Dispatchable Reactive Load in Active Distribution Networks

Nokhum Markushevich

The high penetration of Distributed Energy Resources (DER) with smart inverters [1] will
provide significant means for reactive power control in distribution and transmission domains.

The reactive power resources available from the DERs will be used by the distribution system
operator (DSO) to meet the objectives of distribution operations, e.g., for conservation voltage
reduction (CVR). At the same time, the transmission system operator (TSO) may desire to use
these resources for transmission operations objective, e.g., for optimal power flow or security
constrained dispatch, etc.

To assess the efficiency of utilizing the DER’s reactive power, both the DSO and the TSO
should know the availability of these resources and the operating conditions of utilizing them.

In this article, we address the net capabilities and dispatchable reactive power of the distribution
systems including the use of the reactive power of DERs and the related changes of the natural
real and reactive loads, losses, and contribution of other sources of reactive power, e.g.,
capacitors. The article also considers the effect of the reactive power sources in distribution on
the operations of the transmission system.

It is assumed here that the nominal capability of an inverter-based DER is limited by the rated
AC current. It means that the nominally available kvars of the DER are dependent on the DER’s
kW and on the voltage at the DER terminals (Figure 1). The nominal reactive power capabilities
of the DERs are not always available in the distribution operations due to other operational
constraints of the circuits.

We call the kvar capabilities of the DERs limited by the other voltage and/or current operational
limits “operational capabilities” [2]. The operational capabilities may be significantly different
from the nominal ones.

Hence, the operational DER capabilities aggregated at the transmission bus are different under
different bus voltages, different loading of the circuit, and different operations of the DERs and
other power devices.

Further illustrations are based on the sample distribution circuit presented in Figure 2. Bus 100 is
the slack bus of these circuits. The real load of bus 150 is about 40% of the power flow through
line 100-150. The distribution circuit fed from bus 150 includes stand-alone DERs connected to
the secondary of the distribution transformers with penetration of 20% and a microgrid, where
the penetration of the DERs is 70%. The rated power factor of the DERs is 0.9. The analyses of
the operating conditions presented below are based on conditions of a cloudy day with 10% of
the rated DER’s kW. The initial operational objective of the DSO is Conservation Voltage
Reduction (CVR) under different voltages at the main substation bus.
 1.5

DER's reactive power capability, pu

0.5

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

-0.5

-1

-1.5
DER's real power, pu

Voltage at the DER's terminals, pu 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.1 1.05 1 0.95 0.9

Figure 1. Nominal DER capability curves as f (V, P), DER PF=0.9, pu of rated kVA

100 Transmission Equivalent 101

G 150 G

SVC CAP

G 1201
1204 1203 1202
A B C
G

C2
G

G
1210 1208 1206 1207 G
12051
PCC i
G C1
C3 G Microgrid

G
1209 1211

Figure 2. Sample diagram.

We consider here a case when the TSO is interested in a maximum reactive power support from
the distribution system.

The voltages at different nodes along the distribution circuits under the CVR objective are
presented in Figure 3. As seen in the figure, the voltages at different nodes are different.
Therefore, the nominally available kvars from DERs located at different nodes are different even
if the DERs are identical. However, the nominal kvar capabilities of the DERs are not always
available. If the usage of the nominal capabilities results in either voltage, or current violations in
the subject circuits, the reactive power (and, sometimes, the real power) should be limited (see
Figure 4).

1.03

1.02

1.01

1.00
Secondary voltage, pu

0.99

0.98

0.97

0.96

0.95

0.94
0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.1 1.12
LTC boost,pu

Minimum Voltage Maximum Voltage

Figure 3. Minimum and maximum secondary voltages under CVR objective.

In this case, the operational capabilities are limited by the nominal capabilities in the low ranges
of the bus voltage and then they are limited by the upper voltage limits at the secondary
terminals within the distribution circuits.
Figure 4 also presents the injection of the reactive power of DERs under the CVR objective.
The total dispatchable reactive power of the DERs is the difference between the operational
capabilities of the DERs and the initial injection of the reactive power by the DERs.
However, the aggregated at the transmission bus dispatchable power is the difference between
the load at the bus when the full operational capability of the DERs is utilized and the initial
reactive load under the current DSO objective. The dispatchable load depends on the initial
loading of the DERs, on the DER operational capability curves, and on the changes in natural
reactive load and reactive power losses caused by the use of the DER’s operational capabilities.
 1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Q, pu

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.1 1.12
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
LTC boost, pu

NOM LIM OP LIM CVR DER's Q

Figure 4. Nominal and operational Q capabilities of DERs and DER’s Q for CVR.

Figure 5 presents the net reactive load at the substation bus, which are the sums of the DER
injections, natural reactive load, changes in other sources of reactive power, and losses for these
two cases. The difference between these two curves is the actual dispatchable power that can be
used by the TSO.
1.80

1.60

1.40

1.20

1.00
Net Q, pu

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
0.98 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12
LTC boost, pu

Q-net-Max-Op-limit Q-net-CVR

Figure 5. Net reactive load at the feeding substation bus under maximum DER operational limit and under
CVR mode
Figure 6 presents the two dispatchable powers. As seen in the figure, the net dispatchable power
is mostly smaller than the DER’s only dispatchable power. Note that under low bus voltage there
is, practically, no dispatchable power for the TSO to use. However, in these cases, there is no
need in more dispatchable power, because the DERs are already generating the maximum
reactive power (Figure 4), and the net reactive load at the substation bus is minimal (Figure 5).
This means that the TSO receives the maximum reactive power support, and the DSO meets the
CVR objective. It means that if the bus volt can be kept low enough to utilize the nominal DER
capabilities and satisfy the CVR objective, there is no conflict between the TSO and DSO goals.
0.900

0.800

0.700
Dispatchable reactive power, pu

0.600

0.500

0.400

0.300

0.200

0.100

0.000
0.98 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12
LTC boost, pu

Disp-net Disp-DER

Figure 6. DER and net dispatchable reactive power at the main substation bus with the DERs on maximum
operational limits

However, if, for some reason, e.g., due to another heavy loaded feeder fed from the same bus, the
bus voltage needs to be higher, the meeting the TSO interest would result is some losses of the
DSO benefits. The secondary voltages would increase until it meets the voltage limit at least in
one node (Figure 7), and the real power demand by distribution would also increase (Figure 8). It
should be noted that the limiting parameter could be met under different distributions of the
reactive power among the DERs. Hence, an optimization procedure should be used by the DMS
to maximize the dispatchable load.
 1.06

1.05

1.04

1.03

Secondary voltage, pu 1.02

1.01

1.00

0.99

0.98

0.97

0.96

0.95

0.94
0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.1 1.12
LTC boost,pu

Minimum Voltage Maximum Voltage CVR-Minimum Voltage CVR-Maximum Voltage

Figure 7. Nodal secondary voltages with the DERs on the maximum operational limits and under CVR
conditions

5.0%

4.5%

4.0%

3.5%

3.0%

2.5%
%

2.0%

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%
0.98 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12
LTC boost, pu

Figure 8. Increase in net real power demand at the main substation bus under maximum operational DER
limits versus CVR mode of DERs, % (“Cost” for distribution domain)

Meeting the TSO objective would provide some benefits to the transmission domain, such as
reduced loading of transmission lines, reduced losses, improved power factor, increased voltage,
increase in dynamic reactive power reserves, etc. Some of these benefits are illustrated in Figure
9.
2.000%

1.000%

0.000%
0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.1 1.12

-1.000%
%

-2.000%

-3.000%

-4.000%

-5.000%
LTC boost, %

Line loading Bus voltage Power factor kW losses

Figure 9. Benefits of the transmission domain due to the use of maximum operational limits of DER reactive
power.

The dispatchable loads, the “cost” and benefits are changing in near real time.
As follows from the above discussion, the reactive power capabilities and, consequently, the
dispatchable load, the ‘cost” and benefits are highly changeable with the changes of the overall
operating conditions of the relevant circuits. Therefore, a timely exchange of information
between the DSO and TSO is needed for the appropriate coordination of the distribution and
transmission operations. . This exchange can be accomplished through the dynamic
Transmission Bus Load Model [3].
In order to update the Transmission Bus Load Model, the Distribution Management System
(DMS) should timely collect and process a set of data from available IEDs, controllers of DERs
and microgrids [4], as well as from corresponding data management systems, model processors,
and DMS applications, as suggested in [3].

Conclusions.
1. High penetration of Distributed Energy Resources with smart inverters is a significant
resource of reactive power for distribution and transmission domains.
2. The capabilities of these resources are highly dependent on the operating conditions of
the distribution system.
3. The model of the end-node of the transmission EMS should include the near-real time
and the short-term look-ahead dependencies of the reactive power resources in
 distribution on the operating conditions to securely and optimally coordinate the
operations of these domains.
4. The DMS should include the means that can provide timely updates of the TBLM.
5. In order to determine the required dispatchable reactive power of the distribution system,
the DMS should be able to optimize the distribution of the DER reactive power among
the controllable DERs to reach the needed dispatchable load within the operational
limiting parameters.
6. The transmission EMS should be updated to utilize the information included in the
TBLM and to provide the TBLM with information needed by the distribution system for
the coordinated operations.
References.
1. Advanced Power System Management Functions for Inverter-based DER Devices, Draft
v.9b. Available: http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-
sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/PvInverter/Advanced_Functions_for_DER_Inverters_v9b.docx
2. Nokhum Markushevich, Operations of Smart Inverters in Active Distribution Networks.
Available: https://www.scribd.com/document/376627135/Operations-of-Smart-Inverters-
in-Active-Distribution-Networks
3. Development of Transmission Bus Load Model (TBLM). Use cases for DMS support of
information exchange between DMS and EMS. Available:
http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/TnD/TBLMUseCase_V14-03-13-
13-posted.pdf
4. Updates of capability curves of the microgrid’s DERs. Available:
http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/