thermal stresses for problem B in
the elastic region (constant E) without buckling have been considered
for various cases in Chaps. 1 to 5 (see Sec. 6-3 for the allowable stresses).
The inelastic thermal stresses (variable E) in problem B are considered
below in Secs. 7-2 and 7-3 ; the allowable stresses are discussed in Sec. 6-4.
In the elastic case of problem C superposition of the applied and thermal
stresses can be made. The inelastic case of problem C is considered in
Secs. 7-4 and 7-5, with the allowable stresses in Secs. 6-3 and 6-4. Prob
lems D and F are considered in Sec. 7-6 and problem E in Sec. 7-2, with
the allowable stresses in Secs. 6-5 and 6-6. Problems E and F usually
arise only if there is a steady-state temperature distribution in a restrained
structure or different materials are used in the structure.
153
It should be noted that elastic and inelastic stresses as used here are
not associated with the conventional yield stress defined by the 0.002
strain offset line. The secant modulus at the yield stress may be any
where from 80 to 40 per cent of the elastic modulus, depending upon
material and temperature. With elastic thermal stresses defined
as those
calculated for a constant E
(usually room-temperature elastic modulus)
in Chaps. 1 to 5, and with inelastic thermal stresses defined as those
calculated with a variable E (whether due to temperature or due to the
proportional limit being exceeded), it follows that a considerable inelastic
effect can occur before the yield point is reached. In other words, a
permanent strain of 0.002 due to inelastic action is permissible within the
yield-stress definition. As Fig. 6-2 shows, the major inelastic effect arises
from the decrease of stress with temperature for a given strain. Some
consequences of this inelastic effect upon design are considered in
Sec. 7-7.
PROBLEMS
7-1. If the load equation in Eq. (1-5) is replaced by/iAi +/2A2 = Q, where Q ia
an applied load, show that for the elastic case
/, = -M,(r, - ro) +
AiEiEfA2E2 a -4; (£-/.) (7-D
7-2. Apply a load Q to the ends of bar No. 1 in Fig. 1-4. If the rivets deflect
according to Eq. (1-11) and Tl = T2, find the loads on the rivets. Does the end
rivet have the highest load in this case?
7-3. Solve Prob. 7-2 with the bars at different temperatures. Does superposition
apply in this case?
7-4. Find the value of the applied load Q needed in Prob. 3-1 to make the maxi
mum stress equal to the yield stress for 2024-T3 aluminum alloy.
7-2. Inelastic Thermal Stresses for Uniform Temperature. Consider

a partially restrained 2024-T3 bar to be heated up to a given temperature
and then cooled to room temperature. With no buckling or bowing the
stress and strain in the bar are [Eq. (1-4)]
/ = -KaE(T - T0) e= -Ka(T - T0) (7-2)
where K is the restraint coefficient. As the temperature increases, the

strain can be calculated for any particular K and the stress obtained from
Fig. 6-2 (this assumes ^ hr exposure time and no creep). On cooling the
stress-strain curves will be different because the strength is only partially
recovered, the amount of recovery depending upon the maximum tem
perature reached. Figure 7-1 shows the stresses in the bar for several
STRESS ANALYSIS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES 155
values of K for a
temperature increase to 600°F and return to room tem
perature. The recovery on cooling from 600°F is approximated as being
equivalent to the 500°F stress-strain curve in Fig. 6-2 for all temperatures
below 500°F. The tension curves are assumed to be the same as the
compressive curves in Fig. 6-2, and unloading is assumed to be elastic.
In Fig. 7-1 the stress cycle is essentially elastic for the K =
^ case,
assuming E to recover. There is an inelastic effect for K \, \, and 1 =
so that there is a residual tension stress at the end of the cycle, though
the yield stress is not reached in the K = and cases. \
In the K = | \
and ^ cases there is no inelastic effect in tension so that on subsequent
-30
-20
K = 1/2
1/4
-10
K=\ /8
/
—'
/
- '1/4 1/
/'
f y 1/2 /
+ 10
/
/ ——
— Te mp. ncrea sing
/ Temp, decree sing

-°- Temp, increa
(second eye e)
+ 20 l 1
75
Temperature, °F
Fig. 7-1. Thermal stresses in restrained bar for temperature cycle to 600°F.
cycles the behavior is elastic. However, in the K = 1 case, yielding

occurs in tension as well as in compression so that heating in the second
cycle gives the curve with circles in Fig. 7-1. Since, at 600°F, the stress
in this second cycle is essentially the same as in the first cycle, the cool
ing curve on the second cycle is the same as that on the first cycle. Thus
subsequent cycles will repeat the second cycle, with yielding occurring in
compression and tension on each cycle. This gives a fatigue problem,
which is discussed in Sec. 6-7.
Allowance for creep can be made in the above problem by using the
iso-stress-strain curve in Fig. 6-18. Assume the bar to be heated linearly
from 75 to 600°F in 2 min, to remain at 600°F for 1 hr, and to cool linearly
to 75°F in 10 min. The Larson-Miller parameter in Fig. 6-18 can be
written as
LM = (T + 460) (20 + log t) _ [525(</*i) + 535](20 + log t)

103 103
LM = 10.5 + log 0 < < h

(l
t
^)
LM - k<t<t2 (7-3)
(l +^log^)
21
LM = U < <
10-5(2-^)(1+A1°4)
t t3
LM = 10.5
(l + A log t > t3
where <i
= 2 min
<2 = 60 min
t3 min
= 70
Figure 7-2 shows thermal stresses against the parameter for K = 1 in
Eq. (7-2). It is assumed that on cooling the material recovers to the
LM — 18 curve in Fig. 6-18. The tension iso-stress-strain curves are
1.0,
Fig. 7-2. Inelastic thermal stresses with creep.
assumed to be the same as for compression, and in Fig. 7-2 the tension
stress is shown on the compression scale as a reflection in the = 0 axis. /
Creep in tension at room temperature due to the residual stress is obtained
from Fig. 6-18 by starting from the LM = 18 curve and holding constant
strain with time increasing.
If a second cycle is started after 100 hr at room temperature, then by
Fig. 7-2 the second cycle essentially coincides with the first cycle at 600°F
so that the remainder of the second cycle follows the first cycle.
In the above discussion of inelastic thermal stresses K has been assumed
to be constant. However, for actual structure such as two bars restrain
ing each other or a stringer restraining the skin, Eqs. (1-6) and (3-1) show
K to depend upon the E of each bar so that K depends upon the stress-
strain curve and temperature through E. Thus, as the temperature varies
through the cycle, K will also vary. From Eq. (3-1) write the strain as
e, = -K(a.T. - abTb) K =
; + pj^rj (7-4)
where E,and Eb are the secant moduli for the skin and stringer, respec
tively. The variation of E with temperature has little effect on K, but
the variation due to exceeding the proportional limit can have large
effects. For example, let Tb = 0 and bh, — Ab so that in the elastic
region K = % for the same materials in the skin and stringer. But at
600°F in Fig. 7-1 E, = 3.5(10«) and K = . f
However, this change occurs
in the range from 400 to 600°F in Fig. 7-1, and the figure shows that in
this range the K = 1 curve is only slightly above the K — curve. \
Thus the variation in K in the inelastic region affects the strain con
siderably but affects the stress very little so that the variation can be
neglected in many cases.
In Chap. 3 expressions for a,T, — abTb in Eq. (7-4) were obtained under
various heating conditions as functions of time. For these functions the
procedures of Figs. 7-1 and 7-2 can be used to find the stresses, whether
elastic or inelastic, short-time or long-time. The maximum values of
— abTb given in Chap. 3 do not necessarily give the maximum stresses
a.T.
in the inelastic case (see Figs. 7-1 and 7-2, where maximum T — To is
525°F but the maximum stress for K = 1 occurs about T - T0 = 325°F).
The maximum stresses depend not only upon a,T, — abTb but also upon
T, and the corresponding stress-strain curves.
-
Example 7-1. Consider the skin-stringer thermal-stress problem discussed in
Sec. 3-2. In Eqs. (3-4) to (3-6) assume Tm = 600 75 = 525°F, B = 1.0, a, =
m = a for aluminum alloy, 2bh, = Ab so that K = in J Eq. (7-4) (see Fig. 3-1 for the
variation of T„ Tb, and T, — Tb with time).
Solution. If the time is short (ordinarily it must be in order for B to be 1.0), the
procedure of Fig. 7-1 can be used to obtain the thermal stresses against the time.
Figure 7-3 shows both the elastic stress for E = 107 psi, which varies with T, — Tb
of Fig. 3-1, and the inelastic stress for 2024-T3 aluminum alloy, based on the stress-
strain curves of Fig. 6-2. For the inelastic calculation the peak stress of 21,000 psi
occurs at t/h = 0.70 as compared with 29,000 psi at t/h = 1.00 for the elastic case.
The residual tension stress will decrease toward zero with time by creeping (see Fig.
7-2). The stringer stress is one-half the skin stress, but of opposite sign. Note that
the yield stress is never reached in this example, all the inelastic action occurring at
less than the yield stress.
PROBLEMS
7-5. Solve Example 7-1 for the case of bh. = 2^4.6.
7-6. Figure 7-1 indicates that variation of K due to change of E, in Eq. (7-4) has
little effect on the stress. What is the effect if the stringer instead of the skin yields
so that K varies because of What happens to K when T, — Tb starts to decrease?
7-7. Solve Example 7-1 for the case in which the skin is aluminum alloy and the
stringer is steel.
7-8. Find the inelastic thermal stresses for the temperature variation in Fig. 3-6.
Use Te = 600 — 75 = 525°F for aluminum-alloy skin and stringer.
7-3. Inelastic Thermal Stresses for NonunifornTTemperature. Con

sider the case of a one-dimensional temperature variation such as is given
in Chap. 4, where the temperature and elastic-stress distributions through
thick plates and beams are calculated. Part of the plate is in the inelastic
region, while part is in the elastic region. Figure 7-4 shows the inelastic-
stress distribution in a restrained thick plate 75°F on one surface and
600°F on the other surface. The plate is assumed to be narrow and
unrestrained in the transverse direction so that there is no combined
stress effect. Two temperature distributions are shown, one linear and
the other the case of W = 0.08 in Fig. 4-4. Figure 6-2 is used to calcu
late the inelastic thermal stresses for the aluminum-alloy plate. Note
that the peak inelastic stress in this restrained case depends upon the
total temperature gradient and not on the distribution. However, the
location of the peak stress in the cross section does depend upon the dis
0 0.5 1.0. 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
t/h
Fig. 7-5. Inelastic-thermal-stress distribution as function of time.
tribution — not necessarily occurring at the surface. If the distributions

remain steady-state, creep occurs. Figure 7-4 shows the stress distribu
tion after 100 hr steady state as obtained from Fig. 6-18.
For the transient-temperature case the stress depends upon the time
as well as location in the thick plate or beam. Consider the case of
W = 0.20 in Fig. 4-2 for complete restraint and no bowing or buckling.

In the elastic case the thermal stresses would be the same as shown in
Fig. 4-2, the maximum occurring on the heated surface (x/L = 1.00).
Figure 7-5 shows the inelastic thermal stresses based on Fig. 6-2 with
Te = 600 — 75 = 525°F. The maximum stress, which occurs at approxi
mately 400°F, progresses from the heated surface at t/h = 0.65 to the
inner surface at t/h = 3.0.
If the thick plate or beam is unrestrained, then Eqs. (4-2) or (4-3) can
be used provided they are modified to allow for variable E. This requires
that the strain instead of the stress be used in deriving Eqs. (4-2) and
(4-3), since the strain remains linear under variable E (except near the
end of the plate or beam). Hence the equations become (assume no
combined stress in plate case)
[ExdA
c
SE dA
where E is the secant modulus. Since E depends upon the strain, Eq.
(7-5) must be solved by trial and error unless some simple expression is
/
assumed for E. Assume ec, eb, and c, calculate e, read from stress-strain
curves, and check for equilibrium.
Figure 7-6 shows the thermal stresses for the restrained-in-bending case
= in Eq. (7-5)] for the two temperature distributions used in Fig. 7-4.
[eb
The tension stresses are reduced small amount from the elastic values,
a
but the maximum compression stresses are reduced to about one-half

their maximum elastic values. Note that the yield stress not reached
is
in the linear-temperature case.

For the restrained-in-bending transient case consider the temperature
distribution in Fig. 4-2 for the W = 0.20 case with
TE = 600 - 75 = 525°F
Using the stress-strain curves in Fig. 6-2 and finding ec by trial at various
times, curves for the stresses at various positions in the plate can be
obtained and plotted against time. Figure 7-7 shows the results for the
elastic and inelastic stresses. As in the restrained case of Fig. 7-5, the
largest reduction in the compression stresses on the heated surface.
is
The maximum compression starts on the surface and shifts into approxi-
10 0 10 -20 30 -40
/Iksil
Fig. 7-6. Inelastic thermal stresses in plates restrained in bending
Fig. 7-7. Inelastic transient thermal stresses in plates restrained in bending.
mately x/L = 0.8, where it remains. After reaching a maximum, the

surface stress reduces rapidly and becomes a tension stress. Att/h = 1.0
the yield stress on the surface is exceeded by a small amount.
By use of Eq. (7-5) any of the temperature distributions in Chap. 4
can be investigated under inelastic conditions for the various restraint
conditions. As the above examples indicate, the location and magnitude

of the maximum inelastic stresses can be determined only by solving the
particular problem.
Several authors have proposed using equations of simplified stress-
strain curves in order that the inelastic stresses might be calculated
directly. Freudenthal (Ref. 1) has made calculations using a linear
viscoelastic material for a temperature distribution due to constant heat
source on the surfaces of a plate (see Fig. 4-8 for elastic stresses on the
surface) and obtained a reduction and reversal in the surface stress simi
lar to Fig. 7-7. Sprague and Huang (Ref. 2) use a successive-approxi
mation procedure on Eq. (7-5). For other work on the inelastic problem
see Refs. 3 to 7, 14, 15, 17.
PROBLEMS
7-9. By using Fig. 6-18 construct a 1,000-hr creep curve for the problem shown in
Fig. 7-4.
7-10. Construct curves similar to those in Fig. 7-4 for TB = 450 - 75 = 375°F.
7-11. Figure 7-6 shows the elastic and inelastic thermal stresses for a plate restrained
in bending. Construct a similar figure for the unrestrained case.
7-12. As time goes on in Fig. 7-5, creep occurs and the stresses approach zero.
What will be the stress in the plate after 10 hr at the equilibrium temperature of
600°F?
7-13. What are the maximum elastic and inelastic unrestrained stresses for the
problem given in Figs. 7-5 and 7-7?
7-14. What are the stresses in Fig. 7-7 after 10 hr at 600°F equilibrium temperature?
7-4. Combined Applied and Transient Thermal Stresses. From the

design viewpoint there are two applied stresses to be considered: the
limit applied stress at which permanent set of the structure shall not
occur and the ultimate applied stress (usually 1.5 times the limit stress)
at which failure shall not occur. The maximum limit applied stresses
may occur only a few times during the life of the airplane or missile.
However, the question is whether they occur before the structure has
been heated, after it has been heated and cooled, or when it has thermal
stresses acting. Whether they are the maximum stresses or not, some
applied stresses will act during any transient thermal stress. Further
more the applied stresses may change radically during a thermal-stress
cycle — the applied stress transients may be much shorter than any
thermal stress transient. This section considers a few cases of com
bining thermal stresses and applied stresses under short-time conditions.
Creep is considered in Sec. 7-6.
As indicated in Sec. 7-1, if the applied and thermal stresses are elastic
and their sum is elastic, then they can be added directly. However, if
either stress is inelastic, or if their sum is inelastic, the combination must
be made by consideration of the stress-strain curves (Fig. 6-2). Just as
in Secs. 7-2 and7-3 it is necessary to write the equations in terms of the

combined strains rather than stresses.
For the uniform-temperature case Eqs. (7-1) and (7-4) become
_ (Q/AbEb) -(a.T. -
abTb)
e'
1 + (bh,E,/AhEb) (7-6)
eb = e, + (a,T, — abTb)
Consider the skin-stringer problem in the example of Sec. 7-2 for which
the thermal stresses are given by Fig. 7-3. Assume an applied tension
stress of 8,000 psi to be acting on both the skin and the stringer from
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
t/t1
Fig. 7-8. Combined applied and thermal stresses in skin and stringer combination.
time t = 0. Since Ab = 2bh,, it follows that Q/Ab = 12,000 psi and

= 12,000 — (/„/2). The variation of E, and Eb affects the strains in
ft,
the inelastic region but has little effect on the stresses. Figure 7-8 shows
the resulting stresses. Although the yield stress never reached at any
is
time, the stresses are not the same as would be obtained by addition of
the elastic thermal stresses of Fig. 7-3 to the applied tension stress.
Let the external loads be applied at a time later than = At any
0.
t
time up to t/h = 0.62 the thermal and applied stresses add directly (Fig.
Beyond t/h = 0.62 the
application of the external load will pro
7-8).
duce a different stress distribution. Figure 7-8 shows the case when the
load applied at t/h = 1.0. For application of the load at t/h > 1.0
is
essentially the same curve as for t/h = 1.0 obtained.

is
the applied stress 8,000 psi compression, the combination of the

If
is
thermal and applied stresses shows a different result from that for tension
(Fig. 7-8). Addition can be made up to about t/h = 0.62, then from
t/t\ = 0.75 to 2.0, the skin stress is unchanged by the applied load, but
beyond t/h = 2.0 the skin stress changes owing to inelastic effects in the
stringer. If the compression load is applied at t/h = 1.0, the skin stress
will not change and the same curves result as in the previous case. How
ever, if the external load is applied at t/h = 2.0, the stresses change as
shown in Fig. 7-8. Note that, in this compression case, the yield stress
in the skin is reached at t/h =1.0 and in the stringer at t/h = 4.0.
Creep for t/h > 4.0 will tend to equalize the applied stress in the skin
and stringer. There is some permanent strain, which is less than the
yield strain.
Suppose the skin-stringer structure with the stresses shown in Fig. 7-8
has been through one cycle and returned to equilibrium at room temper
ature. Assume no residual stress to be present, and assume no recovery
in strength properties from the 600°F stress-strain curve in Fig. 6-2. Let
the structure be subjected to a second loading similar to that used in
Fig. 7-8. The maximum stresses occurring at t/h < 1.0 will disappear,
and the maximum will be at t/h = 1.0 (+11,500 psi depending on the
loading). For t/h > 1.0 all the cases will be essentially the same as in
Fig. 7-8, except no stress in either skin or stringer will exceed ± 11,500 psi.
The yield stress is not exceeded at any time.
If the +8,000 psi in the above discussion is regarded as a limit load,
then, since the yield stress is not exceeded under the combined thermal
and applied stresses, the structure is satisfactory for the limit-load design
requirement. If the ultimate applied stress is taken as +12,000 psi,
then the critical condition will occur at 600°F, for which the ultimate
allowable stress is about +13,000 psi (no buckling or column action).
Failure will not occur because for t/h > 1.0 the strains will adjust to
keep the stress in the 600°F skin below +12,000 psi until the stringer
heats up. Then, at t/h « 4.0, the combined stresses will be approxi
mately + 12,000 psi in both the skin and the stringer. Failure occurs at
a strain much larger than the thermal strain so that beyond the yield
point the thermal effects disappear. If the 12,000 psi stress is held for
some time, failure will occur owing to creep. Thus for short-time
strength the applied ultimate loads determine failure, while combined
thermal and limit applied loads determine the yield condition. Just as
in the above example of Fig. 7-8, in many cases the thermal stresses may
be small enough to have no effect on meeting the yield condition. If the
thermal stresses cause yield when acting alone, then yield will usually
occur in the combined case.
For the thick plate heated on one surface, thin plate heated on one
edge, or beam heated on one edge with resulting nonuniform temperature
distribution Eq. (7-5) must be modified to include the applied strains.

If Q is the applied axial load and M is the applied bending moment
which includes any eccentricity of Q caused by bowing or point of appli
cation, then Eq. (7-5) becomes
-aT -
eb(^
+ ee + = Ee
f
-
I J
_ faET dA _ M
+ JaET[(x/c)
- dA
+
Q
1]
e" (WrlA e"
eb ETC- /VI _ 112^4 \'-')
JE dA JE[(x/c) dA
r
l]2
= ffdA = JE[(x/c) - l]fdA = M
Q
c
The procedure for solving Eq. (7-7) the same as discussed in Sec. 7-3
is
and demonstrated in Fig. 7-7. All the possible combinations discussed in
Sec. 7-4 for the uniform-temperature case will be present in this non
uniform problem. The addition of applied stresses in Fig. 7-7 gives
effects similar to those shown in Fig. 7-8 for the uniform case. In
a
similar way the thermal stress has no effect on the ultimate strength
condition but may in some cases affect the yield condition for limit
applied load.
For some test work on heated box beams with and without applied
loads, see Refs.
9,
10.
PROBLEMS
7-15. Verify the curves in Fig. 7-8 for the applied stress of —8,000 psi.
7-16. Change the areas in the problem of Fig. 7-8 to bh, = 2Ab, and construct the
curve for an applied stress of —8,000 psi.
7-17. Add axial stresses of + 10,000 psi to the linear-temperature distribution case
in Fig. 7-6.
7-18. Change the maximum temperature in Prob. 7-17 from 600°F to 500°F, and
solve for an applied stress of — 15,000 psi. Is the yield stress exceeded anywhere on
the cross section?
7-5. Effective Areas with Thermal Stresses. Although a skin-stringer

panel may be designed not to buckle under the applied stress, buckling
may occur under the combined thermal and applied stresses. To deter
mine the stresses, necessary to use an effective skin area to allow
it
is
for the variable stress distribution in the skin after buckling. The usual
procedure of calculating the effective skin area on the basis of the stringer
stress not applicable, since under thermal-stress conditions the stringer
is
may be in tension while the skin in compression. One method of

is
approximating the effective area to calculate the buckling strain from

is
Eq. (6-2) as
-*(*)' (7-8)
and define an effective width b, from the skin strain e. adjacent to the
stringer by
(7-9)
If the restraint coefficient K is assumed to be the same in Eqs. (7-8) and

(7-9), which is approximately true in the usual effective-area case for
compression, then
whence Eq. (7-6) becomes
e'--
H
1 + B
e' -
<r
e"
e. = H +
^ +
[(H
+
B£)B>ecr]
e, > e„
(7-H)
eb
= e, + (a,T, —
abTb)
Consider the in Fig. 7-8 for which the applied stress

cases + 8,000 psi,
is
and assume the buckling strain to be e„ = —0.001. For Ab = 2h,b
it
follows that Q/Ab = 12,000 psi and
±
fb= + 12,000 - if. e. < e„
-
(^r)
= > (7-12)
/,
12,000
±
e.
ft
ecr
i
In the case of the applied tension load buckle appears in the skin at
a
t/h ~ 0.50 and disappears at t/h ~ 1.40. The skin stress adjacent to
the stringer larger in compression for 0.50 < t/h < 1.00 than that on
is
Fig. but then reverses more rapidly than on Fig. 7-8, becoming
it
7-8,
tension at t/h = 1.25. The stringer stress smaller for t/h > 0.50.
is
In the case of the applied compression load the stresses are similar to
Fig. 7-8, but with the maximum compression in the skin up to —28,000
psi and the maximum tension 11,000 psi. The stringer has more com
pression throughout the time interval. The buckle appears at once and
still present at t/h = 4.0. There permanent compression strain in
is
is
both skin and stringer at t/h = 4.0, but its magnitude less than the
is
yield strain. Figure 7-9 shows the skin and stringer strains. Note that
these strains give the stresses from Fig. 6-2 up to t/h = 1-0, but when
elastic unloading starts in the skin strain increments must be used to
get the stresses.
7-6. Combined Applied and Steady-state Thermal Stresses. Ordi
narily the time during which transient thermal stresses act is sufficiently
short so that they have little effect on creep of the structure under applied
load. However, as Figs. 7-2 and 7-4 show, creep occurs in restrained
structure under steady-state temperature distributions. Thus, if two
different materials are restraining each other under a steady-state tem
perature or if for some reason such as cold fuel or refrigeration there is
a steady-state temperature distribution on a restrained structure, then
thermal stresses will be present to affect the creep of the structure. Also,
if residual thermal stresses are present after a transient temperature has
reached equilibrium, creep must occur to remove these stresses.
Yield strain
Skin strair
Strin ger st rain

2
1iuckli ng str ain
-a IT.-
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
t/h
Fig. 7-9. Combined applied and thermal strains with buckling.
Example 7-2. In Fig. 7-9 at t/h -

4.0 the stresses are /, = 0, fb = 12,000 psi, -
which shows that residual thermal stresses are present, (a) Determine the approxi
mate time for these thermal stresses to disappear by creep. (6) How long will it take
the skin and stringer to reach a strain of 0.01 at 600°F?
Solution, (a) As the stringer creeps, the effective skin loads up elastically until the
two stresses are equal. Based on 103e, = —3.3 — 1.2 = —4.5, the effective skin
area is [Eq. (7-10)] (bh,)e = (l/4.5)*Mi, = 0.5bh„ whence the stresses are equal at
= -12,000 or fb = /. = -9,600 psi, where Ab = 2bh and Q/Ab =
Sb +/(,(0.5)(0.5)
-12,000. This gives the strain as 103e, = 103eb = -3.3 -
(0.96/0.77) = -4.55,
which is close enough to the assumed value of —4.5.
Now plot the stringer stress and strain at t/h = 4.0 on Fig. 6-18, and read LM =
whence = 0.03 hr. Plot -9,600 psi and -4.5 strain, and
<),
19.6 = 1.06(20 + log

t
read on Fig. 6-18 LM = 20.5 = 1.06(20 + log whence = 0.25 hr. Thus takes
t),
it
t
about 13 min for the residual stresses to creep out.

(b) Plot -9,600 psi and -10.0 strain on Fig. 6-18, and calculate = 1.2 hr. Note
t
that the applied stress actually increases somewhat, owing to the decrease in effective
area as the strain increases.
Example 7-3. In Fig. 7-9 at t/h = 1.0 the temperature in the skin is 600°F and
in the stringer 270°F. The stresses are —12,500 psi in the skin and —9,300 psi in the
stringer. If the temperatures are maintained at 600 and 270°F for t/h > 1.0, find
the creep stresses and strains.
Solution. Since the stringer stress is elastic and with all the applied load in the
stringer producing only —12,000 psi, it follows that the skin will creep along an
approximate constant-strain line in Fig. 6-18. Calculate LM = 1.06(20 + log t) for
various times, and read the skin stress on the —5.5 strain line on Fig. 6-18. For
1.0 hr, LM = 21.2, /. = -8,000 psi, fb = -10,200 psi; for 10 hr, /, = -5,000 psi,
= -11,000 psi.
fb
PROBLEMS
7-19. Verify Fig. 7-9, and calculate the stresses corresponding to the strains in
Fig. 7-9.
7-20. In Example 7-3 what are the stresses after 10 min?
7-21. Figure 7-8 shows residual stresses at t/h = 4.0 for the no-applied-load case.
What will the stresses be after 10 hr?
7-7. Design Procedures at Elevated Temperatures. The previous sec

tions of this chapter show that there are many combinations of applied
and thermal stresses giving widely varying results. To obtain an idea
of what combinations will actually occur on a given airplane or missile,
it is necessary to consider not only the V-n diagrams but also the temper
That necessary to know the expected
is,
ature and time diagrams.

is
it
flight history of speed, altitude, and time for the aircraft. From this
predicted history the worst combinations of applied, thermal, and allow
able stresses must be selected to use in the design. Some work has been
done on this problem, but much more must be done in order that the
lightest possible structure can be designed for the given airplane or
missile. See, for example, Goldin (Ref. 11), Goldman (Ref. 12), Behr-
bohm (Ref. 13), and Bisplinghoff (Ref. 15).
Essentially at elevated temperatures the designer faced with two
is
factors which tend to increase the weight of the structure. (1) The
material properties are much lower than at room temperature, and (2)
thermal stresses may add to the applied stresses. To obtain the lightest
possible structure, consideration must be given to designing to avoid
either one or both of these problems. For flights of short duration,
insulation may help to avoid the first problem and reduce the effects of
the second problem. The weight of the structure plus insulation may be
considerably less than the weight of the structure alone when designed
for the reduced material properties. For longer nights insulation plus
cooling can avoid problem and the total weight may be less than the
1,
weight of the unprotected structure.

What should be done to avoid thermal stresses apparent: allow
is
enough deflection to absorb the thermal expansion. To allow this deflec

tion and still maintain the structural stiffness is not very simple. Expan
sion joints are difficult to design. Corrugated webs and ribs and clip
attachments might relieve some thermal stresses and still maintain stiff
ness. However, heavy spar caps or thick skin with integral stiffeners
will have thermal stresses. But one possible way to relieve thermal stress
is shown by the examples in this chapter. Let the inelastic portion of
the stress-strain curve provide the deflection to absorb the thermal expan
sion. This procedure involves the concept of strain design rather than
stress design, but it is possible in many cases to design for the applied
loads without regard to thermal stresses and then add the thermal strains
without obtaining appreciable permanent set. In other cases design to
allow for some permanent set may be quite feasible. Of course, if the
structure is subjected to many temperature cycles, the thermal fatigue
must be investigated for such designs using inelastic stresses.
REFERENCES
1. Freudenthal, A. M.: On Inelastic Thermal Stresses in Flight Structures, J.

Aeronaut. Set., 21(11) :772-778 (1954).
2. Sprague, G. H., and P. C. Huang: Analytical and Experimental Investigation of
Stress Distributions in Long Flat Plates Subjected to Longitudinal Loads and
Transverse Temperature Gradients, WADC TR 55-350, Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, Ohio, 1955.
3. Freudenthal, A. M.: "The Inelastic Behavior of Materials and Structures," John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.
4. Lee, E. H. : Stress Analysis in Visco-elastic Bodies, Quart. Appl. Math., 13(2) :183-
190 (1955).
5. Hilton, H. H.: Thermal Stresses in Thick-walled Cylinders Exhibiting Tempera
ture-dependent Viscoelastic Properties of the Kelvin Type, Proc. 2d U.S. Natl.
Congr. Appl. Mech., 1955, pp. 547-553, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York.
6. Allen, H. F., M. A. Brull, and W. J. Wilkie: A Study of the Stress Analysis and
Structural Testing Procedures Applicable to Aircraft Structures at Elevated
Temperatures, WADC TR 54-499, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1954,
(ASTIA AD No. 76424).
7. Parkes, E. W.: Wings under Repeated Thermal Stress, Aircraft Eng., 26:402-406
(1954).
8. Kotanchik, J. N., A. E. Johnson, Jr., and R. D. Ross: Rapid Radiant-heating
Tests of Multiweb Beams, NACA TN 3474, 1955.
9. Mathauser, E. E.: Investigation of Static Strength and Creep Behavior of an
Aluminum Alloy Multiweb Beam at Elevated Temperatures, NACA TN 3310,
November, 1955.
10. Wise, J. A., and P. Anderson: Thermal Stresses in Box Beams, A Theoretical and
Experimental Study of Stresses in Aluminum Alloy Box Sections under Given
Temperature Conditions, Project No. Naw 6250, NACA at University of Minne
sota, January, 1954 (ASTIA AD No. 65085).
11. Goldin, R. : Design Criteria for Heated Aircraft Structures, ASME Paper 56-AV-14,
March, 1956.
12. Goldman, G. M.: Discussion of Safety Factor Requirements for Supersonic Air
craft Structures, ASME Paper 56-AV-18, March, 1956.
13. Behrbohm, H. : On a Minimum Time Flight Path with Regard to Stress and Heat
Limitation, SAAB TN 26, Saab Aircraft Co., Linkoping, Sweden, 1954 (ASTIA
AD No. 76721).
14. Manson, S. S.: Behavior of Materials under Conditions of Thermal Stress, NACA
TN 2933, July, 1953.
15. Bisplinghoff , R. L. : Some Structural and Aeroelastic Considerations of High Speed
Flight, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 23(4) :289-329 (1956).
16. Hilton, H. H., H. A. Hassan, and H. G. Russell: Analytical Studies of Thermal
Stresses in Media Possessing Temperature-dependent Viscoelastic Properties,
WADC TR 53-322,Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1953.
17. Weiner, J.: An Elastoplastic Thermal Stress Analysis of a Free Plate, ASME
Paper 56-APM-6, June, 1956.
18. Horton, W. H.: The Influence of Kinetic Heating on the Design and Testing of
Aircraft Structures, Proc. Conf. High-speed Aeronaut., 1955, Polytechnic Institute
of Brooklyn.
19. Weiner, J. H., and H. Mechanic: Thermal Stresses in Free Plates under Heat
Pulse Inputs, WADC TR 54-428, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1955.
CHAPTER 8
THERMAL EFFECTS ON DEFLECTIONS AND STIFFNESS
8-1. Introduction. In the previous chapters it has been assumed that

the structure did not buckle under the thermal stresses that the temper
ature changes produced. Furthermore in Chap. 3 it was assumed that
the idealized structure did not bow; i.e., the structure was restrained in
bending. In Chap. 4 both cases of restrained in bending and of unre
strained, or freedom to bow, were considered. Except for extremely
steep temperature gradients, the stresses in Chap. 4 for the unrestrained
case were much less than those for the restrained-in-bending case. In a
similar way buckling will tend to reduce the thermal stresses below the
maximum values that would be obtained otherwise. However, although
bowing and buckling may be advantageous from the thermal-stress view
point, they may cause difficulties for the external applied loads and for
the aerodynamic smoothness of the outer skin. Also, the buckles pro
duced by the thermal stress may result in permanent set of the structure.
The allowable stresses at which buckling occurs have been considered in
Secs. 6-4 and 6-6. When the applied stress reaches the column buckling
stress or the plate buckling stress in some cases, failure results. How
ever, when the thermal stresses reach the buckling stress, failure may not
occur. The behavior in buckling under thermal stresses is somewhat
similar to the behavior beyond the yield point under thermal stresses
(Secs. 7-2 to 7-4) ; the stress increases very little as the deflection (either
yielding or normal deflection) absorbs the elongation caused by the
temperature change.
Bowing and buckling may occur under both transient and steady-state
temperature conditions. A thick plate heated on one surface or a beam
heated on one edge tends to bow as long as there is any unsymmetrical
temperature gradient (transient or steady-state) through the plate thick
ness or beam height. In a skin-stringer combination under transient
heating the skin (at a uniform temperature) tends to buckle because of
the restraint of the cold stringers (see Sec. 7-5) ; bowing also may occur
at the same time with the buckling.
The depth of the bow and of the buckles, the temperature at which
buckling occurs, the effect of initial deflections, the permanent set that
may occur, and the deflections under normal loads are considered in Sees.
171
8-1 to 8-5 for typical shell-type aircraft structure. The more general
problem of deflections and buckling in two dimensions is considered in
Sec. 9-4.
Since the deflection of a structure is a measure of its stiffness through
the stiffness parameters EI for bending and GJ for torsion, it is apparent
that the thermal stresses may change the apparent stiffness of the struc
ture. This change in the parameters EI
and GJ can influence the
behavior of the structure, not only in its deflections, but also in its
stability and dynamic responses, for these parameters appear in the
formulas for column buckling and for the natural vibration frequencies
J
of the structure.
Ordinarily Eand G are considered as material properties and / and
as geometric properties of the structure. However, in an actual struc
ture, these properties are affected by several factors. The most impor
tant factors, based on the conventional methods of structural analysis,
may be listed as follows (Ref . 8) :
I. Factors affecting E and G

A. Material
B. Stress
1. Location on stress-strain curve
2. Distribution of stress
C. Temperature
D. Creep
II. Factors affecting / and J
A. Geometry
B. Local buckling stresses
1. Effective areas
2. Initial deflections
C. Stability loading (moment and torque depend on deflections)
Thus, besides material and geometry, EI and GJ depend on stress,

temperature, initial deflections, time, and the type of loading.
Now all the above factors can arise whether or not thermal stresses
are present in the structure. However, thermal stresses can produce
many of the factors, whether or not any other stresses are present.
As the examples in Chap. 7 show, the thermal stresses may go into
the inelastic portion of the stress-strain curve so that the stiffness is
affected through a reduction in E and G. This gives large deflections
but probably has little effect on the vibration frequencies; in vibration
the stress alternates about a mean value so that, with elastic unloading,
the small-amplitude alternating stress will be elastic about a new equi
librium position with larger strain. Thus, for the dynamic response, the
essential change in E and G is due to the change in the elastic values of
THERMAL EFFECTS ON DEFLECTIONS AND STIFFNESS 173
E and G with temperature, which is relatively small for most materials

except at very high temperatures, where the strength is low.
In Sec. 7-5 it was shown that the thermal stresses can reduce the effec
tive skin area so that Iand J
will be reduced for both deflections and
vibrations. The shear deflections, rotation deflections, and warping
deflection and the resultant effect on and EI GJ are considered in Secs-
8-6 and 8-7. The effect of the reduction in EI and GJ upon the flutter
speed is considered in Sec. 8-8.
8-2. Bowing of Plates and Beams. For an unrestrained thick plate or
beam with an unsymmetrical temperature distribution there is a con
stant moment (except near the ends) deflecting the plate or beam. From
Eq. (1-19) this moment can be written as
M= jAaET{y)ybdy (8-1)
where y is measured from the centroid of the section. Now the radius of
curvature of the plate or beam is
(8-2)
whence the maximum deflection from a chord of length a to a circle of

radius r is
(8-3)
This deflection Wm is the center deflection of a plate or beam of length a

due to bowing, where
lfe.3(l + p)
12(1
- k2)
for the plate, which tends to be spherical. Equation (8-3) corresponds

to the simply supported case in strength of materials.
In terms of the constants in the stress equations in Chap. 4 M can
be written from Eqs. (4-2) and (4-3) as M = aETEHbbh,2/l2 and
M = aETEHbl/c, whence
r= *!
aTxHbQ.
- v) °
(8-4)
_ c
Wm = —s beams
8c
Formulas for Hb are given in Chap. 4 for the various temperature dis
tributions considered there. Levy (Ref. 1) shows curves of l/aT^r
against depth of penetration of a ramp-type temperature distribution
in beams.
For unsymmetrical beams Eq. (1-23) gives the two components of
deflection as
- 1
tw \ - aJ^lfl2
r. = -L
ocK2
1
(IT.). =
a*'a (8-5)
PROBLEMS
8-1. Find the maximum deflection due to bowing of a 30-in.-long j-in.-thick

aluminum-alloy plate subjected to the linear temperature variation
+
To A,.
where 2/ is measured from the plate median plane.

8-2. A symmetrical beam is subjected to the temperature distribution
T = To o < y < d
T -0 d < y < h«
where y is measured from one edge of the beam. If the flange areas are each A\ in.2
<«,
and the web is in. thick, derive the formula for the maximum deflection due to
bowing of the beam. If allowed to vary, what value of gives the largest deflec
is
d
d
tion of the beam?

8-3. In Prob. 8-2 the value of that gives the largest stress the same as the value
is
that gives the largest bowing?

8-4. If the plate in Prob. 4-1 40 in. long, what will be its maximum deflection due
is
to bowing? At what time does this maximum occur?

8-5. What the formula for the cantilever beam corresponding to Eq. (8-3)
is
?
8-6. Let the top flanges and top skin of the unsymmetrical 75S-T6 beam shown be
-Ai-3.0 in.2
-A4=1.0in.2 A3=3.0in.2-i
Prob. 8-6
at 500°F, and let the webs, bottom flanges, and bottom skin be at 100°F. If the beam
200 in. long and cantilevered, find the maximum thermal stresses and the tip deflec
is
tions. Neglect the skins and webs in calculating moments of inertia, and neglect
shear deflections. The skins and webs are 0.050 in. thick.
8-7. Derive Eq. (8-2) by using Eqs. (1-37) and (1-22).
8-3. Deflection of Buckled Columns. If the deflected position of the

column or plate is assumed to be approximated by one-half a sine wave,
then the change in length is
AL
where L
is the original length before deflection and W = Wm sin (tx/L)
with Wm the maximum deflection. Approximately
4t-ijT(S)'*-Tr <m>
If
the initial deflection of the column or plate is approximated by
Wi = Wmi sin (irx/L), then, from Timoshenko (Ref. 2), approximately
w- -
r=w=5 (8-7)
where Pcr is the critical Euler column load and P is the applied load.
In the case of temperature change the load P is determined by strain
so that Eq. (8-7) can be written as
W
-
.
Wm = -. (8-8)
1 (eo/ecr)
where is the middle plane or middle plate strain and ecr is the buckling
e0
strain. Note that

ecr is fundamental in Euler's formula, being inde
pendent of material [Eq. (8-10)].
Consider a column, simply supported and held, to be subjected to a
uniform temperature change. If AL is the change in length of the column
due to deflection, then
al = e0 + -j- = eB +
by use of Eq. (8-6). Divide by

r2
= = (aT)cr
ear
JjJJî (8-10)
so 'that by Eq. (8-8)
Ui
T -_ <
aT
T\
~ e0
1
.
'
mt
1 —
D<
(e0/e„)_J- (A)
(8-11)
2L(ecr)» 2p
Fig. 8-1. Strain in median plane of plate or column.
2.0
1.0 )•**
1.8
—' ^'ield c urves for
1.6 e m/ec .-3.C

f /2c- 0.20
i\ V
1.4
1.2
0.40
D .1.0
1
^ &
^0.1 ]
).20
N
0.8
n.-n
'I w"00
^
0.6
0.4 0
0.4
0 20^
0.2
0.10
0.02 ).00
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

RT
8-2. Plate or column deflections.
îq.
Since Eq. (8-11) is a cubic in eo/ecr, the simplest method of solution is
to graph the equation with D( as parameter (see Fig. 8-1). If the values
of eo/ecr in Fig. 8-1 are put into Eq. (8-8), then the maximum deflection
Wm can be determined in terms of the temperature. Figure 8-2 shows
a graph of D = Wm/2p against temperature RT with D< as parameter.
Figure 8-2 also shows the case of zero initial deflection in which the
deflection can be taken as zero up to e0 = ecr, whence Eq. (8-9) gives
for aT > (aT)cr
W
= (RT - l)1 (8-12)
(aT)cr
Note that the temperature Tcr defined in Eq. (8-10) is essentially a refer
ence temperature. Although it may be called a buckling temperature,
it does not cause failure of the column and actually indicates the start of
deflection only for the ideal case of no initial deflection. However, when
the temperature exceeds Tcr byvarying amounts, yielding of the column
in bending may occur. This yielding can result in residual stress when
the column is cooled (see Sec. 7-2).
To determine when yielding may occur, consider the strain em in the
outer fiber. The strain em consists of the axial strain and bending strain
that
-
so
= Ae0(Wm Wmi)c
eo +
or 2=
e0
- 1 = (Wm
2
Wmi)c
(8-13)
Solving for Wm gives
feS-1) (8-14)
For selected values of p/2c and e„/ecr Eq. (8-14) can be plotted on Fig. 8-2
with Di as parameter. The intersection of the corresponding Dt curves
gives the temperature at which yield occurs. The case of em/e„ = 3 and
p/2c = 0.2 is shown in Fig. 8-2.
If the temperature on the cross section of the column is nonuniform,
then the column may bow as well as deflect owing to the column load.
It may also rotate (see Sec. 8-6). If the column is simply supported and
held at the ends, then the deflections can be obtained by using the bow
ing deflection in Eq. (8-4) as the initial deflection in Fig. 8-2 and using
the average temperature on the cross section as T in Fig. 8-2. Note
that, for a large temperature gradient and a small average temperature,
the stress exerted by the supports is tension instead of compression and
the deflection is less than the bowing deflection. The occurrence of
yielding will depend upon the thermal-stress distribution on the cross
section.
If
an external applied load is acting on the column, then the end sup
ports may be simply supported but they cannot be held. Under this
condition there will be no thermal load for the uniform-temperature case,
and the analysis for the applied load proceeds as for the room-temper
ature case, with the allowable column load given in Chap. 6. For the
nonuniform temperature case Eq. (8-7) can be used to approximate the
deflection, with Wmi taken as the bowing deflection in Eq. (8-4).
Boley and Mechanic (Ref. 3) have considered column deflections when
the temperature varies along the column length as well as on the cross
section.
PROBLEMS
8-8. Derive Eq. (8-6).

8-9. Check the curve in Fig. 8-1 for which Wmi/2p = 0.20.
8-10. If the initial deflection is 0.10 in., find the maximum deflection of a 40-in.-long
2.0-in.-square cross-section aluminum-alloy column, simply supported and held,
which is heated uniformly from 80 to 480°F. Does yielding occur in the extreme fiber
of the column?
8-11. Solve Prob. 8-10 if the temperature varies linearly from 480°F on one edge
of the square to 80°F on the opposite edge.
8-12. Solve Prob. 8-11 if the ends of the column are not held and an applied load of
40,000 lb is acting.
8-4. Deflection of Buckled Plates.Consider a plate of width b and

length a, simply supported on the edges and simply supported and held
at the ends. If the plate has a uniform temperature change, then
e„ = 3.62 feY = (aT)cr (8-15)
where h„ is plate thickness. In this case Eq. (8-11) applies, with
- rfe
mz
R* = Di (8-16)
where the length of the buckle L is taken as the width b. Thus Figs. 8-1
and 8-2 apply for this case provided D = Wm/l.2lh„ Di = Wmi/\.2\h,.
In many cases the heated plate is simply supported and held on all
four sides by the cold stringers and ribs of the structure. Assuming
complete restraint in both x and y directions, the stresses in each direc
tion will be equal so that the buckling strain is (page 334, Ref. 2)
e„ - 0.90 + = («T)„ (8-17)

^)
If a is the length in the x direction and b is the width in the y direction,
then the strains e0x and e0y in the x and y directions are given by Fig. 8-1
with the parameters, respectively,
Ui - W
'
W
0.60M1 + (Va)2P
V '
0.60/41 + (a/6)2]*
If the strain e0 in Eq. (8-8) is taken as the average of e0x and eoy,
then Fig. 8-2 gives the maximum deflection provided the expressions
D = Wm/0.S5h. and D{ = Wmi/0Mh. are used.
For the case in which the plate is restrained by stringers of finite area
and in which an applied load is acting, the deflection of the plate can be
obtained from Fig. 8-2 by using the strain e, in the plate adjacent to the
stringer. This strain e, is given in Eq. (7-11) in terms of temperature
change, applied load, and relative effective areas of plate and stringer.
Take ecr as in Eq. (8-15), and replace aT by e, in Eq. (8-16). Thus, in
Fig. 8-2, take RT = e,/ecr, D = WJl.2lh„ D, = W 1.21h,. J/
For yield
ing in extreme fiber from bending Eq. (8-14) becomes
(8-19)
Example 8-1. Find the deflections of the buckled skin in Fig. 7-9, (o) at t/ti = 1.0,
(6) at t/h = 4.0, and (c) after 1 hr. Assume initial deflection to be W„i/1.21h, ' 0.2C.
Solution, (a) At t/h = 1.0 Fig. 7-9 gives e,/e„ = 5.3, whence Eq. (8-12) gives
Wm/1.21h, = 2.1. Although Eq. (8-12) applies for zero initial deflection, Fig. 8-2
shows that for large e,/e„ or aT /(aT)„ the initial deflection has little effect.
(6) At t/h = 4.0, eje„ = 2.3, and Fig. (8-2) gives WJ1.21K = 0.79.
(c) From Example 7-2, it takes 13 min for the residual stresses to disappear, at which
time the applied stress is -9,600 psi. Take LM = 1.06(20 + log 1) = 21.2. From
Fig. 6-18 at / = -9,600 psi and LM = 21.2, e. = -5.5, whence, by Eq. (8-12),
PF„/1.21A. = 2.1.
PROBLEMS
8-13. In Example 8-1 the applied stress in part c increases with creep because the
effective skin decreases. Use Eq. (7-12) to correct the stress, and solve part c for the
changing stress.
8-14. Remove the applied stress in Prob. 8-13 when the 1 hr is up, and cool the
structure slowly to room temperature. How much permanent deflection remains?
8-15. Use Figs. 6-1 and 6-18 to calculate the creep life of the structure in Prob. 8-13.
8-16. Does any yield in bending occur in the structure of Example 8-1?
8-5. Deflection of Plates under Normal Loads. On an airplane or

missile the air loads, the fuel loads, and pressurization loads may act
normal or perpendicular to the skin, producing deflections and stresses
in the skin. The skin or plate supports these normal loads by (1) bend
ing as a beam, or (2) tension as a membrane, or (3) a combination of
bending and tension. Assume the plate to be long so that a 1-in. strip
across the plate width can be used in the calculation.
For the plate acting as a beam the bending stress jb and deflection Wm
are
(8-20)
where b = plate width

h, = plate thickness
p = uniform normal load, pounds per square inch
fci, k3 = ft2(l
— = edge restraints
v2)
For simple support = 0.75, and = 142; for built-in edges = 0.50
fc3
0.
ki
fci
at edges, = 0.028.
fc,
To find the deflection and stress in
lb/in.2
p
flat plate acting as a membrane,
a
LULU -N
U
consider Fig. 8-3 for a l-in.-wide strip
J
lb/in.
Tw
1
1
of the long plate. For equilibrium

b
of the plate element

Ja
W
pP d6 = 2N sin = N
^
d&
N
for small deflections. Employing
the usual approximation for p, the
— — differential equation for W
is
dx
\*
Fig. 8-3. Plate acting as membrane, d2W _
V
(8-21)
dx2 N
whence, with W = at = and =
b,
x
x
0
W =
^(b-x) (8-22)
The tension stress in the plate is/( = N fh,. To find N, equate the elon
gation of the plate due to stress to the elongation from deflection, whence
by using Eq. (8-22) in Eq. (8-6)
N(l - v2)b p2b3

N
1
=
Eh, 2ilP [afir^J (8-23)
Thus, using = 0.3,

v
Wm =
Zi = 0.36P» 0.35P* (8-24)
h,
If the membrane plate subjected to temperature change pro

T
is
ducing deflection and the plate has an initial deflection of Wmi at the
if
center when the initial-deflection curve approximated by an equation

is
of the form of Eq. (8-22), then the total deflection and stress can be
expressed as
Wn,
= 0.35(P PT Pi)*
+
+
h,
2, = 0.36[(P Pt Pi)* - (Pt + Pi)*]

+
+
(8-25)
Pi =
ft.-6.88(|)'(«T). 23.5(^)3
If P is small compared with Pt + Pi, then the stress in Eq. (8-25)

simplifies to
2t =
(pVtW+p? (8-26)
The deflection produced by the temperature alone is
^ =
0.35[(Pr + P,)» - (P,)»]
Note that Eqs. (8-25) to (8-27) apply to a curved plate provided the
shape of the plate can be approximated by the parabola of Eq. (8-22)
and Wmi is the center deflection of the curved plate relative to the flat
position.
When the simply supported and held plate takes the load in both
tension and bending, the differential equation for the deflection is (see
Timoshenko, Ref. 2)
dW _ NW pbx . px2 EI
dx2 r>
D on
2D 'or*
1
2D i (8-28)
whence with iDU2 = Nb2
_ pb4
|
cosh U[l - (2x/b)] _ + <?>-*) (8-29)
16DU* \ cosh U
From ft = N/h„ fb
= Mc/I, and Eq. (8-29) the center stresses and
deflection are
W
2, = 0.366C/2 S„ = 0.75PFi(t/) ^ = 0.142PP2((7)
_ - _ - U (8-30)
KM 2(1 sech
ip
U)
F2LU)
(gVg) 1 + sech
Although Eq. (8-6) will give the change in length of the deflection curve
of Eq. (8-29), the resulting expression when equated to the elongation
due to stress is a ninth-degree transcendental equation to evaluate U.
Instead of obtaining approximate solutions of this involved equation, it is
simpler to approximate the deflection curve itself by an equation which
will give essentially the same change in length as Eq. (8-29). From
_ _
Timoshenko (Ref. 2) an approximate deflection curve for this case is
tx W2
w
W-^rsmT
W0 .
7-1 =
Nb2
= ,Q
(8-31)
where W0 is given by Eq. (8-20). With this deflection curve, Eq. (8-23)
becomes
F" - Y' = 0.061P2 (8-32)
whence Y - 1 = ~ = si + |s-* - 0.67
s = si + (si2 -
0.00137)5 (8-33)
si = 0.031P2 + 0.037
In terms of Y and W from Eq. (8-31), Eq. (8-30) reduces to
~=
(?)
St = 0.055 S„ = 0.75 0.142 (8-34)
the plate has initial deflection or curved so that its shape can be
If
is
approximated by Eq. (8-31) and subjected to temperature change,
is
a
then Eq. (8-34) becomes
(8-35)
Yi
Pt
where Ya given by Eq. (8-33) with P replaced by + PT + Pi and P

is
Yb with replaced by PT Pi- The temperature expansion produces

P
bending stresses but no axial stresses (the column stress assumed to be

is
negligible).
All the stresses and deflections of this section are expressed in terms
of parameter P, which involves E. If the stresses are inelastic, then
a
must be changed to correspond to the correct secant modulus through

P
trial procedure.
a
PROBLEMS
8-17. If P > 100, show that Eq. (8-34) reduces to Eq. (8-24) plus a bending stress
of Xb = 1.55P*.
8-18. long 0.064-in. aluminum plate 10 in. wide loaded by a uniform load of
A
is
10 psi. Find the maximum stresses and deflections in the plate.

8-19. If the plate in Prob. 8-18 has an initial center deflection of 0.05 in., what are
the stresses and deflections? If the plate curved with center deflection of 1.0 in.,
is
how much deflection and stress will the load produce?

8-20. If the plate in Prob. 8-18 heated from 75 to 600°F, find the stresses and
is
deflections.
8-21. Solve Prob. 8-19 with the condition in Prob. 8-20.
8-22. Derive Eq. (8-23).
8-23. Derive Eqs. (8-33) and (8-34).

8-24. In Eq. (8-35) take P = 10, Wm/h, = 10, b/h, = 40, and T = 475° 75° = -
400°F. If the material is aluminum alloy, find the stresses and deflections.
8-25. By using the relation between Y and U in Eq. (8-31), show that for both large
and small values of Y and U Eqs. (8-30) and (8-34) give approximately the same
results.
8-6. Deflections Due to Cross-section Warping and Rotation. The

previous sections of this chapter indicate that the effect of temperature
and thermal stress upon deflections
may be represented in many cases y ///////////
as a large initial
deflection of the
structure. It is also possible for the
thermal stresses to warp and rotate
Cold
the cross section of the structure.
Consider a plate as shown in Fig. 8-4,
simply supported and held at the
ends and subjected to a nonuni 7777777777777 77777
form temperature distribution. If the
plate has any initial deflection, either
normal or twist, tension loads will
tend to reduce
it,
while compression
loads will tend to increase
it,
each (y-axis]
producing normal component tend Fig. 8-4. Plate warping due to thermal
a
ing to deflect and rotate the plate. stresses.

The effect similar to that occurring
is
in the lateral-instability or torsional instability problems of bending and

compression buckling (Refs.
2,
5).
From Fig. 8-4 there are bending moments and torsional moments
tending to deflect and twist the plate cross section. These moments at
= L/2 are
x
-
4
M = WfdA = WmPb N OrJdA = dmN0

f
L
J
W, = WdA (8-36)
1/ /1
'
No = - 6r2fdA = 6dA
J
where = thermal stress and integration over the cross section

is
/
Wm = deflection of center of cross section

dm = average angle of twist about center
Now Wm and 6m can also be written as
(8-37)
whence by Eq. (8-36)
Wm =
1 - (pJs/SEI) °m =
1 - WZ/4GJ)
(8-38)
If Wmi and $mi are the initial deflections due to either initial warp or to
applied load, then by Eqs. (8-38), depending upon the signs of P& and No,
the thermal loads will either decrease or increase these deflections. On
short plates these effects will be reduced because of the wall restraint
on the deflection of the cross section.
As in Secs. 8-3 and 8-4, the thermal loads and moments in Eq. (8-38)
depend upon the strains so that Eq. (8-38) can be written as
Wm
1 - Wmi
(e0/ecr)
&m
1 —
dmi
(e0c/ecrc)
^8 ^
where eo = median plane strain at center of rotation of plate
e0c = median plane strain at extreme hot edge of plate

= column-buckling strain in Eq.
ecr (8-10)
=
lateral-instability strain at extreme fiber of plate
ecrc
For a moment acting in the plane of the plate the critical buckling
moment in the lateral instability case (Ref. 2) is
M„ =
I (EIJGJ)*
,
whence = — —
0.63r07r / IjV ...
ecrc I
-p- J (8-40)
where r0 = distance to hot edge of plate (Fig. 8-4)

E/G = 2.5
J = torsional
rigidity
Ir
Iy, = moments of
inertia of plate about y and r axes (Fig. 8-4)
See Timoshenko (Ref. 2) and Bleich (Ref. 5) for Mcr for other cases.
If AL is the change in length of the plate at the hot edge, then by
Eq. (8-6)
^ =
-AIT
=
—±L~
and, with (aT)c = e0c + AL, there results
(«D.
Rt —
ecrc LI - (eoc/ecrc)} 2L(ecrc)»
where (aT)crc is the temperature corresponding to ecrc in Eq. (8-41) and

(aT)c is the temperature at the hot edge of the plate. Equation (8-11)
applies for bending deflections. Thus Figs. 8-1 and 8-2 give the strain
and rotation deflection provided D = irr0dm/2L{ecrc)i and D. mEq. (8-41).
Just as for the column, there is no failure of the plate in torsion, although
yielding may occur (Fig. 8-2).
In writing Eq. (8-39) it is assumed that the strain e0c on the hot edge
of the plate determines the rotation regardless of the temperature dis
tribution. This is true for a linear temperature distribution because
both the temperature strain and the moment strain for buckling are linear.
However, the assumption is an approximation for other temperature dis
tributions unless the correct strain ecrc for the stress distribution is
obtained. It is possible to evaluate e„c = (aT)crc from Eq. (8-38) by
taking
- 4GJ (8^2)
(aT)crc
whence
ecrc >= K<*i)*rc

= _ (aT)£Jf6dA _ _ OAOJ
6}
AJOrfdA J[aT '/{aT)c]r2 dA \
for constant 6 and the restrained case.
Suppose the plate in Fig. 8-4 is allowed to rotate at the ends about
the axis of rotation for 6 but is otherwise held and simply supported.
If dm is the angle of one end relative to the other and the hot edge of
the plate remains straight, then
AL = \U + (r0ft.)*]»
-L= Mm)2
2L
Hence Eq. (8-41) applies to this case with
If the plate has local buckling on theedge, then AL is larger so that from
Fig. 8-1 the strainis smaller.
e0c
For the cantilever plate assume W = I^m[l — cos (irx/2L)] so that
2Wm2 „ TWm
for vibration in bending and in torsion; for static torsion use Eq. (8-44).
For the cantilever plate with applied load Q, RT in Eq. (8-41) becomes
Rt (aT). - (aT)oc - Q/AE
(aT)oe = jJ aTdA
(8-46)
Note that, if Q is compression, then the deflections are increased but

failure does not occur unless Q reaches the buckling load; of course, the
deflections are large, and yielding may occur.
Now the moments in Eq. (8-36) are proportional to the deflections so

that they may produce a destabilizing effect on the vibration frequencies
as well as the deflections. From Eq. (8-39) the effective stiffness for
both problems is
(EI)e - _ e0 (GJ)e - -1 e0c ,e

^ (8-47)
1 1
~ET V„ GJ
where e0/ecr and given in Fig. 8-1.
eoc/ecrc are The initial deflection to be
used on Fig. 8-1 may be different for the deflection and frequency prob
lems. The initial deflections Wmi or dmi apply to the deflection problem,
but the total deflection Wm and 6m may apply to the vibration problem
because this deflection is the equilibrium point for the vibration. It
should be noted that the vibration about this equilibrium point is non
linear in the sense that the frequency may change with the amplitude.
For small amplitudes less than Wm — Wmi or dm — dmi the vibration is
about Wm and dm as equilibrium points. If the amplitude is greater than
— or — dmi, the equilibrium points become Wmi and The
Wm Wmi dm 6mi.
frequencies in this case may be considerably lower than in the first case
(Fig. 8-5). Further, if the amplitude is sufficiently large to produce con
siderable yielding, then the thermal stresses may be reduced and the fre
quency increased. It appears that both the soft-spring and hard-spring
(Ref. 13) effects may be present, in which the frequency decreases with
increasing amplitude for the soft spring and the frequency increases with
increasing amplitude for the hard spring.
Test data by Vosteen and Fuller (Ref. 6) on a cantilever plate heated
on the edges show increases in torsional deflections with and without
applied torque and decreases in both the first-bending and first-torsion
vibration frequencies. See Sec. 8-8 for comments on calculated and test
data for this plate.
PROBLEMS
8-26. A circular cantilever rod has a temperature of 0°F for 0 < r < 0.8a and a
temperature T°F for 0.8a < r < a. If the initial deflections are W„
that Eq. (8-38) gives
Wm = Wmi I
1 - 0.58ar
8-27. Let the plate in Fig. 8-4 be 40 in. long, 10 in. wide, and | in. thick. The tem
perature varies linearly from 80°F on one edge to 380°F on the other. Assume the
cross section to be unwarped but to have initial deflections at the center of 0.1 in. and
1.0°. Find the deflections produced by the thermal stresses for an aluminum-alloy
plate.
8-28. Solve Prob. 8-27 for a steel plate.
8-29. Solve Prob. 8-27 for a 20-in.-wide plate with 5 in. on each edge at 380°F and
the middle 10 in. at 80°F.
8-30. Solve Prob. 8-28 for a cantilever plate.
8-7. Shear Deflections. Besides rotation

producing warping and
deflections, thermal stresses can also produce large shear deflections, with
consequent reduction in stiffness. The shear deflection of a beam with a
buckled web can be approximated as a truss in which
7 = 2ed
- eb (8-48)
where ed is the strain in the diagonal and eb is the strain in the chord.
Similarly the shear deflections due to thermal stresses in a buckled skin-
stringer panel can be approximated as
yT = 2(a,T, - abTh)
- eb (8-49)
where eb is the strain in the stringers. For combined thermal and applied
axial stress is given by Eq. (7-11).
eb If 100A; is the per cent of the shear
flow q (in pounds per inches) carried in tension, then the total shear
deflection is
2.5q ,
7 = -Tpr f or q < qcr
tE
(8-50)
7 = kyr +
m [2-5(1 -k) + 2fc(1 + k)] for q > Qcr
where E/G = 2.5, ft = (1

+ k)(q/t), the stringer strain due to shear is
neglected, and qcr is the value of the shear flow when the skin buckles.
Note that q„ will depend upon the sequence and combination of the tem
perature and load cycles. If no buckling occurs under applied loads
alone, q„ > Q. If buckling occurs under temperature alone, the q„ is
the shear needed to change the direction of the buckles.
Since the deflection of the shear-resistant web is
7 - L ~
G
= 2j^1
tE
it follows that the effective skin thickness for the diagonal-tension case
with temperature is
7
=
1 - k + 0.80fc(l + k) + OAOktEyr/q
^8-51')
8-8. Effect of Thermal Loads on Flutter. The previous sections of this

chapter have shown that thermal stresses can produce various deflections
in the structure, some of which are destabilizing in the sense that the
thermal moment is proportional to the deflection. This latter type of
effect as well as the effect of effective areas and effective skin thickness
upon the stiffness will affect the vibration frequencies of the structure,
and this affects the flutter of the components of the airplane or missile
because the bending and torsion vibration frequencies are important
parameters in the flutter problems.
The equations for the first-bending and first-torsion frequencies of a

uniform cantilever beam are (Ref. 9) (in cycles per minute)
=
33.64 (ElV 15
(GJ\ (a
Uh
-L^\m) Wa==L\Tj (8-52)
where L = beam length

m — mass of unit length
ia = mass moment of
inertia of unit length
From Eq. (8-47) the warping and rotation effects on the stiffness give
the effective frequencies as
J* =
(i - isY «- =
fi _ (8-53)
who \ ecr/ £oao \ ecrc/
where coao andthe frequencies without instability thermal loads

uao are
but including temperature effect on elastic E and G and effective area
and thickness effect on and J J
if local buckling occurs. Figure 8-5
1.0
1.00
0.40
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.2
0.02
0.00
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Fig. 8-5. Effective first-bending and first-torsion beam frequencies.
shows a graph of Eq. (8-53) against RT [Eqs. (8-41) and (8-46)] with
Dt [Eqs. (8-44) and (8-45)] as the parameter. It is apparent from Fig.
8-5 that large reductions in the frequencies can occur owing to thermal
stresses. Ordinarily the applied axial load Q [Eq. (8-46)] is zero in the
vibration components of the airplane or missile.
Example 8-2. Determine the deflections and change in natural frequencies of a
cantilever aluminum-alloy plate 40 in. long, 20 in. wide, and 0.25 in. thick. The
center 16 in. of the plate is at 0°F, and the edge 2 in. are both at 300°F. The initial
deflections are Wmi = 0.10 in. and 9m< = 1.0°.
(aT)oc = %
0
(300)(1) - 60a
For the torsion calculation Eq. (8-43) gives
(aT)eOJ ot(0.40)(300)(20)(l)73
fr'fdA _
^JT8
J™
2(i)a dr 24Qr,
dr^
60).2
= 0.86(10-')
and from Eq. (8-46)

(13) (10- (300
- 60) _
«)
Kt 36
0.86(10-')
Equations (8-44) and (8-45) give
, .
n
Di =(10)(1.0)(100) " nil
011
. ..
f0r defleCtl0n
(57.3)(40)(17.4)i
n = x(10)(1.0)(100) ftlo , ., ..
Di = 012 f°r Vlbratl0n
(57.3)(4)(40)(8.6)*
whence Fig. 8-2 gives D = 1.60 and 6m = 14.5°. With large deflections and 0ml- as
equilibrium point Fig. 8-5 gives ua/a>ao = 0.28; with 8m as equilibrium point wa/wao =
0.80.
For the bending deflection Eq. (8-36) giveszero for Pb, and hence Wm = Wmi,
unless the plate warped. Let the given = 0.10 in. be an average of 0.08 in. at
is
Wmi
the center and 0.12 in. deflection at the edges. Then approximately-
P» = _ 130 (60) (0.02)

- (240) -0.02)
^
(
j
j-
From Eq. (8-38) take

aT PbL' = 1.9
(ctTU 8EI
whence RT = - ^) = 1.5
(l
Equation (8-45) gives
= x(0.10)(100)
Ui U-U44
(4) (40) (20.5)4
whence Fig. 8-2 gives
D = 0.73 Wm - 1.7 in.
the warping reverses in the bending-vibration case when passing through zero
If
deflection (the presence of torsion deflection tends to produce such reversal), then
a
the bending frequencies will be affected. Figure 8-5 gives wj/o>*o = 0.25 for Rt = 1.5
and Di = 0.04. For small amplitudes about Wm there essentially no effect, and
is
w»/w*o = 1.0.
Example 8-2 indicates that the bending deflection and vibration are
quite sensitive to any warping of the cross section when large thermal
stresses are present. Also it appears that both the bending and torsion
are sensitive to the distribution of the thermal stresses. The expression
for ecrc in Eq. (8-43) may be large or small, depending upon the stress /
and the stiffness GJ. It is possible for the stress distribution to make
the denominator in Eq. (8-43) negative, zero, or positive, so that the
thermal-stress effect is destabilizing, neutral, or stabilizing. In the latter
case the frequencies increase, and the deflections decrease. During a tem
perature and thermal-stresscycle in which the edges of a plate are heated
rapidly and then allowed to cool, the torsion frequency may decrease;
then recover some when heating stops on the edges, then decrease again
as the stress distribution changes in the plate, and finally recover as the
entire plate cools. It is also possible for some recovery to arise if the
edges buckle locally, decreasing the destabilizing load. If the stress in
any part of the plate exceeds the proportional limit, the deflection
recovery and the frequency recovery may not be the same.
Test data by Vosteen and Fuller (Ref. 6) on a cantilever plate heated
on the edges from 80 to 300°F in 16.5 sec and then allowed to cool show
a decrease in torsional and bending frequencies similar to Fig. 8-5, some
recovery in torsional frequency when heating stops, then decrease and
finally recovery as the plate cools. Torsional deflections occur with and
without applied torque, following Fig. 8-2. Recovery of the deflection is
not the same as in the torsional frequency, owing to some buckling in
the edges of the plate. If initial warping and deflections are estimated
and some allowance made for the effects of buckling, increased GJ due to
short length, and shear lag (the plate is only 20 in. long for a width of
20 in.) upon the thermal stress, then the deflections and frequencies
obtained in the test can be checked approximately by the procedures of
Example 8-2.
It must be emphasized that these effects on the deflections and fre
quencies arise because of the thermal stresses and their distribution. If
the structure has no thermal stresses or the stresses are distributed
properly, there are no effects, except because of change in elastic E and G
with temperature or change in /
and J
due to effective areas. However,
thermal are present in airplane and missile structures under
stresses
transient conditions and in many cases are distributed so that the above
destabilizing effects are produced. In a solid double-wedge wing, with
the temperature distribution shown in Fig. 5-1, these effects may be large.
In a box-structure wing with thermal stresses in the skin and stringers,
as discussed in Chaps. 3 and 4, there is ordinarily very little destabilizing
effect [the tension loads are adjacent to the balancing compression loads
so that the denominator of Eq. (8-43) is approximately zero]. In a
multiweb wing with tension in the webs and compression in the skin
there can be small destabilizing effects. See Ref. 8 for examples of
various types of structure.
Budiansky and Mayers (Ref. 10) have considered the effective torsional
stiffness of thin wings for various flight conditions. Since they use the
equivalent of Eq. (8-38) rather than Eq. (8-39), they obtain large reduc
tions in GJ, with (GJ)e becoming zero in many cases. This would give
infinite deflection and zero torsional frequency. Such results are possible
if the load is an applied load, but thermal loads are internal self-balancing
loads produced by strain. And this strain is a finite amount, determined
by the temperature distribution.
As noted at the beginning of this section, the flutter speed of the wing
or tail of an airplane or missile depends upon the bending and torsional
frequencies d>h and coa. For a dense wing with coh/oja small Theodorsen
and Garrick (Ref. 11) give the following approximate formula for the
flutter speed of a wing in bending-torsion flutter,
bwa
- r-'jndhiT (8-54)
where = flutter
Vf speed
b = semichord
o)„ = torsional frequency
a = ratio of distance from elastic axis to mid-chord b
and x° = "r" = " =

Mb W Jffi
where M = mass of unit length
Sa = static moment about mid-chord
/„ = mass moment of inertia of unit length
p = air density
In this case the flutter speed is directly proportional to coa so that Fig. 8-5
gives the reduction in flutter speed for destabilizing thermal stresses. For
wings of ordinary density the flutter speed depends upon &ja and uh/oia,
still being quite sensitive to osa although not directly proportional.
Theodorsen and Garrick (Ref. 11) show that in many cases, as o>/,/«a
increases toward 1, the flutter speed decreases. Thus any reduction in
ua from thermal stresses will increase <*>h/i»a, if &>a is unchanged, so that
the flutter speed is reduced through both oih/oia and «a. This effect can
be quite serious on a wing that has little margin in flutter speed. Dryden
and Duberg (Ref. 12) and Bisplinghoff (Ref. 18) discuss these effects of
the thermal stresses upon the flutter speed. Because of the nonlinear
relations of frequency and amplitude mentioned in Sec. 8-6 there may be
a question as to whether flutter will develop to complete destruction at
the smallest value of oa. Scanlan and Rosenbaum (Ref. 9) remark that
if the system is nonlinear the flutter oscillations might increase up to a
certain amplitude and become stable again. It would appear that the
development of destruction flutter in the presence of thermal stresses
needs to be investigated by both theory and experiment. The same

question can be asked about the value of GJ for wing divergence and
aileron reversal. If the deflection is sufficiently large to remove the
thermal-stress effect before failure occurs, then the full value of GJ would
be applicable. Under these conditions of applied torque Eq. (8-41)
becomes
e- - iHrao +
C»T
-
D~-mbr> <*«>
Since Rt is fixed [Eq. (8-46)], it is apparent that Dap can make

eoc reverse
sign from being a compression strain to being a tension strain.

Besides affecting the deflection and frequencies of beams and plates,
thermal stresses can put compression loads on panels and change their
bending frequencies. As the panel frequency changes, it may reach a
value that couples with the beam frequencies, with possible large deflec
tions. For work on the panel-vibration and flutter problem see Refs.
14 to 17.
PROBLEMS
8-31. Solve Example 8-2 for a triangular temperature variation on the edge 2 in. of
the plate, starting at 0°F 2 in. from the edge and going to 300°F at the edge.
8-32. In Example 8-2 assume the symmetrical temperature distribution is 0°F for
a distance of a in. on the edge, then 300°F for 2 in., and 0°F the rest of the way to the
center of the plate. For what value of o will the thermal stresses produce no effect
on the torsional stiffness? Is it possible to select a so that
the stiffness is increased?
8-33. Assuming Eq. (8-54) to apply, what are the nutter speeds of the plate in
Example 8-2?
8-34. Use Eq. (8-54) to plot a curve of flutter speed against the number a in Prob.
8-32.
8-35. Use Eq. (8-55) to determine what value of applied twist angle must be used
in Example 8-2 to remove all thermal stress at the edge of the plate. Does yielding in
the plate occur in this case?
8-36. In a skin-stringer panel the O.lO-in.-thick skin is at 400°F, and the stringer is
at 150°F. If the material is aluminum alloy, the stringer strain is zero, the shear flow
is 1,000 lb /in., and all the shear is carried in diagonal tension, find the effective skin
thickness.
REFERENCES
1. Levy, S.: Thermal Stresses and Deformations in Beams, Aero. Eng. Rev., 15(10) :
62-70 (1956).
2. Timoshenko, S.: "Theory of Elastic Stability," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
3. Boley, B. A., and Harold Mechanic: Thermo-elastic Stresses and Deflections in
Beam Columns, WADC TR 54-425, March, 1954 (ASTIA AD No. 75595).
4. Boley, B. A., and I. S. Tolins: Thermo-elastic Stresses and Deflections in Thin-
walled Beams, WADC TR 54-426, December, 1954.
5. Bleich, F.: "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures," McGraw-Hill Book Com

pany, Inc., New York, 1952.
6. Vosteen, L. F., and K. E. Fuller: Behavior of a Cantilever Plate under Rapid
Heating Conditions, NACA RM L55E20c, July, 1955.
7. Needham, R. A.: Permanent Buckling of Sheet-stringer Panels at Elevated Tem
peratures, WADC TR 53-209, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, July, 1953.
8. Gatewood, B. E.: Effect of Thermal Stresses upon Structural Stiffness, Rept.
AL-2226, North American Aviation, Inc., Downey Plant, Downey, Calif.,
November, 1955.
9. Scanlan, R. H., and R. Rosenbaum: "Introduction to the Study of Aircraft
Vibration and Flutter," The Macmillan Company, New York, 1951.
10. Budiansky, B., and J. Mayers: Influence of Aerodynamic Heating on the Effective
Torsional Stiffness of Thin Wings, presented at the Institute of Aeronautical
Sciences Meeting, January, 1956, Preprint 579.
11. Theodorsen, T., and I. E. Garrick: Mechanism of Flutter, A Theoretical and
Experimental Investigation of the Flutter Problem, NACA Rept. 685, 1940.
12. Dryden, H. L., and J. E. Duberg: Aeroelastic Effects of Aerodynamic Heating,
NACA paper presented at the Fifth General Assembly of the Advisory Group for
Aeronautical Research and Development, June, 1955.
13. Stoker, J. J.: "Nonlinear Vibrations in Mechanical and Electrical Systems,"
Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1950.
14. Nelson, H. C, and H. J. Cunningham: Theoretical Investigation of Flutter of
Two Dimensional Flat Panels with One Surface Exposed to Supersonic Potential
Flow, NACA TN 3465, July, 1955.
15. Budiansky, B., and R. W. Fralich: Effects of Panel Flexibility on Natural Vibra
tion Frequencies of Box Beams, NACA TN 3070, March, 1954.
16. Kordes, E. E., and E. T. Kruszewski: Investigation of the Vibration of a Hollow
Thin-walled Rectangular Beam, NACA TN 3463, October, 1955.
17. Kruszewski, E. T., and W. W. Davenport: Influence of Shear Deformation of the
Cross-section on Torsional Frequencies of Box Beams, NACA 3464, October, 1955.
18. Bisplinghoff , R. L. : Some Structural and Aeroelastic Considerations of High Speed
Flight, J. Aeronaut. Sci., 23(4) :289-329 (1956).
19. Hoff , N. J. : Approximate Analysis of the Reduction in Torsional Rigidity and of
the Torsional Buckling of Solid Wings under Thermal Stresses, /. Aeronaut. Sci.,
23(6):603-604 (1956).
CHAPTER 9
GENERAL PROCEDURES FOR SOLVING THE

THERMAL-STRESS EQUATIONS
IN TWO DIMENSIONS
9-1. Introduction. In Sec. it was shown that the temperature

1-5
terms in the thermal-stress equations could be put into the body-force
and surface-force terms of the ordinary equations of elasticity theory,
whence the general thermal-stress problem can be included in the con
ventional theory of elasticity. Thus it would appear that the solutions
for many thermal-stress problems would have been obtained in elasticity
theory. However, this is not so, because few elasticity problems with
body forces present have been solved, and few of the problems with sur
face forces that have been solved are of interest in the thermal-stress
problem. This means that most thermal-stress problems in two dimen
sions must be attacked directly by using methods in ordinary elasticity
theory or some other method.
Since the problem is to solve a system of partial-differential equations
with boundary conditions, the procedures of partial-differential-equation
is,
theory can be used in many cases. That assume the solution to be a

product of functions, each of which involves only one variable, and con
struct set of eigenfunctions based on the eigenvalues of the system.
a
If the set of functions orthogonal, then the boundary conditions can be

is
satisfied by using an infinite series of the functions. This the general

is
Fourier-series analysis, and some of the sets of functions that arise are
the trigonometric functions and the Bessel functions. This procedure
is
applied to various problems in the books on elasticity theory. In particu

lar, for thermal-stress applications see Melan and Parkus (Ref. 1).
Other procedures are the strain-energy and complex-variable methods.
The strain-energy method involves the construction of certain integrals
which attain their minimum values when the stress distribution in the
body satisfies the equilibrium conditions. These integrals are related to
the work performed on the body in the deformation produced by the
stresses. Since the calculus of variations concerned with determining
is
the extreme values of functions defined by such integrals, possible

is
it
to apply the calculus of variations to the energy integrals to produce

194
SOLVING THE THERMAL-STRESS EQUATIONS IN TWO DIMENSIONS 195
either a system of differential equations for the problem or an approxi

mate solution to the problem. The method using complex variables
makes use of the mapping theory of analytic functions as well as the
general theorems of analytic functions, expressing the functions in terms
of their values on the boundary or in terms of their derivatives on the
boundary. Both these methods are discussed in this chapter, together
with examples of each in determining thermal stresses in two-dimensional
structures.
Numerical methods using iteration, finite differences, or a relaxation
procedure may be used in certain problems and for solutions by high
speed computers.
It should be noted that the material properties are assumed constant
in the discussions and problems of this chapter. Inelastic effects can
produce large reductions in the stresses obtained. It is possible to get
an idea of the reduction by referring to the inelastic one-dimensional
problems discussed in Chap. 7.
For references to literature lists on the two-dimensional thermal-stress
problem see Appendix C. For some of the literature since 1953 see Refs.
14 to 31 at the end of this chapter.
9-2. Variational Methods. The strain energy F0 per unit volume of a
body in a state of stress can be written as (Refs. 2, 3)
2V0 = fxex + fyey + f,e, + + rxty„ + ry,yy, (9-1)
By use of Eq. (1-27) Vo can be expressed in terms of stresses and tem

perature as
2EV0 = /,' + fy2 + U -2v(J4y + fj. + fj.)

+ 2(1 + v)(tx/ + r„2 + ry,2) + 2EaT(fx + /„ + /,) (9-2)
The total strain energy in the body is
V =
/// V0 dx dy dz (9-3)
Now several theorems and principles can be derived from the strain
energy and the forces acting on the body: principle of virtual work,
theorem of minimum potential energy, Castigliano's theorem, principle
of least work, theorem of minimum complementary energy. See Sokol-
nikoff (Ref. 2) and Timoshenko and Goodier (Ref. 3) for derivations of
these theorems. The minimum-potential-energy theorem may be used to
demonstrate the variational methods. It may be stated as follows:
Those displacements which satisfy both the boundary conditions and the
equilibrium conditions will make the potential energy a minimum. This
problem of determining the displacements to make the potential energy
a minimum can be attacked by the calculus of variations. The calculus
of variations can be used to convert the problem into an equivalent prob
lem of solving a differential equation with the given boundary conditions.

If the equation cannot be solved easily, then the solution can be approxi
mated by selecting a few functions from those satisfying the boundary
conditions and writing them so as to involve a number of parameters.
These parameters are then determined so that the potential energy is a
minimum.
To convert the minimum-potential-energy problem into a differential-
equation problem consider the two-dimensional case, and express the
potential energy as
p =
nnx
where s =
s(x,y), and sx = ds/dx, etc. Now replace s(x,y) by s(x,y) +
en(x,y), where n(x,y) is any function that vanishes on the boundary of
the body and e is an arbitrary small parameter. If s{x,y) makes P a
minimum, then this minimum occurs when e = 0 so that dP/dt = 0 at
e = 0.As shown in books on calculus of variations and in Ref. 2, this
condition gives
IJL(8)n(x,y) dxdy = 0 (9-5)
where L(s) = — -— —- —— + — —
ds dx dy dsy dx2 dsxx
il
dsx
,
2 dF_ dF_ = 0
(Q-6)
dx dy dSxy dy2 dsyy
since n(x,y) is arbitrary. The differential equation (9-6) is the Euler

equation for the variational problem defined by Eq. (9-4).
If the stresses in Eq. (9-3) are expressed in terms of the stress function
<t>
by Eq. (1-41) for the two-dimensional case, then Eq. (9-6) gives Eq. (1-42)
and the minimum-energy theorem leads to the same solutions as the equi
librium and compatibility conditions do. However, the minimum-energy
theorem can be used for obtaining approximate solutions by several
schemes.
The Rayleigh-Ritz method (Ref. selects certain functions with
2)
parameters and evaluates the parameters to make the energy mini

a
mum. For example, represent the displacements u and by

v
N N
uN = anRn(x,y) vN = bnQ,>(x,y) (9-7)
^
n=l n=l
where Rn and Qn satisfy the same boundary conditions as u and v. Put

un and vn into Eq. (9-4) to get Pn as a function of a„ and bn. The
minimizing conditions are
„-l,2
g
= = N (9-8,
0
0
whence un and v\ can be determined.

Galerkin's method (Ref. 2) uses Eq. (9-5) by assuming
N
sn(x,v) = cjn(x,y) (9-9)
£
n=l
where fn(x,y) satisfy the boundary conditions on s and Eq. (9-5) becomes
//L(Sjv)/„ dx dy = 0 n = 1, 2, . . . , N (9-10)
Equation (9-10) represents N algebraic equations for the constants c„.

Note that this method uses the differential equation directly and does not
require the formation of the energy integral and the calculations of the
derivatives in Eq. (9-8).
See Sokolnikoff (Ref. 2) for further discussion of the above methods
as well as other methods such as collocation and least squares. He also
estimates the error involved in the methods and discusses relaxation of
boundary conditions and the method of finite differences.
An application of the variational procedure for the heated rectangular
plate is given in the following sections 9-3 and 9-4.
9-3. Thermal Stresses in Rectangular Plates. Heldenfels and Roberts
(Ref. 4) have used a variational procedure to obtain an approximate
solution for the thermal stresses in a rectangular plate and have verified
the results experimentally for a steady-state temperature distribution
obtained by heating the plate on its center line {y = 0) and cooling the
two parallel edges (y = ±b). The following analysis is based on their
report (Ref. 4) :
Consider an unrestrained rectangular plate with boundaries x = +a,
y = +b and temperature distribution
T = T0 + X(x)Y(y) (9-11)
In Eq. (1-42) take
<t>
= Kx)g(y) (9-12)
so that from Eq. (1-41)
= fg" = f"9 = -f'g'
U
(9-13)
U
rxu
The problem of determining the functions and solved by selecting

is
g
/
an appropriate function and using the minimum complementary-energy

g
theorem to obtain a function that gives the best approximation for the
/
solution (note that the complementary-energy theorem involves the stress

states rather than the displacements as in the potential-energy theorem).
The accuracy of the approximation depends upon the function selected.
g
Since has been shown in Sec. 5-2 that in long plates the thermal stress
it
affected little by the temperature variation in the length direction (x),

is
the most logical selection for the function the one-dimensional solu
is
g
tion in a plate with temperature distribution T = Y. Thus from Eqs.

(1-21) and (9-13)
= g" ~ Y + Bty + B2 (9-14)
fj
where Bi and B2 are constants denned by Eq. (1-21). For a given F,
g may be regarded as known, so that the problem reduces to finding the
function /.
Since the plate is unrestrained, the complementary energy is given by
Eq. (9-3), which becomes, by using Eqs. (9-11) and (9-13),
- 2vAiff"
ja_a
2EV =
{A^ + A2(/")2 + 2(1 + k)A4(/T
+ 2Ea[(Ab AtX)f (A7 + AJOf"] dx
+
(9-15)
)
where Ai =
j^{g")2 dy A2 = J^g2dy
= = \gg'\\ - A,
A
jb_bgg"dy
3
A< =
/!>')* dy
=
Wit*
A 5
A,
jb_b
Ae = A7 = T„ = Yg dy
f'b
Yg" dy dy
g
If in Eq. (9-4) = and given by Eq. (9-15), then Euler's equa
is
F
f
s
tion (9-6) gives the following ordinary differential equation for deter
<t>
mining the function for the best approximation for the function iQ
/
Eq. (9-12):
A4"" - + v(A3 AW +=
+
A
J
2[A<
-Ea(A, + A6X + AsX") (9-16)
The boundary conditions are
= fg" = rxy = -f'g' = on x = +a
fy fx
0
0
=
f"9 =
t„ = -f'g' = on = ±b
0
whence = on x = +a and in Eq. (9-15) A3 =

= — At, Ab =
/'
0
0
/
so that Eq. (9-16) becomes
A2f''" - 2Aif" + AJ= -Ea{A,X ASX")

+
(9-18)
Equation (9-18) can be solved for any given X in Eq. (9-11), whence the
stresses are given by Eq. (9-13).
Heldenfels and Roberts (Ref. have solved the above equations for
4)
= T0 - < <
+
(l
T
|j
T1
0
b
y
(9-19)
- To + rl + -b<y<0
T
(l
Jf
whence X = Ti = constant and Y = 1 — y/b for 0 < y < b and

Y = 1 + for — t < y < 0. The results are
= EaTi{l + Ci sinh kix sin fc2x + C2 sinh kiX cos k2x

/
+ cosh kix sin k2x cosh kix cos kzx)
+
C3 C4
+21 + (1,365)*
1
fci2
(9-20)
\
1
fc2s 1362
J
C2 = C3 =
0
DC i = fci sinh kia cos fc2a — cosh fcia sin fc2a
fc2
DC = — fci cosh fcja sin fc2a — sinh kia cos fc2a
fc2
4
D = sin fc2a cos + fc2 sinh kia cosh /cja

ki
A;2a
With this and the stresses in Eq. (9-13) checked the test data (Ref.
4)
/
quite well for = 12, x = + 18).

(y
24- by 36-in. plate
±
a
PROBLEMS
9-1. Derive Eq. (9-15).
9-2. Derive Eq. (9-16).
9-3. Write out the expressions for the thermal stresses for the functions and in
g
/
Eq. (9-20).
9-4. Draw curves for the stress distributions in Prob. 9-3 for the case of a = 18 in.,
= 12 in.,Ti = 150°F, E = 10.4(10«) psi, a = 12.7(10-') /°F.
b
9-5. Solve Prob. 9-4 for the case of a — 48 in. and determine how far the shear-lag
effects reach from the ends of the plates (see Sec. 4-6).
9-4. Buckling of Rectangular Plates. In this section the buckling and

deflections of the plate considered in Sec. 9-3 are examined. This prob
lem has been considered by Gossard, Seide, and Roberts (Ref. 5). As
the temperature differential T\ [Eq. (9-19)] increases, buckling of the
plate due to the compressive thermal stress will occur at temperature
a
differential T\„- If
the deflections of the plate are assumed to be small,
then the stresses are given by Eqs. (9-13) and (9-20). The deflections
of the buckled plate are given by the equation (Ref.
6)
dW Eh,3
-
d2W
/
xy (9-21)
dx dy 12(1 v2)
In Ref. W expressed as sum of terms

is
5,
mirx
amn cos
2a
and the Rayleigh-Ritz method (see Sec. 9-2) used to obtain set of
is
simultaneous equations for the amn. For buckling the determinant of the
coefficients must equal zero, which gives (Ref. 5) for the case of a/b = 1.57
= 5.39
(9-22)
After the plate buckles, the deflections may be large so that the stresses
will change owing to stretching of the plate mid-plane surface. In
this case, Eq. (1-42) becomes (Ref. 6)
V<« + EaV'T = E - °g (9-23)
and W is given by Eq. (9-21) provided the in Eq. (9-21) are based
stresses
on Eq. (9-23) by using Eq. (1-41). This means that Eqs. (9-21) and
(9-23) must be solved simultaneously. In Ref. 5 the solution is made
by using the Galerkin method (see Sec. 9-2) to obtain the center deflec
tion Wm of the plate as
b2E£pih'
= 5-39 + 1.12(1 - v2)
^4 (9-24)
where a/b = 1.57. If initial deflection of the plate is assumed to be

similar to the buckled deflection, then Eq. (9-24) can be written as (Ref. 5)
°
™lD
= 5-39
(
1 - W^j + 1-12(1
- "2) h, (9-25)
It to compare Eq. (9-25), which is obtained from large-

is interesting
deflection theory, with Eq. (8-11), which is based on the thermal strains.
Divide Eq. (9-25) by Eq. (9-22), and use a/b = 1.57 to get
— i _ .
'
9-2
(W
,
w n
aT^ Wm L2aTUr
which, by use of Eq. (8-8), becomes
Bt - aTi„ = - + fiLI - ?VtT - -0'2 D< =

2.32/i, (9-26)
ecr (eo/e«r)J
Except for a different value of D,-, Eq. (9-26) is the same as Eq. (8-11)
[see Eq. (8-16) for Dt for restrained plates at uniform temperature], and
its graph will be the same as Fig. 8-2. This indicates that it may not
be necessary to solve the large-deflection equations (9-21) and (9-23) for
the thermal-buckling and -deflection problem. It is necessary only to
solve for the buckling temperature in the small-deflection equation and
use that result in Eq. (8-11). However, Eq. (8-11) is based on the
average net compressive strain (see Sec. 9-4, where RT = e,/eer for the
skin-stringer problem) so that an average net aT\ for the compression
strain with the corresponding aTicr should be used in Eq. (8-11) with
Di in Eq. (8-16). For the temperature distribution of Eq. (9-19)
(aTi)„ = 0.25aTi, whence A
in Eq. (9-26) becomes Wmi/l.lQh,. This
compares satisfactorily with the restrained plate value of Wmi/1.21h, in
Eq. (8-16).
Test data in Ref. 5 for deflections of a 24- by 36- by 0.25-in.-thick plate
check Eq. (9-25) closely for increasing temperature, and the resulting
curve follows the corresponding curve in Fig. 8-2 closely.
9-5. Methods Using Complex Variables. It was shown in Sec. 1-6
that the thermal-stress problem in two dimensions could be reduced to
solving the system of equations [Eqs. (1-43) and (1-44)],
V2F = kT VAU = 0
'
dU , .dU .
f , .v. , , dV ,
1
dV (9-27)
dx dy J„ dy dx
where k = Ea for plates, k = Ea/(l —

v) for long cylinders, and s is the
arc length on the boundary C of the cross section S of the body, with
C a simple curve enclosing the simply connected region S. Now the
problem of solving the biharmonic equation V4?7 = 0 when the first
derivatives are known on the boundary has received a great deal of study.
In particular Muskhelishvili (Refs. 7 to 10) has developed methods using
analytic function theory to obtain closed solutions for the function U.
Muskhelishvili has applied his procedures to many problems in elasticity
theory in Ref. 10. The author (Refs. 11 to 13) has used them in thermal-
stress problems. The following discussion through Sec. 9-8 is based on
Refs. 11 to 13.
In terms of the analytic functions <£i(z) and ^2(2) the function U can
be written as
2U = 20!(z) + 2<£i(«) + + i(2) (9-28) f
where <*>i(z)
= pi + ip2 = j f f(z) dz
^9-2g^
f(z) = V2U + iQ(x,y)c
with Q(x,y) the function conjugate to the harmonic function V2U. Define
î(z) = ^2(2)) an(i differentiate Eq. (9-28) to get
1ST
+
l%
=
*l(z) + z*[{2) + Ui) (9-30)
which is valid in the region S.

Now suppose that the region S, bounded by a simple closed curve C
drawn in the z plane, admits a conformal representation on a circle S' of
radius unity and circumference L in the complex s plane by means of a
rational function t z = w(s). Substitution of z = w(s) in Eq. (9-30) gives
*u *u ,w *M
+ i = + + (9.31)
dx dy w (s)
where ^(s) = î[u>(s)], </>(s) = <f>i[w(s)l-

Let t = eie denote the values of s on the boundary L of the unit circle
S', and allow s to approach t in Eq. (9-31). In the first place the functions
dU/dx and dU/dy must assume the known values on L given by Eq.
(9-27), which now have the form
L
H + i^ = g{6) + ih(6) on (9-32)
where g + ih is given by the right-hand side of Eq. (9-27) expressed in

the coordinates of the s plane. In the second place, since <tt>(s) and \p(s)
are analytic inside L and since it is desirable to determine these functions
from prescribed boundary values given by Eq. (9-32), it is convenient
to demand that the functions <l>(s), <jt>'(s), and ^-(s) approach continuous
values on L uniformly as s approaches t from the interior of L along any
path. Furthermore it can be shown J that the mapping function w(s)
and its derivatives w'(s) and w"(s) approach uniformly to definite limiting
values on L whenever the boundary C of the region S is such that the
coordinates x and y of the contour C have continuous derivatives, with
respect to arc length, to the third order. If these requirements and con
ditions are satisfied, then it is clear from Eq. (9-31) that dU/dx and dU/dy
must approach uniformly continuous limits on L. From Eq. (9-32) the
desired results can be obtained if it be assumed that g and h satisfy con
ditions of the following form on L (Ref. 8) :
g(d) is continuous, g'(6) exists, g

condition of the form |p(0) -
and g' satisfy Lipschitz
p(0')| < ^1^ - d'\n (9-33)
where 6 and are two points on L and h, m are positive constants.
6'
As s approaches t on L, Eq. (9-31) becomes
^+'7i =
^)+^K0+*(0 (9-34)
Let p(s) be any polynomial which has no zeros inside L and which is such
that p(s)w(s) has no poles outside L except perhaps at infinity. Then
multiply the terms in Eq. (9-34) by — j and integrate the result
fit will be assumed that w' (s) is not zero either in the unit circle S' or on its circum
ference L. For the region S finite let w(0) = 0.
JV. Smirnoff, Math. Ann., 107:313-323 (1933). In fact Smirnoff proves these
results under less restrictive conditions than those given here.
around the circle L for s interior to L. By use of the Cauchy integral

formula and the theory of residues the function <t>(s) can be determined.
Similarly the function ip(s) can be determined by using the conjugate to
Eq. (9-34).
Equation (9-27) gives the relationship between the two functions U
and V in that the boundary conditions of U are determined from V.
Since only the first derivatives of V occur in this relation (9-27), it is
desirable to consider the direct calculation of these derivatives from the
differential equation V2V — kT, where T is assumed to be a continuous
function of x and y. A particular integral of this equation is
V(.i-,<j) = A- T(xi,yi) In p dXi dyt (9-35)
where ix,y) = a point in S

(xi,yi) = a variable point in <S
p2 = (x
— —
Xi)2 + (x J/02
S = area of cross section of body under consideration
If z = w(s) maps the region S conformally on the unit circle of the
s plane, then in terms of the variables of the s plane Eq. (9-35) becomes
V = A Tw'{t)w'{t) In p
A* / 8' J dm (9-36)
where = + = reie, Reie, S' = + irn =

the unit circle, and
is
s
it\
£i
£
t
= — t); —
here has the arguments
p2
and y, while has the

V
t)(s T
(s
arguments and tji. Differentiate Eq. (9-36) to obtain

£i
dV _ dV = _
Jo f1
f2* Tw'(t)w'{t)R dR
k
d<t>
—
Jo
dx dy 2xw/(s)
s
t
In order to facilitate calculation, convenient to express the integral

it
is
appearing in Eq. (9-37) in form to which the formula of Cauchy and the
a
theory of residues can be applied. If the function f(R,<t>) = Tw'(t)w'(t)

<t>
continuous and periodic of period 2ir in and satisfies a Lipschitz con

is
dition of the form given in Eq. (9-33), then Eq. (9-37) can be written in
the following form,
*r _ _ TW'(twmdRdtt
-
(('
=
+
Jr f
/')
\Jo
f
dx dy 2«w'(s) J\t\ =
s)
<(<
R
where in the first integral and in the second integral >

|s|
<
|s|
\t\
\t\
The function <t>i(z) defined in Eq. (9-29) and used in connection with
the biharmonic function in Eq. (9-28) will be examined next. The
U
definition of 0i(z) given in Eq. (9-29) does not determine <t>i{z) com
pletely from V2U. The function Q(x,y) conjugate to V2U determined
is
except for a real constant, whence <pi(z) is determined except for a term
(a + ib) + Biz, where a, b, and B are real constants. Since for the
calculation of the stresses it is necessary to know only the expression
V2£7 = /,+/„ + V27 [see Eq. (1-41)], it follows that <t>i(z) may be sub
jected to the conditions
0i(O) = 0 Re = 0
4>[(0)
j (9-39)
The expressions for the stresses can be readily obtained in terms of the
functions </>i, and V. They are
/.+/„- 2M(«) + #(*)] - fcT

_ /djT <32F a'7\ (9-40)
V 5tc2 fy2 3x a?//
By useof Eqs. (9-28), (1-37), and (1-41) the displacements can be

expressed in the following form,
U
,
+
.
W =
3m — 4
-2rtT
, , .
- ecz
m
- 1
2G
■«»+*<» +
(9-41)
where m = 1/v. The expressions for the stresses and displacements in
terms of the polar coordinates r and 6 of the s plane can be obtained by
using the following transformations:
. . sw'(s) , . . , . = . .
Ur + W" = ^M + ^ /'+/» /»+ /„
rite7 (a) I
/.-/r + 2trrf = £^
S2w/(s)
(/, - /, + 2irw) (9-42)
r2tD'(s)
Now consider the form of the functions <£l(2) and î(2) in the expres
sions for the stresses and displacements when the cross section of the body
is multiply connected. Let the region be bounded by n + 1 simple closed
curves Co, C\, . . . , C„, which have no common point and with C0
enclosing all the other curves. It is permissible for Co to recede to
infinity. Since the physical considerations demand the stresses, the dis
placements, and the temperature to be single-valued in S, it is necessary
to require that the right-hand members of Eqs. (9-40) and (9-41) be
single-valued. Hence from Eq. (9-40) it follows that Re [<t>[(z)] = |V2(7
must be single-valued. However, in this case, the function Q(x,y) conju
gate to V2C may not be single- valued and, in fact, may increase by a
constant value on going once around a simple closed curve C'k enclosing
C*(fc= 1,2, . . . , n). Designate this increase by iAk (Ak real), whence
n
M = V2C7 + iQ(x,y) = A; V \Ak In (z - zk) + f*(z)

fc-i
where /*(z) is single- valued and analytic in S and zk is a point interior

to the curve Ck and outside S. Equation (9-29) gives
n n
0i(z) = Ak In - + (°* + ibk) ln (z

~~
+
^ ^ (z zk)
^ z*)
<S,
where <t>f(z) and analytic in
is single-valued except perhaps at infinity,
and Ot, are real constants. Integration of the terms of Eqs. (9-40),
bk
(9-41), and (9-27) around the closed curve C'k enclosing Ck shows that
Ak = - ibk = (X* - iYk)

0
ak
jpj
= - - iY*
)C4,
+ CX. (9-43)
f <
<
X* + iYk = - (X + iY) ds
(
Thus in a multiply connected region <t>iand have the forms
*iC0 =
- (X* iYk) ln - *) *f (z)
+
+
(z
£
1}
8^(mm_
n (9-44)
*iM = (X, - iYk) In - ft) **(z) + M(z)

+
(z
^
8^141}
and ^* (z) are single-valued and analytic in
S,
where </>f(z) except perhaps

at infinity, and M(z) multiply valued function such that
is
a
(9-45)
9-6. The Hollow Circular Cylinder. Let be the region between two
S
closed curves Co and Ci, and let the rational function =

w(s) map the
z
region on a ring formed by two concentric circles about the origin in the
plane; let C0 go into circle of radius C\ into circle of radius
B
A
b,
a
s
< b), and region into the circular ring between circles and B.
A
(a
Now the boundary condition in Eq. (9-27) must hold on C0 and Ci, whence
the condition (9-34) must hold on the circles and B. For this case
A
Eq. (9-34) has the following form

(t) :
=
** for on = l>2
(f
*'
+
+
wwm
*
♦«>
i
A<>
)
(9-46)
Since the region multiply connected, the functions and \p(s) will
is
4>(s)
have a form obtained by transforming the expressions of Eq. (9-44) to

the s plane. The functions <t>*(s) and f*(s) defined in connection with
Eq. (9-44) will be Laurent series in the ring so that they can be written
in the form
**(«) = •>•(•) + #(«) **(*) = *;(*) + «(«) (9-47)
where <t>* and \p* indicate the terms of the Laurent series which have
nonnegative exponents, while </>* and \p* have negative exponents. In a
way analogous to that for Eq. (9-34) the Cauchy integral formula can be
applied to Eq. (9-46) to obtain the functions 4>*, yp*,
As an illustration, consider the case of a long circular cylinder of radius b

with a concentric hole of radius a. Let the temperature T be that arising
from a steady-state heat distribution so that T is harmonic in the ring S
formed by the circles A and B of radii a and b, respectively. Assume
that T is expressed in the following series, which converges uniformly in
the region S:
oo
T = Alnr + Aa + [(Anrn + Cnr~n) cos nd

£l
71=
+ (-B„r" + D„r-") sin nO] (9-48)
A particular integral of the differential equation V2F = kT, where T is

given by Eq. (9-48), is as follows:
4F = kAr2 In r + k(A0 - A)r2 + kr(2 In r - l)(d + Di sin

cos d 0)
+ 2k[zG1{z) + zGi(z) + zfft{z) + zH^z)]
HlW = _ y
Zy 4(n
—
1)
4.
z"-1
0lW = y a- vf;
Zy 4(n + 1)
(9-49)
n=2 n=l
Differentiation gives
ay
A0);
= lnr +
da;
+
^(Ci + fDi) |(Alnr-^+
(Ci - tDO + ffiW + zG[(z) + Gi(z)]
+
(9-50)
j
which single-valued. Now assume the external surface forces to be

is
zero, and make use of the mapping function = to give the following
z
expressions for the right-hand side of Eq. (9-46)

:
\dV .dV =
,
1,
(9-51)
2
i
In this Eq. (9-44) reduces to <t>i{z) = <t>t(2), î(z) = <A?(z). Suppose

case
that the expressions in Eq. (9-51) satisfy the conditions of Eq. (9-33)
so that Eq. (9-46) can be integrated by Cauchy's integral formulas. Use

— ——
J—.
the mapping function w(s) = s, and multiply Eq. (9-46) by
Then integrate the first equation = of Eq. (9-46) and its conjugate
(i
1)
over circle for exterior to A, and integrate the second equation
A =
2)
(i
s
of Eq. (9-46) and its conjugate over for interior to B. This gives
s
four equations for determining the functions 0P, <t>d,ipp, and \pd defined in
Eq. (9-47). The results are
- -
A(b2\nb
- In
A
a)
a2
<t>P(s)
= kG(s) + "FT + ^0
-A
- iD1)s2
b2 a2
2
. k(d
+
l
4(a2 b2)
= kH(s) = - iD1) - ^y2) (9-52)
(in
Ms) (Ci
b
I
- kAaW ,611, rfca262(d iDjl

+
.
s> 1
US) =
[
,
,
L2(62-a2) lnaJ 4(«2 + b2)

s
J
where G(s) = Gi[w(s)], H(s) = Hi[w(s)]. Use = w(s) = in these
s
z
functions to give <t>i(z) and î(z), and then determine from Eq. (9-28).
Put the stress function U
= — in Eq. (1-49) to obtain the stresses
V
U
0
, kA a2 b2 - r2 . b\
(.
b
=
-2ynr-T2¥^2lna)
fr
- fl2)
(Cl c0S Di Sin
+
2^
d)
d
a2^ b2
- (h2 — rJVr! — n2\
-
1c
= (Ci sin D1 cos (9-53)

a, +
6)
T">
6
275 6,
A
+ r2,
/.
JbA a2b2
6
6
,
/.
4a2r2 - (3r2
- + _ „,
fc
62)(r2 a2) n
Di sin
.
,
(Ci cos
+
0)
0
2r-3 a2 + 62
PROBLEMS
9-6. Compare the results of this section with those in Prob. 1-36. Discuss reasons
why only a few terms in steady-state temperature distribution in Eq. (9-48) contribute
to the stresses in Eq. (9-53).
9-7. Use Eqs. (9-41) and (9-42) to determine the displacements for the hollow
circular cylinder of this section.
9-8. Use Eqs. (1-46) and (1-47) to find the axial stress and axial strain in the hollow
circular cylinder of this section.
9-9. What are the maximum stresses in Eq. (9-53), and where do they occur?
9-10. Solve Prob. 5-12 by the method of this section.
9-7. Long Cylindrical Composite Bodies. The method of solution out

lined in Sec. 9-5 can be extended to the case of a long cylindrical body
composed of several materials each of which has different elastic con
stants E andtm and different coefficients of thermal expansion a. Let
one material So surround the other n materials Si, S2, . . . , Sn in such a
=
fiy
way that every material completely surrounded
n)
is
1,
2,
(J
. . .
,
by Cy, the outside
Sj
by material So, and designate the boundary of
boundary being Co- In the region the physical constants are Ej, rrij,
Sj
and ay.
The materials are assumed to adhere on all junction surfaces so that the
displacements will necessarily be continuous on the curves Ci, . . . C„.
,
further condition along = obtained from the con
Cy
n)
A
is
1,
(J
. . .
,
tinuity of the normal stress across Cy, while on C0 the condition of Eq.
Cy
Vj
(9-27) must hold. Let be the biharmonic function in Sj, the heat
function in Sj, <fei(z) and &i(z) the analytic functions in
Sj
defined by
<t>
Eq. (9-28). Then, in terms of the functions and the above three
ip,
conditions can be expressed as follows,
+ zî(z) = on Co
+ +
</>oi(z) ôi(z) /oo(s)

Mj<l>0i(z) + Nj^{z) + z4>'n{z) fc,(2)
= RjZ
Ms) = n
- + on Cj,
2,
j
1,
. . . (9-54)
,
(tfy l)*yi(z) + (Mj + 1)M«0 + «*'oi(2) + <Mz)
= RjZ + f0j(s) on Cj, = ,n
2,
j
1,
. .
.
where arc length on Cj, and
is
s
=
^ onC'
+
^(s)
laF
- -
^ _~ - _ -
4Gj(m0 ,
1)
1)
~~ 4gyfrny
1
^~bb>
m0(G„ Cy)
- my(Go G,)
^ _ - Gj)
GoGj(m0 my)
"
2'
* ' "
3
m„m,(G„
'
It
should be observed that the conditions (9-54) become very much
simpler when assumed that the elastic constants and m are the
is
it
same throughout the region = So Si + •

+ but the coef
+
•
•
S
*S„,
ficient of thermal expansion different in each region. Equation (9-54)
is
reduces to
+ foi(z) = /oo(s) on Co
+
<£oi(z) z4>'01(z)
-
=
-
Cj
<fci(z) 4>oi(z) on (9-56)

&i(z) = /yy(«) /oy(s) on = n
1,
j
ôi(z) Cy, . .
.
Hence the analytic extension of

Further, the function
is
if
<fei(z) </>oi(z).
be determined from Eq. (9-35), then known that its first deriva
V
it
is
tives will be continuous everywhere in the region provided that kT be

bounded and integrable. Thus, be calculated from Eq. (9-35), the
V
if
right-hand side of the third equation in Eq. (9-56) is zero and &i(z) is
the analytic extension of ôi(z). Hence for this case the function U is
continuous throughout the region so that the problem is that of the
simply connected region of one material with the boundary condition
as the first equation in Eq. (9-56). If the region S be mapped con-
formally on the unit circle by a rational function and if foo satisfies con
ditions (9-33), then the functions <£oi(z) and ôi(z) can be determined by
the method of Sec. 9-5.
Consider the case of a long circular cylinder of radius b with a con
centric core, of radius a, of a different material. Let B be the outside
circular boundary, and let A circular boundary between the two
be the
materials, while Si is the material of the core and $0 is the material of
the ring. Take Ei} rrii, ai, and ki} where = £fm,a,/(mi — 1), as the
constants of material S< (i = 0, 1). Assume the temperature T to be a
continuous function of the radius r, and designate by Ti(r) the temper
ature distribution in Si (i = 0, 1). As is customary, assume the external
surface forces to be zero. Use the mapping function z = s, and deter
mine the first derivatives of V from Eq. (9-38)
(9-57)
(9-58)
If these results be substituted in Eq. (9-54) and if these equations be

integrated over circles A and B by methods similar to those used in
Sec. 9-6, then the following results are obtained for the four functions
<*>oi(z), ôi(z), <*>n(z), û(z),
= aiz =
</>oi(z) ôi(z) eiz-l <£n(z)
= ciz û(z) = 0
The stresses are
fri = 2ci - r^ j rT1{r) dr rr« = 0

Jo
- fc,7\
£ r7\(r) dr
= 2c,
fn +
^
f.i = Eie. - E^T, + i- - fciTO (4c,
2a, + S - k j rTi{r) dr -
' (9-60)
/r„ =
r r jo § Ja/ rr0(r) dr T
rr,0 = 0
2a, - ^ + ^
§ Ja/ rT0(r) dr -
'
feo
=
/ rT,(r) dr + k0T0
r r jo ~
f,o = E«e. - E0aaT0 + — (4a, - k0T0)

77lo
where e, can be determined from the condition
dr = 0
f'f.ir dr + j*ft(lr (9-61)
Suppose T, = !To = constant = T; then the stresses become
- k0T)
(9-62)
= A with A = £(4a,
feo
(l +
^
The more general problem of m + 1 concentric materials is considered
in Ref. 13.
PROBLEMS
9-11. Show that the constant A in Eq. (9-62) has the value
BA = mimaEiEaT(aa ai)[(Ei — E^mim,,, + Eimi — E0m0H]

—
B = —
E0H)mi(ma + 1) 4- E0(m,i — ro0)]
HEmnnJUEi
-
[HEam0(mi + 1) -
£,fn,(m0 + l)][H£om0(m, 2) 2£lm,(m0 - - - 1)] (9-63)
'-'-5
9-12. If the inside material is steel with m1 = 3, = 3(107), a, = 6(10-«) and the
outside material is aluminum alloy with too = 3, 2?o = 10', <*o = 12(10-«), show that
for T constant
fn = fei = AH /ro = AH on r = a
= A(2 — H) on r =
- 2H)T
feo a
, _ „, 540H(3
9-13. Solve Prob. 9-12 for b2/a2 = 4, and determine the maximum stresses.
9-14. Compare the axial stresses in Prob. 9-13 with those given by the formulas of
Sec. 1-2. What causes the difference in the results?
9-15. Evaluate the stresses in Eq. (9-60) for the case of both cylinders of the same
material but with 2\ and T0 different constant temperatures.
9-16. Show that the radial and axial strains for the case of constant temperature
[Eq. (9-62) and Prob. 9-11] are
e,(Ei - E„H) = EiaiT - Em JIT + 2AH OT' - TO°
mi
= AH(mi - 2) e, mi + 1
<*\i
rnjan
7, 7, 1 (9-00)
r 2m16i mi mi
»0
r 2Go L \ f I ™oJ m0 m0
9-17. Find the displacements in Prob. 9-16 for inside-material steel, outside-
material aluminum alloy, both at 500°F above datum. Take o = 0.26.
9-18. Suppose there is a screw-thread joint between the cylinders. What happens
to the stresses in this case, particularly if the joint is loose? If there is a radial gap of
0.005 in. and an axial gap of 0.010 in. in the joint, what temperature change is per
missible in Prob. 9-17 without producing stress? Use o = 0.25 in. and the length of
the thread as 2 in.
9-8. Composite Body with Cross Section as Two Eccentric Circles. In

this section a further application of the formulas of Sec. 9-7 will be made
to the case of a long circular cylinder composed of two materials, one
inside the other. The cross section of the inside material Si is a circle
eccentric to the circular boundary of the outside material So- Let C0 be
the outside circle boundary, while Ci is the circle forming the boundary
between the two materials. Now the function
z = =
(9-66)
maps the region on two circular regions concentric to each other, the
circle C0 going into a circle B of radius b and the circle Ci into a circle A
of radius a concentric to B. Designate by Si the region in the s plane
which Si is the transform of and by s0 the transform of the region S0.
It is easily checked that the point 1/c is outside both circles A 'and B
so that the mapping function [Eq. (9-66)] has no pole in the region. Let
the elastic constants of the two materials be the same, but let the coef
ficients of thermal Assume the temperature T
expansion be different.
to be constant. Then a particular integral of V2F = kT is V = \kTr2,
whence in the s plane
where the subscripts 0 and 1 refer to s0 and su respectively. In these

equations = Emao/(m — 1), ki = Emcti/(m — 1), and w(s) is denned

k0
by Eq. (9-66). Let the external surface forces be zero so that from rela
tions (9-67) the following expressions can be obtained,
<7oo
= ykoTw(t) for t on B
0oi = \kaTw(t) for t on A
ffii =
%kiTw{t) for t on A
is the value in the coordinates of the s plane of denned in
/<3
where
Eq. (9-55). To obtain the biharmonic functions Uo and Ui in regions
So and Si, respectively, use Eq. (9-56), which determines the functions
4>i(s)
= 4>n(z), <tt>o(s) = tf>oi(z), î(s) = ^n(z), iAo(s) = iAoi(z). The func
tions <t>i(s) and î(s) will have Laurent-series developments in s0. From
Eq.(9-47) write <£0(s) = + iKi(s). and \p0(s) = iAop(s)
+
<t>op(s) <*xw(s)
Now integrate the equations in Eq. (9-56) and their conjugates by the
method of integration discussed in previous sections to obtain the follow
ing results:
= = in Si
0
<t>od(s) <tt>i(s) <t>0p(s)
= - - -
(p
+
k0
fci) WW
s)|
<t>oP(s) (fc0 2(fco
^'(cfr2)]
^
|
/b2\ [V(a2s/62) u/(ca2)l (9-68)

^
. a2
,
n
,
lAod(s)
= (fc0
- fci)Tw î(s) = ^03,(s) in Si
By using Eqs. (9-40) and (9-42) the stresses can be calculated in terms
of the coordinates and of the plane,
r
/rO +/«o = (&o

- kJTp a2 i(l —
_
i>2c2)2
a2c2p
_ -
- a2)cr cos +
+
2b4[b2 (fr2
0
a2c2r2]2|
- cWr2)(s -
2cra262 cos
+
(6* a4cV2)2
0
,
- Tn
-2^-
,,a2L - 62\
- - cr2)2 __.
•
}62(62s2
(U
T2,)
/ro zrrS„ *•> (9'69)

F2
V1
- - - caV2)2(S ca2)2
\
_ _
L(l["(1
s2
- c2b2r2
- fr2c2)2
- b4(l cs)2
- a2)(l - -
(s
cb2)2 a2c2)2 (b2 ca2s)2-
_ 2cfr4s(b2
- - cs)(s cr2))
(s
c62)(62 ca2s)3
(
It clear that =
then the mapping function [Eq. (9-66)] w(s) =
is
if
is
0
s,
c
and the stresses reduce to those for the concentric cylinders of Sec. 9-7.
The stresses in the region Si can be calculated in way similar to those
a
for the region sa. The stresses in the coordinates of the plane can be
z
• 4
calculated by transforming the functions of Eq. (9-67) to the z plane by
s = z/(l + cz) and using Eq. (9-40).
It should be remarked that the most important restriction on the
complex-variable method in Secs. 9-5 to 9-8 is that the mapping function
be rational. The primary purpose of this restriction has been to provide
one with a system of equations that could be solved explicitly for the
desired functions, from which the stresses in the body could be calculated
in explicit form. On the other hand, if the given contour C, enclosing a
simply connected region
»S,
sufficiently regular, then can be mapped
it
is
on unit circle to any degree of approximation by function of the form
a
a
n
= for finite
S
a
0
In this event the solution of the thermoelastic problem can be obtained,
then for some region S' which differs from
S,
not for the region as

if
S
little as desired. Hence, from the practical point of view, the thermo
elastic problem can always be solved by means of such integrals of Cauchy
as are discussed in Sec. 9-5, the evaluation of which requires only ele
mentary algebraic operations. The situation, naturally, vastly more
is
involved the region multiply connected.
is
if
The assumption concerning the vanishing of the external surface forces

made in the foregoing solutions not essential, since the terms depend
is
ing on the external surface forces can be carried along without introducing
any complications.
Finally knowledge of the temperature function has been assumed
T
a
throughout the above discussion in Secs. 9-5 to 9-8. But the tem
if
perature follows the law of heat conduction [Eq. (2-3)], then in many
instances may be possible to solve the stress problem by the foregoing
it
methods when not possible to solve this heat-conduction equation

it
is
by elementary methods. For instance, there no satisfactory and usable

is
solution for the heat-conduction equation for the region under consider
ation in this section.
REFERENCES
Melan, E., and H. Parkus: "Warmespannung," Springer-Verlag Vienna, 1953.

2. 1.
Sokolnikoff, S.: "Mathematical Theory of Elasticity," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill

I.

Timoshenko, S., and J. N. Goodier: "Theory of Elasticity," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill
3.

Heldenfels, R. R., and W. M. Roberts: Experimental and Theoretical Determina
4.
tion of Thermal Stresses in Flat Plate, NACA TN 2769, August, 1952.

a
5. Gossard, M. L., P. Seide, and W. M. Roberts: Thermal Buckling of Plates, NACA

TN 2771, August, 1952.
6. Timoshenko, S.: "Theory of Elastic Stability," McGraw-Hill Book Company,

7. Muskhelishvili, N. I.: Sur l'integration de l'equation biharmonique, Bull. acad.
sci. Russ., VI ser., 13:663-686 (1919).
8. Muskhelishvili, N. I.: Recherches sur les problemes aux limits r^latifs a l'equation
biharmonique et aux equations de l'elasticite1 a deux dimensions, Math. Ann.,
107:282-312 (1933).
9. Muskhelishvili, N. I.: Praktische Losung der fundamentalen Randwertaufgaben
der Elastizitatstheorie in der Ebene fur einige Berandungsformen, Z. Angew.
Math. u. Mech., 13:264-282 (1933).
10. Muskhelishvili, N. I.: "Some Basic Problems of the Mathematical Theory of
Elasticity," translated from the Russian by J. R. M. Radok, P. Noordhoff, N.V.,
Groningen, Netherlands, 1953.
11. Gatewood, B. E.: Thermal Stresses in Long Cylindrical Bodies, University of
Wisconsin Ph.D. thesis, 1939.
12. Gatewood, B. E.: Thermal Stresses in Long Cylindrical Bodies, Phil. Mag., ser. 7,
32:282-301 (1941).
13. Gatewood, B. E.: Note on the Thermal Stresses in a Long Circular Cylinder of
M + 1 Concentric Materials, Quart. Appl. Math., 6:84-86 (1948).
14. Parkus, H. : Stress in a Centrally Heated Disk, Proc. 2d U.S. Natl. Congr. Appl.
Mech., 1954, pp. 307-311, American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
15. Strub, R. H.: Generalized Method for Stresses in Disks of Arbitrary Profiles
(in French), Bull. tech. Swisse Rom., 1954, pp. 97-106.
16. Melan, E.: Thermal Stresses Generated in Rotating Temperature Fields (in
German), Osterr. Ingr.-Arch., 8:165-170 (1954).
17. Fritz, R. J. : Evaluation of Transient Temperatures and Stresses, Trans. ASME,
76:913-921 (1954).
18. Loo, Tsu-Tao: Buckling of a Thin Circular Ring-plate under a Thermal Impulse,
ONR Research Project NR-064-405, Tech. Rept. 14, Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute, 1955.
19. Brahtz, J. F., and A. Dean: An Account of Research Information Pertaining to
Aerodynamic Heating and Airframe, WADC TR 55-99, Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, Ohio, 1955.
20. Broglio, L.: Balance Method in Thermal Stress Analysis, Proc. Conf. High-speed
Aeronaut., 1955, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn.
21. Stern, Marvin: Analysis of Thermal Stresses in Conical Shells, J. Aeronaut. Sci.,
22:506-508 (1955).
22. Grosh, R. J., E. A. Trabant, and G. A. Hawkins: Temperature Distribution in
Solids of Variable Thermal Properties Heated by Moving Heat Sources, Quart.
Appl. Math., 13(2):161-167 (1955).
23. Zoller, K.: Thermal Stress during Heating of a Drum (in German), Osterr. Ingr.-
Arch., 23:51-60 (1955).
24. Melan, E. : Stresses Due to Non-steady Temperature Fields (in German), Osterr.
Ingr.-Arch., 9:171-175 (1955).
25. Lomakin, V. A. : Elastic-plastic Equilibrium of a Sphere in an Unsteady Temper
ature Field (in Russian), Prikl. Mat. Mekh., 19:244-248 (1955).
26. Horvay, G.: Thermal Stresses in Rectangular Strips, I, Proc. 2d Natl. Congr.
Appl. Mech., 1955, American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
27. Born, J. S., and G. Horvay: Thermal Stresses in Rectangular Strips, II, J. Appl.
Mech., 22:401-406 (1955).
28. Williams, M. L.: Large Deflection Analysis for Plate Strip Subjected to Normal
Pressure and Heating, J. Appl. Mech. Paper 55-APM-35, 1955.
29. Sharma, B.: Thermal Stresses in Infinite Elastic Disks, ASME Paper 56-APM-19,
June, 1956.
30. Weiner, J.: An Elastoplastic Thermal-stress Analysis of a Free Plate, ASME
Paper 56-APM-6, June, 1956.
31. Hoff, N. J., and others: Theory and Experiment in the Solution of Structural
Problems of Supersonic Aircraft, WADC TR 55-291, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, 1956.
32. Zizicas, G. A.: Transient Thermal Stresses in Thin Isotropic Elastic Plates, Univ.
Calif., Los Angeles, Rept. 52-7, 1952.
APPENDIX A
DERIVATION OF FORMULAS IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS
A-l. Differential Change of a Function. Such physical quantities as

displacement, stress, heat, temperature, fluid velocity, etc., are continu
ous 'functions of coordinates in three space and of time in some cases.
Thus changes in these quantities will obey the usual rules for differentials
is,
and derivatives of functions in the differential calculus. That
if
= F(x,y,z,t) (A-l)
F
then „
dF =
dF
— ,
dx
. dF ,
dy
. dF
+ — dz
,
+
. dF
— ,t
dt
+
dx dy dz dt
(A-2)
The components of change for in given direction are

F
(dF). = ~dx and constant

z
y
{dF)y = and constant (A-3)

x
d^dy
(dF), = and constant

x
fzdz
y
indicated in Fig. A-l. If

physical entity directed along one of
is
F
as
a
the coordinate axes, then all the components in Eq. (A-3) are directed
along that axis, the subscripts merely indicating which variable pro
is
ducing the component.

F+[dF),
F
^_
■F+[dF)x
4^
F+{dF)y F
Fig. A-l. Physical element.

217
Derivatives with respect to time can be obtained from Eq. (A-2) by

dividing by dt to get
dF dF , dF
— , dF , dF
—
-57
=
5— Vx + vy + -r- v, + (A-4)
dt ox by bz bt
where vx = dx/dt, vy, and v, are velocities in the x, y, z directions,

respectively.
A-2. Surface Conditions. In the elasticity problem the equilibrium
of stresses on the surface of the body or the boundary conditions can be
Fig. A-2. Stress at a point.
derived from Fig. A-2. The forces acting on the tetrahedron can be
determined by multiplying the stress components by the areas of the
faces. If A is the area of the face ABC, then the areas of the three
other faces are
Ax = A cos (n,x) Ay = A cos (n,y) A, = A cos (n,z) (A-5)

where n is the normal to the plane ABC. Let X„ Y„ Z, be the three
components of stress, parallel to the coordinate axes, acting on the face
ABC. Then the forces of these stresses are AX„ AY„ AZ,'m the direc
tions of the axes x, y, z. Thus for equilibrium, after dividing out A,
fx cos (n,x) + rxy cos (n,y) + tx, (cos n,z) = X,

rxy cos (n,x) + fy cos (n,y) + ty, (cos n,z) = Y, (A-6)
rx, cos (n,x) + ty, cos (n,y) + /, (cos n,z) = Z,
APPENDIX B
PROPERTIES OF AIR, STANDARD ATMOSPHERE,

AND MATERIALS
B-l. Properties of the Standard Atmosphere. Table B-l, taken from

Ref. 1, and also given in Ref. 2, gives the properties of the atmosphere
up to 260,000 ft. Reference 3 gives more accurate values at 100- and
200-ft increments up to 65,800 ft.
B-2. Properties of Air as a Function of Temperature. Table B-2,
taken from Ref. 4, gives the thermodynamic properties of air up to a
temperature of 2400°R. Note that conductivity of the air can be
obtained from the values of cp, n, and Pr as [see Eq. (2-26)]
k = (B-l)
3'6°p°fC'
where units are m = lb-sec/ft2, cp = Btu/(lb)(°F), k = Btu/(hr)(ft)(°F),

and g = 32.2 ft/sec2. Reference 5 gives properties up to 4000°R and
shows that there is disagreement on Pr due to difficulties in measuring k
at high temperatures.
B-3. Physical Properties of Aircraft Materials. As can be seen from
data in Ref. 6, the thermal conductivity, specific heat, and coefficient of
thermal expansion vary considerably between alloys of the same material
and with temperature (see also Fig. 6-4). Table B-3 shows average
properties for some aircraft materials based on various sources of data.
These values are suitable for the problems in the text, but for design
more accurate values for the given alloy and given temperature range
should be obtained from sources such as Ref. 6.
219
Table B-l. Properties op the Standard Atmosphere!
h T a V p m(IO')
0 59 00 1,117 2,116 2 0 002378 3.719

1,000 57 44 1,113 2,040 9 0 002310 3.699
2,000 51 87 1,109 1,967 7 0 002242 3.679
3,000 48 31 1,105 1,896 7 0 002177 3.659
4,000 44 74 1,102 1,827 7 0 002112 3.639
5,000 41 18 1,098 1,760 8 0 002049 3.618
6,000 37 62 1,094 1,696 0 0 001988 3.598

7,000 34 05 1,090 1,633 0 0 001928 3.577
8,000 30 49 1,086 1,571 9 0 001869 3.557
9,000 26 92 1,082 1,512 8 0 001812 3.536
10,000 23 36 1,078 1,455 4 0 001756 3.515
11,000 19 80 1,074 1,399 8 0 001702 3.495

12,000 16 23 1,070 1,345 9 0 001649 3.474
13,000 12 67 1,066 1,293 7 0 001597 3.453
14,000 9 10 1,062 1,243 2 0 001546 3.432
15,000 5 54 1,058 1,194 3 0 001497 3.411
16,000
- 1 98 1,054 1,147 0 0 001448 3.390
17,000
- 1,050 1,101 1 3.369
1 59 0 001401
3.347
-
18,000 5 15 1,046 1,056 9 0 001355
19,000 8 72 1,041 1,014 0 0 001311 3.326
20,000 -12 28 1,037 972 6 0 001267 3.305
21,000 -15 84 1,033 932 5 0 001225 3.283

22,000 -19 41 1,029 893 8 0 001183 3.262
23,000 -22 97 1,025 856 4 0 001143 3.240
24,000 -26 54 1,021 820 3 0 001104 3.218
25,000 -30 10 1,017 785 3 0 001066 3.196
26,000 -33 66 1,012 751 7 0 001029 3.174

27,000 -37 23 1,008 719 2 0 000993 3.153
28,000 -40 79 1,004 687 9 0 000957 3.130
29,000 -44 36 999 657 6 0 000923 3.108
30,000 -47 92 995 628.5 0 000890 3.086
31,000 -51 48 991 600.4 0 000858 3.064

32,000 -55 05 987 573 3 0 000826 3.041
33,000 -58 61 982 547 3 0 000796 3.019
34,000 -62 18 978 522.2 0 000766 2.997
35,000 -65 74 973 498.0 0 000737 2.974
35,332 -67 6 971 489 8 0 000727 2.961

36,000 -67 6 971 474.8 0 000709 2.961
37,000 -67 6 971 452 5 0 0006766 2.961
38,000 -67 6 971 431 2 0 0006448 2.961
39,000 -67 6 971 411 0 0 0006145 2.961
40,000 -67.6 971 391 8 0 0005857 2.961
PROPERTIES OF AIR, STANDARD ATMOSPHERE, AND MATERIALS 221
Table B-l. Properties of the Standard Atmosphere! (Continued)
h T a V p m(107)
41,000 -67 .6 971 373 4 0 0005582 2 961

42,000 -67 6 971 355 8 0 0005320 2 961
43,000 -67 6 971 339 1 0 0005071 2 961
44,000 -67 6 971 323 2 0 0004833 2 961
45,000 -67 6 971 308 0 0 0004605 2 961
46,000 -67 6 971 293 6 0 0004390 2 961

47,000 -67 6 971 279 8 0 0004184 2 961
48,000 -67 6 971 266 6 0 0003987 2 961
49,000 -67 6 971 254 1 0 0003800 2 961
50,000 -67 6 971 242 2 0 0003622 2 961
60,000 -67 6 971 150 9 0 0002240 2 961

70,000 -67 6 971 93 5 0 0001389 2 961
80,000 -67 6 971 58 0 0 0000861 2 961
90,000 -67 6 971 36 0 0 0000535 2 961
100,000 -67 6 971 22 4 0 0000331 2 961
104,987 -67 6 971 17 59 0 0000261 2 961

-47
-
110,000 4 996 13 92 0 0000197 3 090
120,000 7 2 1,043 9 026 0 0000116 3 339
130,000 33 0 1,089 6 071 0 00000717 3 579
140,000 73 3 1,132 4 213 0 00000460 3 809
150,000 113 5 1,174 3 003 0 00000305 4 032

160,000 153 7 1,215 2 190 0 00000208 4 247
164,042 170 0 1,231 1 938 0 00000179 4 332
170,000 170 0 1,231 1 624 0 00000150 4 332
180,000 170 0 1,231 1 206 0 00000111 4 332
190,000 170 0 1,231 0 8956 0 00000083 4 332

196,850 170 0 1,231 0 7305 0 00000068 4 332
200,000 159 4 1,220 0 6645 0 00000062 4 277
210,000 125 9 1,187 0 4869 0 00000048 4 099
220,000 92 4 1,152 0 3504 0 00000037 3 916
230,000 58 9 1,117 0 2470 0 00000028 3 727
-
240,000 25 3 1,080 0 1699 0 00000020 3 533
250,000 8 2 1,042 0 1139 0 00000015 3 333
255,905 -28 0 1,019 0 0742 0 00000012 3 212
260,000 -28 0 1,019 0 0742 0 00000010 3 212
t Ames Laboratory Staff, Notes and Tables for Use in the Analysis of Supersonic
Flow, NACA TN 1428, December, 1947.
h = height above sea level, ft
T = temperature, °P
a = speed of sound, ft /sec
p = pressure, lbf/ft2
p = mass density, slug/ft3
H
= coefficient of viscosity, slug/ft-sec
Table B-2. Properties op Air as a Function of Temperature f
T cp c„ 7 a *(10') Pr
100 0 .2392 0 1707 1 .402 490.5

ISO 0 .2392 0 1707 1 402 600.7
200 0 2392 0 1707 1 .402 693.6
250 0 2392 0 1707 1 402 775.4
300 0 2392 0 1707 1 402 849.4
350 0 2393 0 1707 1 402 917.5

400 0 2393 0 1707 1 402 980.9 100 0.73
450 0 2394 0 1708 1 401 1,040.3 109 0.72
500 0 2396 0 1710 1 401 1,096.4 118 0.71
550 0 2399 0 1713 1 400 1,149.6 126 0.70
600 0 2403 0 1718 1 399 1,200.3 135 0.70

650 0 2409 0 1723 1 398 1,248.7 143 0.69
700 0 2416 0 1730 1 396 1,295.1 151 0.68
750 0 2424 0 1739 1 394 1,339.6 158 0.68
800 0 2434 0 1748 1 392 1,382.5 166 0.68
900 0 2458 0 1772 1 387 1,463.6 179 0.67

1000 0 2486 0 1800 1 381 1,539.4 192 0.66
1100 0 2516 0 1830 1 374 1,610.8 205 0.66
1200 0 2547 0 1862 1 368 1,678.6 218 0.66
1300 0 2579 0 1894 1 362 1,743.2 230 0.66
1400 0 2611 0 1926 1 356 1,805.0 242 0.65

1500 0 2642 0 1956 1 350 1,864.5 253 0.65
1600 0 2671 0 1985 1 345 1,922.0 264 0.65
1700 0 2698 0 2013 1 340 1,977.6 274 0.65
1800 0 2725 0 2039 1 336 2,032 284 0.65
1900 0 2750 0 2064 1 332 2,084 293 0.65

2000 0 2773 0 2088 1 328 2,135 302 0.65
2100 0 2794 0 2109 1 325 2,185 311 0.65
2200 0 2813 0 2128 1 322 2,234 320 0.65
2300 0 2831 0 2146 1 319 2,282 329 0.65
2400 0 2848 0 2162 1 317 2,329 338 0.65
f Reprinted with permission from J. H. Keenan and J. Kaye, "Gas Tables," 1948,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
T = absolute temperature, °F
cp = specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/(lb)(°F)
c„ = specific heat at constant volume, Btu/(lb)(°F)
7 = cp/c„
a = speed of sound, ft/sec
n = coefficient of viscosity, lb-m/sec-ft
Pr = Prandtl number
PROPERTIES OF AIR, STANDARD ATMOSPHERE, AND MATERIALS 223
Table B-3. Average Physical Properties of Metals
Material alloys p E/10« a(10«) k cp
0.10 10 13 75 0.22
0.065 6.5 15 45 0.25
Steel 0.28 29 7 22 0.16
0.16 16 5.5 10 0.15
0.30 31 8 15 0.12
p = density, lb /in. 3
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
a = coefficient of thermal expansion, in./(in.)(°F)
k = coefficient of thermal conductivity, Btu/(ft)(hr)(°F)
c„
= specific heat, Btu/(lb)(°F)
REFERENCES
1. Ames Laboratory Staff: Notes and Tables for Use in the Analysis of Supersonic
Flow, NACA TN 1428, December, 1947.
2. Schapiro, Ascher H.: "The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid
Flow," 2 vols., The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1954.
3. Langley Laboratory Staff: Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere, NACA TN
3182, May, 1954.
4. Keenan, J. H., and Joseph Kaye: "Gas Tables," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1948.
5. Eckert, E. R. G.: Survey of Heat Transfer at High Speeds, W ADC TB 54-70,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1954.
6. Hoyt, S. L.: "Metal Data," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1952.
APPENDIX G
NOTES ON THE THERMAL-STRESS LITERATURE
The literature cited at the ends of the chapters in this book does not
constitute a complete bibliography on the thermal-stress problem. How
ever, several literature lists have been published which can be consulted
for more information.
For a listing of literature on all phases of the thermal-stress problem
see Brahtz and Dean, An Account of Research Information Pertaining
to Aerodynamic Heating of Airframe, WADC TR 55-99, 1955, which
includes a five-volume Part II on Bibliography (Ref. 19 in Chap. 9).
Volume 1 is on External Environment, Vol. 2 on Materials, Vol. 3 on
Configurations, Vol. 4 on Methods of Analysis (much of the thermal-
stress literature in English is listed in this volume), and Vol. 5 on Methods
of Test. Abstracts are given for many of the papers.
For the literature on the two-dimensional thermal-stress problem see
literature lists in Refs. 1, 11, and 12 of Chap. 9. In the author's thesis
(Ref. 11 in Chap. 9) comments upon the literature up to 1939 are given.
Melan and Parkus (Ref. 1 in Chap. 9) list the literature up to 1953,
including German and Russian papers. Chapter 9 of the present text
lists some of the literature since 1953.
225
INDEX
Absorption of thermal expansion, 169 Beams, shear lag in, 85-88

(See also Reduction of thermal stresses) stresses near end of, 11, 85-88
Activation energy, 132 thermal stresses in, maximum, 72
Adiabatic skin temperature, 36 maximum web, 80-81
Adiabatic wall temperature, 29 one-dimensional, 10, 66-73, 79-85
Aerodynamic heating, 30-34 unsymmetrical, 10, 91, 174
Air properties, 222 vibration of, 140, 187-192
Aircraft materials, efficiencies of, 140-145 Bending frequency, 140, 188
Aircraft structures, 30, 43, 112-113 Bending stiffness, 172
Airplane, 43, 54, 56, 168 Bessel functions, 101-102, 194
Alleviation of thermal stresses (see Biharmonic equation, 18, 101, 201
Reduction of thermal stresses) Black body, 24
Allowable stresses, 111, 153 Body forces, 15-17, 102
in buckling, 116-119 Bolts, 3-4
for columns, 116-119, 130 distribution of thermal load to, 7
in compression, 116-126 Boundary conditions, 15-18, 65-66
in creep buckling, 134-137 Boundary layer, 27
in crippling, 121, 126 thermal, 29
list of, 113 transition, 32
for nonuniform temperature, 127-130 Brittle materials, 139
for optimum design, 140-145 Buckling of plates, 116-118, 199-200
in 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy-clad sheet, Buckling coefficients (see Edge-support
113-114 coefficients)
Altitude, 37, 58, 168, 220-221 Buckling stresses, 116-119
Analytic functions, 201 creep, 134-137
Angle of twist, 183-187
Applied stresses (see Stresses)
Atmosphere, properties of, 220-221 Calculus of variations, 195-196
Axis, neutral, 129 Cauchy integral formula, 203, 206
Centrifugal forces, 103-105
Circular plates, 100-102
Bars, 1, 5-7, 154-158 Circular region, eccentric, 211
with gap, 3 unit, 201-204
Beams, bowing of, 173 (See also Cylinders)
with constant heat source on skin, Column stresses, 116-119, 130
79-85 Columns, 113
diagonal tension, 187 buckling of, 116-119
with linear transient temperature on deflection of, 175-178
one edge, 66-73 eccentric, 119
multiweb, 79 Combined stresses, 128, 162-169
Comparison, of test and calculated tem Design, strain, 169

peratures, 52-54 Design procedures, 168-169
of thermal stresses, elastic and Diagonal-tension beams, 187
inelastic, 157-161 Differential change of functions, 217
in restrained and unrestrained struc Dimensional analysis, 28
ture, 71, 77 Direct radiation, 53
Compatibility equations, 14, 17 Disk, turbine, 102-105
Complementary energy, 195-198 Ductile materials, 139
Complex variables, 201-213 Duhamel-Neumann elasticity equations,
analytic functions, 201 12
Cauchy integral formula, 203, 206 Dynamic effects, 43, 140
conformal mapping, 201-205 Dynamic response, 172
Laurent series, 206, 212
residues, 203
Edge-support coefficients, 116, 119
Composite bodies, 208-213
for angle-stiffened panels, 125
Compressible-flow equations, isentropic,
for angles, 121
34
for channels, 122-123
Computers, high-speed, 195
for fiat plates, 120
Conduction, heat, 21-22, 65
for Z-stiffened panels, 124
Conductivity, thermal, 22, 115, 139, 219,
for Z's, 122-123
223
Effective areas, 165-166, 172
Conformal mapping, 201-205
Effective moment of inertia, 129
Conjugate function, 201, 204
Effective skin thickness, 187
Continuity equations, 27
Effective stiffness, 186
Convection, heat, 21, 26
Efficiencies of aircraft materials, 140-145
Convective heat-transfer coefficient, 22,
Eigenfunctions, 77, 194
28, 55, 65
Eigenvalues, 77, 194
Cooling, 106, 154-156, 168
Elastic constants (see Modulus)
Coordinates, polar, 18-19, 101, 204
Elastic unloading, 155
Creep, 130-137, 155-159, 167
Emissivity, 24, 115
Crippling stresses, 121, 126
Energy, activation, 132
Curved plates, 181-182
complementary, 195-198
Cylinders, heat-transfer coefficients on, 31
fission, 106
thermal stresses, in composite, 208-213
heat, 21
in hollow circular, 205-207
potential, 195-196
in thick-walled, 107-108
radiant, 24
Cylindrical bodies, long, 18, 107, 205-213
strain, 195
Energy theorems, 195-197
Equilibrium equations, 15-19
Deflection, to absorb thermal expansion,
Equilibrium temperature, 39, 44, 54
169, 171
Euler's equation, 196
bolt and rivet, 6
Euler's formula, 2, 118, 175
column, 175-177
Expansion, thermal, coefficient of, 1-2,
initial, 172-186
115, 223
large, 200
plate, 175-186
rotation, 183 Fatigue, thermal, 137-138, 155
shear, 187 Finite-difference method, 104-105
warping, 183-186 Fission, energy of, 106
Deformation, shear, 13 Flange, beam, 63
Derivation of formulas, 217 stringer, 65
INDEX 229
Flat plates (see Plates) Inelastic stresses, 153-154
Flight history, 168 comparison with elastic stresses,
Flight plan, 43 157-161
Flow, laminar, 27 with creep, 155-157
shear, 85-88 for nonuniform temperature, 158-162
Fluid-flow equations, 26 in skin, 157, 163
Flutter, 187-192 for uniform temperature, 154-158
Forces, body, 15-17, 102 Initial conditions, 44, 55, 60
centrifugal, 103-105 Initial deflection, 172-186
gravity, 26 Instable sections, 113
pressure, 26, 179-182 Insulation, 168
viscous, 26-27 Internal heat source, 106
Formulas, derivation of, 217 Iso-stress-strain curves, 131-132
Fourier series, 23, 67, 194 Iteration solution, 36-37
Frequency, bending, 140, 188
torsion, 188
Johnson's parabola, 118-119, 123
Joint-stiffness parameter, 7
Galerkin method, 197, 200 Joints, expansion, 169
Gamma radiation, 106 screw-thread, 211
Graphical solutions, 71, 154-164 thermal conductance of, 50-52, 82-84
Gravity forces, 26 thermal loads on, 5-8
thermal resistance of, 50-52, 84
thermal-resistance factor for, 51
Hard spring, 186
Harmonic function, 201, 206
Heat, specific, 22, 28, 115, 222-223 Kirchhoff 's law, 24
Heat-balance equations, 35-36

Heat conduction, 21-22, 65
Lag, shear, 85-88
Heat-conduction equation, 23
Laminar flow, 27
steady-state, 19, 23
Laplace equation (see Heat-conduction
Heat convection, 21, 26
equation, steady-state)
Heat generation, 22, 106
Laplace transform, 79-80, 102
Heat source, constant, 54-58, 73-77,
Large deflection, 200
79-85
Larson-Miller parameter, 132, 150
internal, 106
Lateral instability, 183
variable, 58-62, 77-79
Laurent series, 206, 212
Heat storage, 21-22
Limit applied stress, 162
Heat transfer, by conduction, 21-22
Lipschitz condition, 202
by convection, 21, 26
by radiation, 21, 23
Heating, aerodynamic, 30-34 Mach number, 29
radiant, 23, 53 Mapping function, 202
Hooke's law, 14 Material properties, 223
Hydrostatic pressure, 16 at elevated temperatures, 111-116
Mechanical properties, 223
in 2024-T3 aluminum-alloy-clad sheet,
Idealized structural element, 35, 43-64 113
restrained, in bending, 63 Membranes, 179-181
unrestrained, 62-63 Middle-plane strain, 175, 200
Inconel X, 141-143 Minimum principles, 195-197
Missile, 43, 54-56, 168 Plates, thermal stresses in, maximum, 9

Missile structures, 30, 43, 58-62 thick, 10
Modulus, elasticity, 1-2, 113, 223 maximum thermal stresses in, 71
secant, 113-114, 117, 154, 157 thin, 9
shear, 15, 113 with variable heat source on one
tangent, 113-114, 117 surface, 77-79
Moment of inertia, effective, 129 warping of, 183-186
Multiply connected regions, 204-206 (See also Skin)
Multiply valued function, 205 Poisson's ratio, 14
Multiweb beam, 79 Polar coordinates, 18-19, 101, 204
Potential energy, 195-196
Prandtl number, 28
Neutral axis, 129 Pressure forces, 26, 179-182
Neutrons, 106 Principle of similarity, 28
Nondimensional stress-strain curves, 117 Properties, of air, 222
Nonlinear vibrations, 186 of atmosphere, 220-221
Normal loads, 179-182 mechanical, 113, 223
Normal stresses, 14, 19 physical, 113-115, 219-223
Nuclear reactor, 106-108 Proportional limit, 154
Nuclear-reactor components,
temperature distribution in, 106
thermal stresses in, 107-108
Radiant heating, 23, 53
Numerical integration, 37, 79-80, 97
Radiation, direct, 53
Nusselt number, 28
gamma, 106
heat transfer by, 21-23
from skin to stringer, 47
Optimum design, 140-145
solar, 36
Orthogonal functions, 77
Radiation constant, 22
Ramberg-Osgood equation, 117
Panel, 124-125 Rayleigh-Ritz method, 196, 199
Reactor, nuclear, 106-108
(See also Plates; Skin)
Particular integral, 18, 203, 206 Recovery factor, 29
Physical constants, 112-115, 219-223 Reduction of thermal stresses, by
Picard method, 37 buckling, 171
Plates, bowing of, 173 by cooling, 168
buckling of, 116-118, 199-200 by expansion joints, 169
circular, 100-102 by gaps, 3
with constant heat source on one by inelastic effects, 157-162, 169
surface, 73-77 by insulation, 168
curved, 181-182 by removal of restraints, 71-72, 76-77,
deflection of, 175-186 171
with linear transient temperature on by rivet deflection, 8

one surface, 66-73 Reference temperature, 30
rectangular, thermal stresses in, References, 20,40-42, 64, 91-93, 109-110,
197-199 145-152, 169-170, 192-193, 213-215,
restraint of, 9-10 223, 225
rotation of, 183-186 Relief of thermal stresses (see Reduction
stresses near edges of, 11, 85-88, of thermal stresses)
197-199 Residual stress, 156-157
thermal stresses in, inelastic, 158-162 Residues, 203
INDEX 231
Restraint coefficient, 2 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 24

Reynolds number, 28 Step-by-step solution, 36-39
critical, 32 Stiffness, 169, 186
Rib, 65 bending, 172
(See also Beams) torsional, 172
Rivets, distribution of thermal load on, 7 Strain design, 169
Rotation of plates, 183-186 Strain-displacement equations, 14, 17, 103
Rotation deflection, 183 Strain energy, 195
Strength analysis (see Allowable stresses)
Strength recovery, 154-156
Shear deflection, 187 Stress-analysis problems, 153
Shear deformation, 13 Stress-density ratio, 140-145
Shear flow, 85-88 Stress design, 169
Shear lag, 85-88 Stress field, 90-91
Shear-resistant web, 187 Stress function, 17, 19, 103
Shear stresses, 15 Stress-strain curves, 114
Sheet (see Plates; Skin) isochronous, 131-132, 156
Similarity, principle of, 28 nondimensional, 117
Simply connected regions, 201 use of, to relieve thermal stresses, 169
Single-valued functions, 204-206 Stress-strain equations, 12-17, 103,
Skin, assumed uniform temperature in, 117-118
44, 47 Stresses, allowable (see Allowable
combined applied and thermal stresses stresses)
in, 163-164 applied, 153
heat balance in, 36 combined with thermal, 128, 162-169
inelastic stresses in, 157, 163 buckling, 116-119
maximum thermal stress in, 44-45, 48 column, 116-119, 130
thick, 65 dynamic, 140
thin, 65 fatigue, 137-138
(See also Plates) inelastic (see Inelastic stresses)
Skin temperature, adiabatic, 36 normal, 14, 19
assumed, 43 residual, 156-157
average, on cone, 38 shear, 15
for constant heat source, 54-58 thermal, definition of, 1
effect of stringer on, 49 ultimate, 162
for missile structure, 58-62 yield, 113-117, 154
uniform, 35, 43 Stringer, calculated uniform temperature
assumed, 44, 47 in, 44-45
Soft spring, 186 combined applied and thermal stresses
Spar, 65 in, 162-165
(See also Beams) effect on skin temperature, 49
Spar cap, 65 heat balance in, 36
(See also Flange) inelastic stresses in, 163
Specific heat, 22, 28, 115, 222-223 Stringer temperature, 35, 45
Stability, 172 for assumed skin temperature, 43
Stagnation temperature, 29 for constant heat source, 54-58
Stainless steel, 141-143 effect on, of heat radiation, 47
Steady-state temperature distribution, of thermal resistance, 50
19, 106, 153, 206 for missile structures, 58-62
Steady-state thermal stresses, 107-108, uniform, 35, 43
159, 166 Structural index, 141-144
Structural problem, definition of, 112 Thermal shock, 138-140

Structural weight, 140, 168 Thermoelastic equations, 12, 94
Superposition, of applied and thermal Titanium, 73-74, 141-143, 223
loads, 153-154, 162 Torsion frequency, 188
of applied and thermal strains, 163, 169 Torsional deflection, 183
of thermal strains, 98-100 Torsional instability, 183
Supersonic flow, 30 Torsional stiffness, 172
Surface condition of heat exchange, 27 Turbine blades, temperature distribution
Surface conditions, 15-17, 218 in, 88-91
Turbine disk, thermal stresses in, 102-105
Temperature, equilibrium, 39, 44, 54 Turbulent flow, 27
field, 90-91 Two-dimensional problems, 94-108,
free-stream, 29 194-213
intermittent, 138
nonuniform, inelastic stresses for,
158-162 Ultimate applied stress, 162-164
reference, 30 Uniform skin temperature, 35, 43
skin (see Skin temperature) Unloading, elastic, 155
stagnation, 29 Unrestrained structure, 62-64, 71-77
stringer (see Stringer temperature) Unsymmetrical beams, 10, 91, 174
uniform, inelastic stresses for, 154-158
wall, adiabatic, 29
Temperature cycle, 137, 155-157, 164
V-2 rocket, 37-38
Temperature distribution, in circular
Variational methods, 195-197
plates, 101
application of, 197-201
in nuclear-reactor components, 106
Velocity, 26-35, 56, 168
one-dimensional, 9, 65-93
Vibration, 140, 185-186
steady-state, 19, 153
Viscoelastic material, 162
two-dimensional, 94-96
Viscosity, coefficient of, 27, 219-222
uniform, 3
Viscous forces, 26-27
in wedge-shaped wing, 97-99
Test temperatures, comparison with cal
culated temperatures, 52-54
Thermal conductance, 51, 83 Warping deflection, 183-186
of joints, 50-52, 82-84 Web, in beam or spar, 63, 65, 79-84
Thermal conductivity, 22, 115, 139, 219, shear, 187
223 Weight, structural, 140, 168
Thermal expansion, absorption of, 169 Wing, wedge-shaped, temperature dis
tribution in, 97-98
(See also Reduction in thermal
stresses)
coefficient of, 1-2, 115, 223
Thermal fatigue, 137-138
Thermal resistance of joints, 50-52, 84 Yield stress, 113-117, 154

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McGRAW-HILL PUBLICATIONS IN

Draper, McKay, and Lees: Instrument Engineering

Kuhn: Stresses in Aircraft and Shell Structures

Streeter: Fluid Dynamics

B: E.°G ATE WOOD, Ph.D.

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

Copyright © 1957 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in the

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 57-6390

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YOEK, PA.

calculation and the allowable compressive stress under creep conditions.

Chapter 1. Thermal-stress Equations 1

1-1. Definition of Thermal Stress 1-

Chapter 2. Temperature Equations 21

Chapter 3. Transient Temperatures and Stresses in Idealized Structures. 43

Chapter 4. Thermal Stresses for One-dimensional Temperature Distri

Chapter 5. Thermal-stress Problems in Two Dimensions 94

Chapter 6. Allowable Stresses at Elevated Temperatures Ill

Chapter 7. Stress Analysis at Elevated Temperatures 153

Chapter 8. Thermal Effects on Deflections and Stiffness 171

8-3. Deflection of Buckled Columns 175

Chapter 9. General Procedures for Solving the Thermal-stress Equations

9-5. Methods Using Complex Variables 201

9-6. The Hollow Circular Cylinder 205

9-7. Long Cylindrical Composite Bodies 208

Appendix A. Derivation of Formulas in Applied Mathematics 217

Appendix B. Properties of Air, Standard Atmosphere, and Materials . 219

Appendix C. Notes on the Thermal-stress Literature 225

Since a standard symbol for a certain property in heat-transfer theory

H Eqs. (3-1), (3-56), (7-11)

1-1. Definition of Thermal Stress. It is well known that changes in

where E is the modulus of elasticity. If the bar is completely restrained

/ = -aE(T - Ta) (1-3)

where the negative sign indicates a compressive stress resisting expansion

Eq. (1-3) can be written as

/ = -KaE(T - T0) (1-4)

/ = -(7)(10-«)(29)(10«)(-30 - 90) = 24,400 psi tension

For part 6, from Eqs. (1-1) and (1-2)

1-2. Thermal Stresses for Uniform Temperature. Consider two bars

the stresses to give

which similar to Eq. (1-4). K > compressive stress and

tension stress; for K < tension, and compression. If

Fig. 1-1. Bars with gap.

stress, set K = so that

which depends upon the length L.

////// fi = - aE(Ti -+ T2)

Example 1-2. A rigid block weighing 20,000 lb

1-6. Derive Eq. (1-6) from Eq. (1-5).

-Aluminum alloy skin

Fig. 1-3. Behavior of bolted joints under thermal loads.

P =M, = -f,A, = -AiKaiEi{Tt - To) (1-10)

where ec is allowable deflection of the rivets at allowable load PB and rn

oi(Ti - To) - -j^-

where N of rivets (Fig. 1-4). Eliminate ai(7\ — To) and

rnP = r„JP0 = qnPo qn = rnJ (1-15)

1-16. Derive Eq. (1-13) from Eq. (1-12).

1-4. Thermal Stresses for One -dimensional Temperature Distribu

Fig. 1-6. Thin plate with one-dimensional temperature distribution.

forces of intensity aET(y) distributed at the ends. These tensile stresses

At sufficient distance from the ends the normal bending-stress formula

restrained in bending only, drop the last term; restrained

in compression only, drop the middle term.

U = -<*ET(y) +-j J aET(y)b(y) dy + ±

where A = cross-section area of beam

where = cross-section area