PICTORIALISM IN ENGLISH POETRY AND LANDSCAPE

IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

. by

DOUGLAS J . MACLACHLAN
B.A., University of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1967

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n the Department

of

English

We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the

required standard

THE.UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

June, 1972
In presenting t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the r e q u i r e m e n t s for

an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I agree t h a t

the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y .

I further agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s thesis

f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d b y . t h e Head of my Department or

by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . It i s understood t h a t c o p y i n g or publication

of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my

written permission.

Department of English

The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
Vancouver 8,' Canada
 ABSTRACT

This thesis explores p i c t o r i a l i s m i n eighteenth-century poetry

and l a n d s c a p e . T h e - t r a d i t i o n of u t p i c t u r a p o e s i s i s p r e s e n t e d i n

terms of i t s o r i g i n s i n a n t i q u i t y , i t s background i n the thought of

the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i t s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n the p o e t r y of the p e r i o d ,

and i t s r e l a t i o n s to the p i c t u r e s q u e i n l a n d s c a p e .

A s k e t c h of the o r i g i n s and development of l i t e r a r y p i c t o r i a l i s m

i n Greece and.Rome, the m e d i e v a l . , R e n a i s s a n c e , and p o s t - R e n a i s s a n c e

periods,•outlines i t s leading features and f u r n i s h e s a h i s t o r i c a l - p e r -

spective against which eighteenth-century p r a c t i c e s can be v i e w e d .

S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o the bond between the s i s t e r a r t s of p a i n t -

i n g and p o e t r y and t o the new s t a n d a r d s of a r t i s t i c excellence

d e r i v i n g from I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e and baroque p a i n t i n g .

I n e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t r y , passages from Pope and Thomson

i l l u s t r a t e n e o - c l a s s i c a l p i c t o r i a l p r a c t i c e with respect to' the ancient

d o c t r i n e of e n a r g e i a ( v i v i d , l i f e l i k e i m i t a t i o n ) , the means of ideal-

i z i n g n a t u r e , and the i c o n i c t r a d i t i o n of i m i t a t i n g or d e s c r i b i n g

objects.of art. These p r a c t i c e s a r e shown t o s e r v e a e s t h e t i c , social,

or m o r a l p u r p o s e s .

Finally, the t h e s i s d i s c u s s e s Thomson's p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y as

the p r o d u c t of t r a d i t i o n a l u t p i c t u r a p o e s i s and n o t as t h e . c a u s e of

picturesque landscape v i s i o n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between l i t e r a r y

p i c t o r i a l i s m and the l a n d s c a p e p i c t u r e s q u e i s c l a r i f i e d by r e l a t i n g

Thomson's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l a n d s c a p e form t o Claude L o r r a i n e , S a l v a t o r

ii
Rosa, and Nicolas Poussin. And the landscape picturesque itself, dis-

cussed largely i n terms of i t s origins i n the English natural garden

and i t s formalization i n the aesthetic theories of William G i l p i n and

Uvedale Price, i s shown, l i k e poetic p i c t o r i a l i s m , to be a product of.

the neo-classical doctrine of models, another form of n e o - c l a s s i c a l

"imitation." As such i t rounds out the paper's study of p i c t o r i a l i s m

i n the eighteenth century.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

INTRODUCTION 1

I. A BRIEF HISTORY OF UT PICTURA POESIS . 7

II. THE SISTER ARTS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY . . . . . 33

III. POETIC PICTORIALISM IN POPE AND THOMSON 64

IV. THE "RETURN TO NATURE,:' THOMSON, AND

THE LANDSCAPE PICTURESQUE . 99

WORKS CONSULTED 145

 INTRODUCTION

P o p e ' s a d v i c e to the c r i t i c i n the Essay on C r i t i c i s m t o "be

s u r e your s e l f and your own Reach to know" ( 1 . 4 8 ) , t o " l a u n c h not be-

yond y o u r D e p t h , but be d i s c r e e t " ( 1 . 50),"'' might w e l l be c o n s i d e r e d

by anyone p r o p o s i n g t o e x p l o r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between one a r t and

another. E x p e r i e n c e has shown, w i t h r e s p e c t to the many complex

q u e s t i o n s of s o u r c e , correspondence, and i n f l u e n c e t h a t a r i s e whenever

l i t e r a t u r e and the v i s u a l a r t s are l o o k e d a t " i n r e l a t i o n t o one

another, that d i s c r e t i o n i s a useful asset. If c r i t i c a l terms are not

t o t r a v e l w i t h o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n from one w o r k , a r t i s t , or even from

one.art to another ( p a v i n g the way f o r a c o n f u s i o n of g e n r e s ) ; i f the

comparison of f a m i l y t r a i t s i n the a r t s of an epoch are not t o end i n

v a i n p u r s u i t of the " s p i r i t of the age" o r the Z e i t g e i s t ; and.if indi-

v i d u a l a r t i s t i c uniqueness i n w r i t e r or a r t i s t i s not to be d i s t o r t e d

o r n e g l e c t e d t h r o u g h s u b o r d i n a t i o n to some s u p e r i o r t h e o r y imposed

upon the a r t i s t i c t o t a l i t y of an e p o c h , then the i n v e s t i g a t o r of inter-

a r t p a r a l l e l s must d i s c r e e t l y a v o i d the t e m p t a t i o n of l a u n c h i n g h i m s e l f

f o r t h beyond h i s d e p t h , beyond h i s c a p a c i t y to o r d e r and c o n t r o l

tenuous and s u b t l e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a c c o r d i n g to the r u l e s of scholarship

2

and a c c o r d i n g to the evidence.

I n the s p i r i t of P o p e ' s a d v i c e t h i s paper w i l l l i m i t its

" R e a c h " t o a compact e x a m i n a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between p a i n t i n g .

and t h e . a r t s of p o e t r y and g a r d e n i n g i n the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , to a

s t u d y i n w h i c h the double a s s o c i a t i o n of p a i n t i n g — w i t h n e o - c l a s s i c a l
1
 2

v e r s e to produce p o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m and w i t h g a r d e n i n g to produce the

l a n d s c a p e p i c t u r e s q u e — y i e l d s n e i t h e r e v i d e n c e of a " t i m e - s p i r i t " l y i n g

behind f a m i l y t r a i t s i n the a r t s nor any s u p e r i o r t h e o r y e x p l a i n i n g

developments w i t h i n them. In t h i s paper, which w i l l consider the.two

i n t e r a r t a f f i n i t i e s from the s i d e of l i t e r a t u r e or from a l i t e r a r y

p o i n t of v i e w , d i s c u s s i o n w i l l c e n t r e i n s t e a d on the t h e o r y , practice,

and character of p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y and the p i c t u r e s q u e garden i n an .

attempt•to.show t h a t , i n t h e i r common a d o p t i o n of p a i n t i n g as m o d e l ,

they are m e r e l y p a r t i c u l a r forms o r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , of the f a m i l i a r n e o -

c l a s s i c a l phenomenon of " i m i t a t i o n . "

The two forms of p i c t o r i a l i s m must n e c e s s a r i l y be c o n s i d e r e d

separately, each i r i i t s t u r n , and more o r l e s s i n d e p e n d e n t l y of one

another. The f i r s t , the p i c t o r i a l i n p o e t r y , b e i n g the m o r e , i m p o r t a n t

of the two, t a k e s up t h r e e of the f o u r c h a p t e r s , much the g r e a t e r p a r t

of the p a p e r . The f i r s t c h a p t e r , w h i c h shows the development of its

l e a d i n g f e a t u r e s and forms,, d i s c u s s e s l i t e r a r y p i c t o r i a l i s m i n terms

of i t s h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n from a n c i e n t times to the n e o - c l a s s i c a l

period. T h i s s h o r t h i s t o r i c a l account l e a d s i n t o the e x p l a n a t i o n i n

the second c h a p t e r of how u t p i c t u r a p o e s i s , b u i l d i n g on i t s tradi-

t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n s , came to take i t s i n s p i r a t i o n from the a r t of the

g r e a t I t a l i a n Renaissance and baroque masters and to f l o u r i s h as never

before. The i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h i s f l o w e r i n g of p o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m i s

the b u s i n e s s of the t h i r d c h a p t e r w h i c h , u s i n g examples from the p o e t r y

of Pope and Thomson,.shows e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a p p l i c a t i o n s , of the

a n c i e n t d o c t r i n e of e r t a r g e i a , a d a p t a t i o n s of the t r a d i t i o n of iconic
 3
d e s c r i p t i o n , t e c h n i q u e s of i d e a l i z a t i o n , and methods of a c h i e v i n g t o t a l

p i c t o r i a l form i n p o e t r y .

I n t h e s e c h a p t e r s one or two t e c h n i c a l t e r m s , such as e n a r g e i a ,

a r e e i t h e r d e f i n e d o r t h e i r usage j u s t i f i e d as they a p p e a r . The word

" p i c t u r e s q u e , " more r e l e v a n t t o the l a s t c h a p t e r , i s t r e a t e d there.

Only one t e r m , " p i c t o r i a l , ' . ' r e q u i r e s c l a r i f i c a t i o n here because of its

importance and f r e q u e n t use i n the f i r s t t h r e e c h a p t e r s . With respect

3
t o t h i s term f o u r p o i n t s a t l e a s t s h o u l d be n o t e d .

1) A p i c t o r i a l image or d e s c r i p t i o n i s one t r a n s l a t a b l e i n t o

painting. .Whether t h i s p a i n t i n g be a p a r t i c u l a r p a i n t i n g o r a

s c h o o l of p a i n t i n g o r even an i m a g i n a r y . p a i n t i n g m a t t e r s little.

2) Though the p i c t o r i a l i s comprised of the v i s u a l , the v i s u a l is

not n e c e s s a r i l y the p i c t o r i a l . The v i s u a l becomes' the pictorial

when i t s f e a t u r e s and d e t a i l s are o r d e r e d and p r e s e n t e d p i c t u r -

a b l y , so as t o resemble a p a i n t i n g .

3) The p i c t o r i a l i n p o e t r y may r e l a t e t o any s c h o o l or method of

painting. I t may range anywhere between the n a t u r a l i s t i c and

the a b s t r a c t , the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l and the s y m b o l i c , depending

on the p o e t ' s knowledge and p r e f e r e n c e i n v i s u a l art.

4) P o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m must n e c e s s a r i l y o f f e r a b a s i c a l l y static

arrangement i n w h i c h m o t i o n , i f not e l i m i n a t e d a l t o g e t h e r , is

seen a g a i n s t the fundamental s t a s i s , the f i x i t y of.-the g e n e r a l

arrangement.

Thomson's p o e t r y , d i s c u s s e d i n the t h i r d c h a p t e r , r a i s e s ,the

 4

q u e s t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between p o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m and the land-

scape p i c t u r e s q u e . T h i s q u e s t i o n i s taken up i n the f o u r t h and f i n a l

c h a p t e r which attempts t o p l a c e the p i c t o r i a l i s m and p o e t r y .of Thomson

i n p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e by c o n s i d e r i n g i t i n r e l a t i o n t o the renewed

eighteenth-century interest i n w i l d and i r r e g u l a r n a t u r e and i n r e l a -

t i o n to the i n f l u e n c e of s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y landscape p a i n t i n g ,

e s p e c i a l l y t h a t of Claude L o r r a i n e , S a l v a t o r R o s a , and N i c o l a s P o u s s i n .

The f i n a l c h a p t e r a l s o c o n s i d e r s the p i c t u r e s q u e movement which

f l o u r i s h e d d u r i n g the second h a l f of the c e n t u r y . D i s c u s s i o n of this

l a n d s c a p e p i c t u r e s q u e complements and rounds Out t h e . g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of

eighteenth-century p i c t o r i a l i s m p r e s e n t e d i n the p a p e r . Necessarily

selective, this discussion limits i t s e l f to two i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of

the p i c t u r e s q u e : i t s o r i g i n s i n the development of the E n g l i s h n a t u r a l

g a r d e n , a development s t r o n g l y s t i m u l a t e d by the i n f l u e n c e of C l a u d e ,

S a l v a t o r , . a n d P o u s s i n , and i t s f o r m a l i z a t i o n i n the a e s t h e t i c theories

of the Reverend W i l l i a m G i l p i n and S i r Uvedale P r i c e . The p i c t u r e s q u e

t a s t e f o r garden and scenery d i s p l a y e d i n the n o v e l , p o e t r y , a r c h i -

tecture, p a i n t i n g , and o t h e r a r t s ( w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of Smollett's

n o v e l , Humphry C l i n k e r ) ; the s a t i r e d i r e c t e d a t the G i l p i n i a n vogue of

s e e k i n g out and r e c o r d i n g what was p r e s c r i b e d as p i c t u r e s q u e i n

scenery; and the p e r s i s t i n g i n f l u e n c e of the p i c t u r e s q u e . i n the n i n e -

t e e n t h c e n t u r y are not c o n s i d e r e d . N o n e t h e l e s s , the r e v e l a t i o n of its

o r i g i n s i n the n a t u r a l garden s u f f i c i e n t l y i l l u m i n a t e s the character

and v a l u e s of p i c t u r e s q u e t a s t e . And s i n c e i t s e s t a b l i s h m e n t as a

t h i r d a e s t h e t i c c a t e g o r y a d d i t i o n a l t o the s u b l i m e and the b e a u t i f u l

marks the climax of the picturesque movement, the contributions of

G i l p i n and Price conclude the chapter as appropriately as the p i c t u r -

esque movement i t s e l f rounds out the.paper's account of p i c t o r i a l i s m

as a whole and brings i t to an end.

 6

FOOTNOTES

The Poems of A l e x a n d e r Pope, e d . John B u t t (London: Methuen,

1965) , p . 145.
2
Rene W e l l e k and A u s t i n Warren (The Theory of L i t e r a t u r e , 3rd
e d . , New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , and W o r l d , 1956, p p . 1 1 9 - 1 2 2 ) , i n
s u r v e y i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s and t y p o l o g i e s of a r t , l i t e r a t u r e , s c i e n c e , ,
and p h i l o s o p h y , r e f e r to r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s of the " s p i r i t of the t i m e "
and attempts to e x p l a i n a l l f a c t s about a p e r i o d t h r o u g h the agency of
the " t i m e - s p i r i t " as " e x e r c i s e s i n i n g e n u i t y " ( p . 1 1 9 ) . ' "The p a r a l l e l -
ism of the a r t s , " they s t a t e , " c a n be accepted o n l y w i t h l a r g e r e s e r -
v a t i o n s " ( p . 120). (See a l s o p p . 125-135 f o r g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n of
the r e l a t i o n s h i p s of l i t e r a t u r e w i t h the f i n e a r t s . )

Jean Hagstrum (The S i s t e r A r t s : The T r a d i t i o n of L i t e r a r y

P i c t o r i a l i s m and E n g l i s h P o e t r y from Dryden t o Gray ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y
of Chicago P r e s s , 1968, p p . x i v - x v ) comments on examples of i n t e r a r t
s t u d i e s w h i c h , i n c o n f u s i n g genres and i n s e e k i n g the Z e i t g e i s t , " s e r v e
the purposes of c u l t u r a l m y s t i c i s m , n o t of sober i n v e s t i g a t i o n "
;

(p. x i v ) .

W a l t e r H i p p i e (The B e a u t i f u l , the S u b l i m e , and the P i c t u r e s q u e

i n E i g h t e e n t h - C e n t u r y B r i t i s h A e s t h e t i c T h e o r y , C a r b o r i d a l e : Southern
I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ; 1957, p p . 188-191) d i s c u s s e s the work of
C h r i s t o p h e r Hussey and W y l i e Sypher t o i l l u s t r a t e how a l i e n t h e o r i e s
may be imposed upon an e p o c h .
3
Jean Hagstrum, The S i s t e r A r t s , p p . x x i - x x i i .
 CHAPTER I

A BRIEF HISTORY OF UT PICTURA POESIS .

T h e . h i s t o r y of ut p i c t u r a p o e s i s i s too comprehensive and com-,

p l e x a s u b j e c t t o be t r e a t e d at l e n g t h i n t h i s study. Yet the history

of the analogy between p o e t r y and p a i n t i n g i s so germane to a f u l l

a p p r e c i a t i o n of n e o - c l a s s i c a l poetic p i c t o r i a l i s m that a short,sketch

o u t l i n i n g t h i s h i s t o r y i s a l o g i c a l preliminary."'' This preliminary

o u t l i n e w i l l t o u c h m o s t l y on the p i c t o r i a l i s t c r i t i c i s m and literature

of c l a s s i c a l a n t i q u i t y and on the c e n t r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n i n the conven-

t i o n s and a r t of c r e a t i n g v e r b a l i c o n s t h a t took p l a c e when the

n a t u r a l i s t i c i c o n of a n t i q u i t y and the R e n a i s s a n c e was t r a n s f o r m e d by

the i c o n of m e d i e v a l times and the baroque s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a

p r o c e s s w h i c h d i s s o c i a t e d the p i c t o r i a l from e x t e r n a l , visible nature

and t u r n e d i t inwards toward the s p i r i t u a l or upwards toward the super-

natural. The s k e t c h w i l l a l s o i n d i c a t e the k i n d s of p i c t o r i a l i s m i n

literature, suggesting i n p a r t i c u l a r the r i c h n e s s of the r e c o r d of

i c o n i c p o e t r y , p o e t r y w h i c h v i v i d l y demonstrates the u n i o n of v e r b a l

and v i s u a l a r t t h r o u g h d e s c r i p t i o n of r e a l o r i m a g i n a r y a r t objects.

P i c t o r i a l i s m i n Augustan v e r s e , viewed i n p e r s p e c t i v e against even

such a m i n i m a l r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of i t s o r i g i n s , comes i n t o s h a r p e r focus

and i s much more c l e a r l y seen as the unique e f f l o r e s c e n c e i n the .

h i s t o r y of u_t p i c t u r a p o e s i s t h a t i t was.

The g r e a t c r i t i c s of a n t i q u i t y , P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e , and H o r a c e ,

7
 8

a s s o c i a t e d p o e t r y w i t h p a i n t i n g , a l t h o u g h each c o n t r i b u t e d s e m i n a l s u g -

gestions, n o t i o n s , or p a r a l l e l s r a t h e r than t h e o r e t i c a l formulations

about the r e l a t i o n s of the s i s t e r arts.

Thus P l a t o , i n the t e n t h book of the R e p u b l i c , t h i n k i n g of the

v i s u a l a r t s as d e c e p t i v e and dangerous, a s s o c i a t e s the m i m e t i c a r t of

p a i n t i n g w i t h p o e t r y i n o r d e r to r e v e a l t h a t p o e t r y , l i k e p a i n t i n g , i s

t h r i c e removed from t r u e r e a l i t y , concerned w i t h appearances o n l y , and

of l i t t l e e d u c a t i o n a l v a l u e . But even though i t was f o r the purpose of

b a n i s h i n g the two" a r t s from h i s i d e a l commonwealth, P l a t o d i d compare

them; and i n d o i n g so he gave t o c r i t i c i s m the famous and e n d u r i n g

metaphor of the m i r r o r w h i c h was to e v i d e n c e i t s e l f so o f t e n when

p o e t r y and p a i n t i n g were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h one another.

A r i s t o t l e . , r e j e c t i n g P l a t o ' s w o r l d of i d e a l form ( t h a t i s , the

c o n c e p t i o n of mimesis w h i c h he made the b a s i s f o r h i s d e n i g r a t i o n of

p o e t r y and p a i n t i n g ) , i n d i c a t e s a r e a s i n w h i c h the two a r t s can legiti-

m a t e l y be compared. He t h e r e f o r e r e l a t e s f a r more c l o s e l y than P l a t o

t o subsequent developments i n the h i s t o r y of p i c t o r i a l i s m .

I n s e c t i o n one of the P o e t i c s A r i s t o t l e d i f f e r e n t i a t e s painting

from p o e t r y on the b a s i s of the d i f f e r e n t means employed by each i n

i m i t a t i o n , moving on t o show i n s e c t i o n two t h a t , w i t h r e s p e c t to their

o b j e c t s of i m i t a t i o n , p o e t r y and p a i n t i n g are a n a l o g o u s . When c l a s s i -

f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o the k i n d s of persons r e p r e s e n t e d , a p a i n t i n g by

P o l y g n o t u s , whose personages are " b e t t e r than we a r e , " - i s more l i k e an

e p i c poem than i s a comedy. S i m i l a r l y , a comedy i s c l o s e r to the

p a i n t i n g s of P a u s o n , whose personages are " w o r s e " than o u r s e l v e s , than

. . . 2
i t xs to an e p i c poem.
 9
More i m p o r t a n t i s the l a t e r passage i n the P o e t i c s i n w h i c h

A r i s t o t l e says that

as Tragedy i s an i m i t a t i o n of personages b e t t e r than the o r d i n a r y

man,.we i n our way s h o u l d f o l l o w the example of good p o r t r a i t -
p a i n t e r s , who reproduce the d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s of a man, and at
the same t i m e , w i t h o u t l o s i n g the l i k e n e s s , make him handsomer
than he i s . 3

C r i t i c i s m a d v o c a t i n g f i d e l i t y to n a t u r e b u t a l s o .recommending i t s

idealization reconciles i m i t a t i o n . w i t h improvement b e s t by a n a l o g y ,

most f r e q u e n t l y , the analogy w i t h p a i n t i n g , o f t e n p o r t r a i t p a i n t i n g .

A r i s t o t l e made t h i s a n a l o g i c a l s o l u t i o n a t t r a c t i v e to l a t e r critics.

The Roman c r i t i c , Horace,, who, l i k e A r i s t o t l e and P l a t o , offers

no s y s t e m a t i c r e a s o n i n g on the r e l a t i o n s between p a i n t i n g and p o e t r y ,

is of g r e a t importance as the o r i g i n a t o r of the phrase u_t p i c t u r a

poesis. I n the A r s p o e t i c a he w r i t e s that

p o e t r y i s l i k e p a i n t i n g : one p i e c e takes your f a n c y i f you s t a n d

c l o s e to i t , another i f you keep at. some d i s t a n c e . One c o u r t s a
dim l i g h t , a n o t h e r , c h a l l e n g i n g keen c r i t i c i s m , w i l l f a i n be seen
i n the g l a r e ; t h i s charms but o n c e , t h a t w i l l p l e a s e i f t e n times
repeated. * 7

In t h i s famous passage Horace i s merely s a y i n g t h a t some poems, l i k e

some p a i n t i n g s , p l e a s e o n l y o n c e , w h i l e o t h e r s , i n v i t i n g c r i t i c a l , study,

can be re-examined many t i m e s . The phrase uiL p i c t u r a p o e s i s , "poetry

is l i k e p a i n t i n g , " considered i n i t s context, does not w a r r a n t the

l a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : " A poem s h o u l d be l i k e a p a i n t i n g . "

Horace i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t f o r h i s opening statement i n the A r s

p o e t i c a g r a n t i n g i m a g i n a t i v e l i c e n s e to p a i n t e r s and poets but

 10

i n s i s t i n g a t the same time t h a t t h i s freedom not exceed n a t u r e and

common s e n s e :

Suppose a p a i n t e r w i s h e d t o c o u p l e a h o r s e ' s neck w i t h a man's

h e a d , and to l a y f e a t h e r s of every hue on l i m b s g a t h e r e d h e r e and
t h e r e , so t h a t a woman, l o v e l y above, f o u l l y ended i n an u g l y f i s h
b e l o w ; would you r e s t r a i n your l a u g h t e r , my f r i e n d s , i f a d m i t t e d
to a p r i v a t e view? . . . a book w i l l appear uncommonly l i k e t h a t
p i c t u r e , i f i m p o s s i b l e f i g u r e s are wrought i n t o i t . . .5

This r e j e c t i o n of the grotesque and u n n a t u r a l r e f l e c t s an a t t i t u d e to-

ward mimesis r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from P l a t o ' s o r A r i s t o t l e ' s . For

P l a t o the h i g h e s t form of i m i t a t i o n i s t h a t of i d e a l f o r m ; for

A r i s t o t l e i t i s the achievement i n m a t t e r o r media o t h e r than o r i g i n a l

n a t u r e of an i n d e p e n d e n t , u n i f i e d form o b e y i n g i t s own l a w s . But f o r

Horace i m i t a t i o n means the d u p l i c a t i o n of a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s , observ-

able behaviour, r e a l objects. And s i n c e t h i s a e s t h e t i c i d e a l of

f a i t h f u l representation i s more o b v i o u s l y e v i d e n t i n p a i n t i n g than i n

p o e t r y , the q u e s t i o n of the " i m i t a t i o n of n a t u r e " i n l a t e r criticism

often, evoked a s i m i l a r comparison w i t h p a i n t i n g .

The H o r a t i o n c o n c e p t i o n of i m i t a t i o n became w i d e s p r e a d i n l a t e

Greek and Roman a n t i q u i t y , g e n e r a t i n g the e n d u r i n g f a s h i o n of;ut

pictura poesis. P l u t a r c h , f o r example, v a l i d a t e s a r t i s t i c expression

i n terms of a c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n between a r t and r e a l i t y , s a y i n g of the

young p o e t :

We s h a l l steady the young man s t i l l more i f , a t h i s f i r s t e n t r a n c e

i n t o p o e t r y , we g i v e a g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n of the p o e t i c a r t as an
i m i t a t i v e a r t and f a c u l t y analogous to p a i n t i n g . And l e t him n o t
m e r e l y be a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the o f t - r e p e a t e d s a y i n g t h a t " p o e t r y i s
a r t i c u l a t e p a i n t i n g , and p a i n t i n g i s i n a r t i c u l a t e p o e t r y , " but l e t
 11

us t e a c h him i n a d d i t i o n t h a t when we see a l i z a r d or an ape or

the f a c e of T h e r s i t e s i n a p i c t u r e , we a r e p l e a s e d w i t h i t and
admire i t , not as a b e a u t i f u l t h i n g , b u t as a l i k e n e s s . 6

P l u t a r c h i s the t r a n s m i t t e r of the enormously i n f l u e n t i a l r e -

mark t h a t p a i n t i n g i s mute p o e t r y , p o e t r y a s p e a k i n g p i c t u r e , a remark

which he elsewhere a t t r i b u t e s to Simonides of Ceos ( c a . 556-467 B . C . ) .

He a l s o extended the analogy w i t h p a i n t i n g t o b i o g r a p h y , s a y i n g i n h i s

l i f e of A l e x a n d e r t h a t .

the n o b l e s t deeds do not always shew men's v e r t u e s and v i c e s , b u t

o f t e n t i m e s a l i g h t o c c a s i o n , a w o r d , o r some s p o r t makes men's
n a t u r a l d i s p o s i t i o n s and manners appear more p l a i n , than the
famous b a t t e l s won, w h e r e i n are s l a i n t e n thousand men, o r the
g r e a t a r m i e s , or c i t i e s won by s i e g e or a s s a u l t . F o r l i k e as
p a i n t e r s o r drawers of p i c t u r e s , w h i c h make no account of o t h e r
p a r t s of the b o d y , do t a k e the resemblances of the f a c e and f a v o u r
of the countenance, i n the w h i c h c o n s i s t e t h the judgement of t h e i r
manners and d i s p o s i t i o n : even so they must g i v e us l e a v e to seek
out the s i g n s and tokens of the mind o n l y . 8

When the a r t i s t i c i m i t a t i o n of o b j e c t i v e and p s y c h o l o g i c a l

d a t a was g e n e r a l l y equated w i t h n a t u r a l i s t i c r e n d i t i o n , the term

enargeia entered l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . Originating i n rhetoric, it

i n i t i a l l y s i g n i f i e d the v i v i d l y e v o c a t i v e c a p a c i t y of o r a t o r i c a l

i m a g e r y , as opposed t o the. c a p t i v a t i n g q u a l i t y of the p o e t i c a l image.

"An image has one purpose w i t h the p o e t s , " says L o n g i n u s , "and . . .

the d e s i g n of the p o e t i c a l image i s e n t h f a l m e n t , of the r h e t o r i c a l —

9

vivid description." But L o n g i n u s a l s o shows the b l u r r i n g t h a t took

p l a c e i n t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between the r h e t o r i c a l and the p o e t i c a l i m -

age when he p r a i s e s the v i v i d n e s s o r e n a r g e i a of a scene i n S i m o n i d e s :

M a g n i f i c e n t , t o o , i s the passage where the Greeks a r e on the p o i n t

of s a i l i n g away and A c h i l l e s appears above, h i s tomb t o those who
 12

are putting out to s e a — a scene which I doubt whether anyone has

depicted more v i v i d l y than Simonides.10

Two. further developments i n ancient c r i t i c i s m were important .

i n a s s i s t i n g the growth of ut p i c t u r a poesis. The f i r s t of these, the

superior ranking given the sense of sight i n the hierarchy of the

senses, obviously reinforces the importance of p o e t i c a l enargeia, the

conception of v i v i d , l i k e l i k e evocation. A r i s t o t l e held imagination

"impossible without sensation," as occurring only " i n beings that are

percipient." He wrote- that "the name.phantasia (imagination) has been

formed from phaos (light) because i t i s not possible to see without

l i g h t , " because percipience, sight, " i s the most highly developed

sense.""'""'" For Plato, Horace, and Cicero, sight i s also the superior

sense, and the widespread notion following from t h i s , that metaphors

are best directed to the eye, i s given clear formulation by Cicero:

Every metaphor, provided i t be a good one, has a d i r e c t appeal to

the senses, especially the sense of sight which i s the keenest:
for while the rest of the senses supply such metaphors as 'the
fragrance of good manners,' 'the softness of a humane s p i r i t , '
'the roar of the waves,' 'a sweet style of speaking,' the meta-
phors drawn from the sense of sight are much more v i v i d , v i r -
t u a l l y placing within the range of our mental v i s i o n objects not
actually v i s i b l e to our sight.X^-

The second,development was the spread of a conception of i d e a l

beauty opposed to that of Platonism and Neoplatonism, both of which

philosophies discouraged the imitation of nature i n favour of the

supernatural world, which lay behind v i s i b l e form and i n which alone

i d e a l beauty could be found.- The a l t e r n a t i v e notion of i d e a l beauty,

shared by Cicero, Seneca,.and many others, was much more congenial to

 13

the a s s o c i a t i o n of p a i n t i n g and p o e t r y s i n c e i t d e r i v e d i t s i d e a l of

the b e a u t i f u l , not by t r a n s c e n d i n g n a t u r e , but by g e n e r a l i z i n g and

s y n t h e s i z i n g the i n g r e d i e n t s found i n n a t u r e . Such i d e a l beauty,

a r i s i n g from o b s e r v a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e , was e x p r e s s e d as n a t u r e c o r -

r e c t e d or improved.

The most i m p o r t a n t example i n c l a s s i c a l a n t i q u i t y of how such

i d e a l beauty c o u l d be a c h i e v e d was the famous anecdote, repeated every-

13

where, of how the famous p a i n t e r , Z e u x i s , p a i n t e d Helen of Troy.

A t t e m p t i n g p e r f e c t b e a u t y , Z e u x i s chose f i v e of the most b e a u t i f u l

v i r g i n s i n the c i t y , s e l e c t i n g from each t h e p a r t i a l p e r f e c t i o n s which

he f i t t e d t o g e t h e r i n t o a p e r f e c t whole f o r h i s p i c t u r e . Thus, though

i m i t a t i n g n a t u r e , he a l s o methodized i t , making i t n o b l e r than r e a l i t y

through a p r o c e s s of s e l e c t i o n and c o m b i n a t i o n . The i d e a l beauty

sought by Z e u x i s i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the A r i s t o t e l i a n idealization

of n a t u r e which saw p a i n t i n g as the example of how n a t u r e c o u l d be

heightened without being destroyed. L a t e r , i n the n e o - c l a s s i c a l p e r i o d ,

i t would be f a m i l i a r as la. b e l l e n a t u r e .

I f the f o r e g o i n g c r i t i c i s m c o n s t i t u t e s "the i n t e l l e c t u a l f o u n -
14

d a t i o n of the n e o c l a s s i c a l " w i t h r e s p e c t t o u t p i c t u r a poesis,- the

l i t e r a t u r e of a n c i e n t Greece and Rome c o n s t i t u t e s one of t h e . r i c h e s t

and most v a r i e d e x p r e s s i o n s w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n t h a t was to be.inher-

i t e d by n e o - c l a s s i c i s m .

The work of the g r e a t a n c i e n t p a i n t e r s , such as P o l y g n o t u s ,

Z e u x i s , P a r r h a s i u s , and A p e l l e s , has been l o s t and cannot be d i s c u s s e d

as source f o r the p i c t o r i a l i n c l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . However, the .

 14

a s s o c i a t i o n of v e r b a l and g r a p h i c a r t , which antedates a l l written

c r i t i c i s m , i s w e l l shown by i c o n i c poetry.

The first g r e a t example of t h i s k i n d of p o e t r y , i n which the

poet responds to r e a l or imaginary works of a r t , i s Homer's l e n g t h y

d e s c r i p t i o n i n the I l i a d of the s h i e l d c o n s t r u c t e d f o r A c h i l l e s by

Hephaestus. "^ T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n , an e x p r e s s i o n of Homer's p r e d i l e c t i o n

f o r the u s e f u l , ornamented o b j e c t ; o r , viewed i n terms of the poem's

e p i c a c t i o n , a c e l e b r a t i o n of a symbol of m i l i t a r y g l o r y ; and whose

d e t a i l s , such as the c i t y at war and the c i t y at peace, r e l a t e to the

meaning of the poem as a whole, i s at bottom and most i m p o r t a n t l y a

d e s c r i p t i o n of a work of a r t . The m i r a c l e of the s h i e l d l i e s i n i t s

m e t a l l e d s i m u l a t i o n of sound, rhythm, dance, c o l o u r , and moral q u a l i t i e s .

It i s l i f e i t s e l f , and the wonder of the s h i e l d l i e s i n t h i s imitation

of nature.

The l a r g e s t c o l l e c t i o n of i c o n i c poems i n a n c i e n t times, The

Greek Anthology, i s made up of seven d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of epigram, of

16

which the a r t epigrams are prominent. The a r t epigram r e t a i n e d the

marks of i t s o r i g i n as v e r s e i n s c r i p t i o n on s t a t u e , tomb, or column,

and was one of the o l d e s t d e v i c e s whereby the s t a t u e , u r n , or monument

c o u l d be made to speak to the b e h o l d e r . I t was to p e r s i s t f o r c e n t u r i e s ,

evidencing i t s e l f , f o r example, on the f l a g s t o n e on Shakespeare's grave

i n the Church of the Holy T r i n i t y , S t r a t f o r d , on the s t a t u a r y and

benches of e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y landscape gardens, and i n the epigram

spoken by Keats' s i l e n t Grecian u r n . ^ Again and a g a i n the epigrams of

the Anthology, i n the manner of the f o l l o w i n g examples d e d i c a t e d to

 15

M y r o n ' s h e i f e r , p r a i s e the d e c e p t i o n s of i l l u s i o n i s t i c a r t :

717. E i t h e r a complete h i d e of b r o n z e c l o t h e s here a r e a l cow, or

the bronze has a s o u l i n s i d e i t .

734. I n v a i n , b u l l , thou r u s h e s t up t o t h i s h e i f e r , f o r i t i s life-

less. The s c u l p t o r of cows, M y r o n , d e c e i v e d thee..18

H e l l e n i s t i c or A l e x a n d r i a n p i c t o r i a l i s m had b e h i n d i t not o n l y

the i c o n i c p o e t r y of Homer and the e a r l i e r a r t epigram but a l s o iconic

passages i n Greek drama, such as an a d m i r i n g c h o r i c d e s c r i p t i o n of

temple b u i l d i n g s and s t a t u e s i n E u r i p e d e s Ion (11. 1 8 4 - 2 1 8 ) , and the

p i c t o r i a l l y d e s i g n e d l y r i c s of A n a c r e o n , who e s t a b l i s h e d the c o n v e n t i o n

of the p o e t ' s summoning and i n s t r u c t i n g a c r a f t s m a n o r p a i n t e r to

c r e a t e an a r t o b j e c t a c c o r d i n g to s p e c i f i c a t i o n s l a i d down i n the p o e m . 1

T h i s c o n v e n t i o n p r o v i d e d a means of o r d e r i n g v i s u a l d e t a i l i n p o e t r y

and a t the same time a c h i e v e d the n e c e s s a r y q u a l i t y of enargeia.

S i m i l a r c o n v e n t i o n s and the t r a d i t i o n of m y t h o l o g i c a l r e p r e s e n -

t a t i o n appear i n the g r e a t L a t i n p o e t s . Virgil, though i n t e r e s t e d in

the e f f e c t s of a r t o b j e c t s r a t h e r than the o b j e c t s t h e m s e l v e s , describes

i n the A e n e i d the p a i n t i n g s of the Temple of Juno and the s h i e l d of

Aeneas. P e t r o n i u s A r b i t e r i n the S a t y r i c o n v i s i t s an a r t g a l l e r y and

describes i l l u s i o n i s t i c p a i n t i n g s by Z e u x i s , . P r o t o g e n e s , and A p e l l e s

after the manner of the Greek a n t h o l o g i s t s . Ovid describes i n the

Metamorphoses the s o a r i n g Temple of S o l , i t s huge b r o n z e and g o l d

pillars, i t s doors and f i g u r e d p a n e l s , and the s t a t u e s q u e personifica-

t i o n s of the Seasons w i t h i n . I n the same work he a l s o g i v e s us the

l e n g t h y d e s c r i p t i o n s of the t a p e s t r i e s woven d u r i n g the c o n t e s t between

Arachne and M i n e r v a . ^
 16

The i c o n i c t r a d i t i o n was not c o n f i n e d to p o e t r y . Since

e n a r g e i a was o r i g i n a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r h e t o r i c , i t not unexpectedly

appears p r o m i n e n t l y i n such forms of p r o s e e x p r e s s i o n as Plutarch's

L i v e s ; V a r r o ' s De i m a g i n i b u s , a " s o r t of i l l u s t r a t e d b i o g r a p h i c a l
21

dictionary"; and the l o n g p r o s e d e s c r i p t i o n s of r e a l and i m a g i n a r y

p a i n t i n g s i n the Imagines of the w r i t e r s P h i l o s t r a t u s the E l d e r , Philo-

stratus the Younger, and C a l l i s t r a t u s . Philostratus the.Elder, besides

p r o v i d i n g fulsome d e s c r i p t i o n s of the sensuous i n p a i n t i n g , also

s t r e s s e s the importance of the e x p r e s s i o n i n a r t of human c h a r a c t e r , and
22

emotion..

Finally, two o t h e r p r o s e forms must be mentioned s i n c e they

d i s p l a y v e r y c l e a r l y the c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p i c t o r i a l i s m and

total structure. These are the Greek romance and m o r a l a l l e g o r y .

I n L o n g u s ' romance, Daphnis and C h l o e , a p i c t u r e i n s p i r e s the

n a r r a t o r to compose a l i t e r a r y pendant u s i n g the h e l p of an interpreter

who p o i n t s out t o him the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the scenes making up the

picture. The u n A r i s t o t e l i a n n a r r a t i v e form r e s u l t i n g from t h i s

d e v e l o p s as a s e r i e s of t a b l e a u x , the r e a d i n g of w h i c h resembles a tour

through a g a l l e r y of p a i n t i n g s and s t a t u e s , a movement from scene to

scene. S i m i l a r l y , i n the o n c e - p o p u l a r m o r a l a l l e g o r y , the P a i n t i n g , .

by Kebes of Thebes, the n a r r a t o r , standing b a f f l e d before, a l a r g e ,

a l l e g o r i c a l p a i n t i n g , i s g i v e n an e x p l a n a t i o n of i t s meaning by a

s t r a n g e r whose a c c o u n t , presented w i t h constant r e f e r e n c e to the p i c -

t u r e , ranges over the whole m o r a l l i f e of man. The t o t a l s t r u c t u r e of

the P a i n t i n g i s more,dependent upon i t s p i c t o r i a l r e f e r e n c e than that

 17

o f D a p h n i s and C h l o e o r t h a t o f o t h e r m o r a l a l l e g o r i e s i n prose. ;

A l l e g o r y , romance, and p r o s e d e s c r i p t i o n , t o g e t h e r with bio-

g r a p h y , e p i c , drama, e p i g r a m , and l y r i c , demonstrate t h e range and

types of p i c t o r i a l expression i n ancient literature, the richness of

t h e e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h p a v e d t h e way f o r u_t p i c t u r a p o e s i s i n future

literature.

In the medieval c e n t u r i e s that succeeded the p e r i o d of c l a s s i c a l

a n t i q u i t y C h r i s t i a n anti-paganism d i d not destroy the heritage of the

c l a s s i c a l past, though i t m o d i f i e d i t very severely, including i t s

literary pictorialism. Classical pictorialism, i n fact, persisted

during the medieval p e r i o d a fact e a s i l y perceivable i n the Carolingian

and Ottonian renaissances and i n t h e m e d i e v a l custom o f a l l e g o r i z i n g

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f w a l l p i c t u r e s , t e m p l e s , p a l a c e s , and t h e i r ornamenta-

tion. The n a r r a t i v e m e t h o d i n s u c h a l l e g o r y , " o r i g i n a l l y forced into

e x i s t e n c e by a p r o f o u n d m o r a l . r e v o l u t i o n o c c u r r i n g i n t h e l a t t e r days

o f p a g a n i s m , " when " f o r r e a s o n s o f w h i c h we know n o t h i n g a t a l l , " "men's

23

g a z e was t u r n e d inward," i s similar t o t h e u n A r i s t o t e l i a n method o f

the Greek romance and p r o s e a l l e g o r y . The p a i n t e d w a l l s o f G u i l l a u m e de

Lorris' g a r d e n i n t h e Romance o f t h e R o s e , C h a u c e r ' s T e m p l e s o f V e n u s ,

M a r s , and D i a n a i n t h e " K n i g h t ' s T a l e , " and h i s House o f Fame.stem,

u l t i m a t e l y , from t h e palaces of V i r g i l , Ovid, and o t h e r w r i t e r s o f

antiquity. .

The e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c pictorialism

of c l a s s i c a l a n t i q u i t y ( i n c l u d i n g i t s m e d i e v a l c o n t i n u a t i o n ) and

C h r i s t i a n p i c t o r i a l i s m i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t d u r i n g the Middle
 18

Ages the analogy between p a i n t i n g and p o e t r y became i r r e l e v a n t . Works

of a r t were no l o n g e r e v a l u a t e d i n terms of t h e i r t r u t h to n a t u r e be-

cause a fundamental change had t a k e n p l a c e i n the c o n c e p t i o n of nature

itself. N a t u r e was no l o n g e r s i m p l y the o b j e c t i v e , p h y s i c a l w o r l d but

a huge s y m b o l i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n u t t e r l y beyond the comprehension of the

eye a l o n e . I t was no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e to v i e w i t as a s a t i s f a c t o r y sub-

j e c t f o r p a i n t i n g , n a t u r a l i s t i c or a l l e g o r i c a l , b e c a u s e , as i n P l a t o ' s

p h i l o s o p h y , i t s t r u e meaning c o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e d by the mind a l o n e .

The d i f f e r e n c e between the e q u i v a l e n c e of the m a t e r i a l and the

i m m a t e r i a l i n a Kebes or a Chaucer and t h e i r e q u i v a l e n c e i n a Dante or

a B e r n i n i has been expressed by C . S. Lewis as t h e . d i f f e r e n c e between

a l l e g o r y and "sacramentalism":

On the one hand you can s t a r t w i t h an i m m a t e r i a l f a c t , such as the

p a s s i o n s w h i c h you a c t u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e , and can .then i n v e n t
v i s i b i l i a t o express them. . . . T h i s i s a l l e g o r y . . . . But t h e r e
i s another way of u s i n g the e q u i v a l e n c e , . w h i c h i s almost the oppo-
s i t e of a l l e g o r y , and w h i c h I would c a l l s a c r a m e n t a l i s m o r • s y m b o l i s m .
I f our p a s s i o n s , b e i n g i m m a t e r i a l , can be c o p i e d by m a t e r i a l i n v e n -
t i o n s , then i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t our m a t e r i a l w o r l d i n i t s t u r n i s
the copy of an i n v i s i b l e w o r l d . As the god Amor and h i s f i g u r a t i v e
garden are t o the a c t u a l p a s s i o n s of men, so perhaps we o u r s e l v e s
and our ' r e a l ' w o r l d are t o . s o m e t h i n g e l s e . The attempt t o r e a d
t h a t something e l s e through i t s s e n s i b l e i m i t a t i o n s , to see the
a r c h t y p e i n the c o p y , i s what I mean by symbolism o r s a c r a m e n t a l i s m . 2

V e r i s i m i l i t u d e , t h e n , was u n d e r s t o o d i n the m e d i e v a l p e r i o d v e r y

d i f f e r e n t l y from the way i t had been u n d e r s t o o d i n a n t i q u i t y and from

the way i t would be u n d e r s t o o d a g a i n i n the R e n a i s s a n c e . S i m i l i t u d e was

s t i l l i m p o r t a n t , b u t now i t o c c u p i e d i t s e l f not o n l y w i t h new s u b j e c t s —

p a t r i a r c h , p r o p h e t , d i s c i p l e , s a i n t , m a r t y r , s i n n e r , and S a v i o u r — b u t •

a l s o , and even more i m p o r t a n t , w i t h the new ends to be s e r v e d by v i s u a l

 19

art; Sacramental p i c t o r i a l i s m s o u g h t t o embody and express supersen-

sory r e a l i t y r a t h e r than sensory, t o e v o k e a s e n s e o f awe, reverence,

and mystery r a t h e r than to achieve enargeia. The m i r a c l e i s no longer

t h a t of the , d i f f i c u l t e vaincue of Hephaestus' s h i e l d , where the like-

ness of l i v i n g reality i s wrought i n i n o r g a n i c stone.and metal; i t is

now t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f i n v i s i b l e and s u p e r n a t u r a l r e a l i t y .in the m a t e r i a l ,

as e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e v i s u a l a r t o f m e d i e v a l Western Europe and

Byzantium.. One c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t i s t h e new freedom of

i m a g i n a t i o n f o r the a r t i s t which r e p l a c e s the H o r a t i a n p r i n c i p l e of

subordination to r e a l i t y : heavenly v i s i o n i s now more i m p o r t a n t than

earthly observation.

As the I t a l i a n and, later, the E n g l i s h Renaissance r e v i v e d the

ancient t e x t s , they also revived the.ancient t r a d i t i o n of ut pictura

poesis. Plato, Aristotle, and Horace were everywhere quoted approvingly,

e m e r g i n g i n R e n a i s s a n c e t h i n k i n g as the.founders of a d e f i n i t e theory

o f p i c t o r i a l i s m r a t h e r t h a n w r i t e r s who had merely.furnished suggestive

h i n t s and parallels. The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a n c i e n t p i c t o r i a l i s t ideas

expressed i n t h i s Renaissance a t t i t u d e i s epitomized i n the changed

meaning of the H o r a t i a n phrase ut p i c t u r a p o e s i s from "poetry is like

p a i n t i n g " o r "as t h e p a i n t i n g , so t h e poem" t o "a poem o u g h t t o resemble

25
a painting." A casual observation i s transformed i n t o a "form of
26

esthetic legislation" about the s i s t e r a r t s , and ut p i c t u r a poesis,

a s s o c i a t e d i n a n c i e n t times w i t h the n o t i o n of v i v i d , lifelike simula-

t i o n o f n a t u r e , w i t h e n a r g e i a , o n c e a g a i n , t h o u g h i n a new intensified

f o r m , comes t o s e r v e the purposes of a r t i s t i c naturalism.

 20

This i s r e f l e c t e d i n the c r i t i c i s m of the English Renaissance.

Ben Jonson, f o r example, w r i t e s that

P o e t r y and p i c t u r e s a r e a r t s o f a l i k e n a t u r e , and b o t h a r e b u s y
a b o u t i m i t a t i o n . I t was e x c e l l e n t l y s a i d o f P l u t a r c h , p o e t r y was
a s p e a k i n g p i c t u r e , a n d p i c t u r e a mute p o e s y . . F o r t h e y b o t h i n -
v e n t , f e i g n , a n d d e v i s e many t h i n g s , a n d a c c o m m o d a t e a l l t h e y
i n v e n t t o t h e use and s e r v i c e o f n a t u r e . ^ 7

He s a y s f u r t h e r t h a t "whosoever l o v e s n o t p i c t u r e i s i n j u r i o u s t o t r u t h

and a l l the wisdom o f p o e t r y . " F o r " p i c t u r e i s the i n v e n t i o n of heaven,

28

the most a n c i e n t and most a k i n , t o nature."

S i d n e y i m p l i e s t h e p r i n c i p l e when h e d e f i n e s poetry a s "an a r t

of i m i t a t i o n , " "that i s to say, a representing, c o u n t e r f e i t i n g , or

figuring f o r t h — : t o speak m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , a s p e a k i n g p i c t u r e . " . The same

pictorialist l a n g u a g e a p p e a r s when h e s a y s t h e " p e e r l e s s poet" gives a

" p e r f e c t p i c t u r e " o f w h a t . t h e h i s t o r i a n and p h i l o s o p h e r recommend, that

philosophy lies dark unless " i l l u m i n a t e d o r f i g u r e d f o r t h by the

29

speaking p i c t u r e of Poesy."

Jonson's high p r a i s e of " p i c t u r e " r e f l e c t s the f a c t that ut

pictura poesis had recharged i t s e l f w i t h the ancient q u a l i t y of

enargeia. However, s i n c e the v i s u a l arts i n the English Renaissance

were n o t comparable t o t h e I t a l i a n , English Renaissance p i c t o r i a l i s m r e -

mains, l i k e Chaucerian p i c t o r i a l i s m , mainly a l i t e r a r y phenomenon. I t

expresses i t s e l f i n terms of t h e i d e a l s of c r i t i c s l i k e Jonson or i n

terms o f t h e i c o n i c t r a d i t i o n and p r e v i o u s poetic pictorialism. None-

t h e l e s s , a f e w e x a m p l e s w i l l show t h a t , t h o u g h n o t i n s p i r e d d i r e c t l y b y

contemporary v i s u a l a r t , E n g l i s h Renaissance p i c t o r i a l i s m continued to

flow strongly.
 21

S h a k e s p e a r e ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e l a r g e h i s t o r i c a l t a p e s t r y o r

p a i n t i n g i n The Rape of L u c r e p e ( 1 1 . .1366-1582) - on t h e . ; F a l l of Troy goes

back t o t h e s h i e l d of A c h i l l e s i n the I l i a d and r e c a l l s t h e Temple of

Venus i n t h e A e n e i d , t h e t a p e s t r i e s of Arachne and M i n e r v a i n the

Metamorphoses, and t h e w a l l p a i n t i n g s of t h e " K n i g h t ' s T a l e " i n t h e

Canterbury T a l e s . However, Shakespeare d r a m a t i c a l l y and o r i g i n a l l y

e x p l o i t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between i l l u s i o n and l i f e , between t h e s i l e n t

l i f e l i k e n e s s of p a i n t i n g and t h e a r t i c u l a t e b e h o l d e r , b y making t h e

r a v i s h e d Lucrece t u r n to the p a i n t i n g i n her d i s t r e s s and s e a r c h out

among i t s l a m e n t a b l e o b j e c t s , w h i c h , " i n s c o r n of n a t u r e , a r t gave l i f e -

l e s s l i f e , " t h e f i g u r e of " d e s p a i r i n g Hecuba" as a m i r r o r of h e r own

30

sorrows. The d r a m a t i c r e l a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d between L u c r e c e and t h e

p a i n t i n g goes beyond t h e mere d e s c r i p t i o n of a n c i e n t i c o n i c poetry or

the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o r a l i z i n g of m e d i e v a l i c o n i c p o e t r y .

T e c h n i c a l advances i n p a i n t i n g , such as t h e d i s c o v e r y of perspec-

t i v e , g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e power of p a i n t i n g t o c r e a t e i l l u s i o n i s t i c

e f f e c t s , t h e r e b y . s t i m u l a t i n g t h e o l d f e a r t h a t a r t , now more n a t u r a l

than n a t u r e w i t h o u t b e i n g n a t u r e , was a dangerous d e c e p t i o n . How t h i s

i c o n o c l a s t i c tendency a f f e c t e d p i c t o r i a l e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e Renaissance

c a n . b e seen i n t h e e l a b o r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n of the.Bower of B l i s s i n the

F a e r i e Queene, a d e s c r i p t i o n a l s o i n t h e t r a d i t i o n of A c h i l l e s ' s h i e l d .

Spenser's a r t f u l , natural-seeming, lifelike"Bower.is certainly presented

as dangerous and e v i l . But i t i s not so p r e s e n t e d because i l l u s i o n i s t i c

a r t i s dangerous i n i t s e l f . The Bower i s e v i l because i t accords a r t

primacy over n a t u r e , because t h e work of a r t t h a t i s the Bower has been

 22

a l l o w e d t o usurp the p l a c e of n a t u r e f o r e v i l p u r p o s e s .

In Bassanio's speech on P o r t i a ' s m i n i a t u r e i n The Merchant of

V e n i c e , Shakespeare a l s o p r e s e n t s an a e s t h e t i c statement on the r e l a t i o n

of a r t t o . n a t u r e . D i s c o v e r i n g the m i n i a t u r e i n s i d e the c a s k e t , Bassanip

r e f e r s t o i t , a s P o r t i a s " c o u n t e r f e i t , " an i m i t a t i o n t h a t comes

1
"near

creation." I t t r i c k s the s e n s e s : "Move t h e s e eyes?. / Or w h e t h e r , riding

on the b a l l s of m i n e , / Seem'they i n m o t i o n ? " And y e t the m i n i a t u r e i s

31

m e r e l y a "shadow " t h a t " d o t h l i m p b e h i n d the

1
substance."

B a s s a n i o ' s speech s e t s f o r t h the t h e o r y d r a m a t i z e d i n the a c t i o n

of The W i n t e r ' s T a l e , where the i c o n i c t r a d i t i o n i s used not t o exalt

art, as i n Homer, but t o c e l e b r a t e n a t u r e a t the expense of a r t , as i n

Spenser. P r a i s e of the imagined s t a t u e i n the l a s t a c t f o l l o w s the

t r a d i t i o n g o i n g back t o Homer t h a t v a l u e s v e r i s i m i l i t u d e i n a r t .
:
-But

Hermione i s n o t , i n f a c t , what she a p p e a r s ' t o b e . When she s t e p s down

from h e r n i c h e as a l i v i n g woman the s i t u a t i o n customary i n the art

epigram i s r e v e r s e d and a r t i s shown not as d e f e a t i n g n a t u r e but as

i t s e l f d e f e a t e d by l i f e . Here n a t u r e and a c t u a l i t y are g i v e n primacy

over art.

A f i n a l example of i n t e r a r t c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n the E n g l i s h

Renaissance i s the masque s p e c t a c u l a r . C l o s e l y r e l a t e d by i t s v e r y

n a t u r e t o the p i c t o r i a l i s t t r a d i t i o n , t h i s m a r r i a g e of image and word

became, i n the hands of Ben Jonson and I n i g o Jones,, a form of s p e a k i n g

p i c t u r e a k i n t o the c l a s s i c a l column or monument w i t h i t s i n s c r i p t i o n

in verse. The masque may have i n f l u e n c e d the e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y presen--

t a t i o n of a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s . I n C o l l i n s ' p o e t r y , f o r example, . t h e i r
 23

p r o c e s s i o n a l q u a l i t y i s p i c t o r i a l i n a m a s q u e - l i k e way.

I n the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y the most i m p o r t a n t development i n

the c o n t i n u i n g t r a d i t i o n of ut_ p i c t u r a p o e s i s i s the t r a n s m u t a t i o n of

the c l a s s i c a l i c o n i n t o the b a r o q u e , the p r o c e s s whereby p o e t i c imagery

comes to model i t s e l f a f t e r the baroque images of v i s u a l a r t . This

development i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the example of the emblem book..

J u s t as the masque j o i n e d the v i s u a l and the v e r b a l , so t o o ,

i n i t s d i f f e r e n t way, the emblem book j o i n e d image and word when i t

a t t a c h e d the poem as pendant t o the a l l e g o r i c a l scene or d e s i g n . The

v e r s e i n s c r i p t i o n w h i c h had s e p a r a t e d from the s t a t u e , u r n , or monument

upon w h i c h i t had o r i g i n a l l y been engraved i s r e u n i t e d w i t h them, so t o

speak, when they appear t o g e t h e r a g a i n on the p r i n t e d page, as the

emblem poem.- The v e r s e , w h i c h i s o f t e n b r i e f , . w i t t y , or commemorative,

is, in fact, r e m i n i s c e n t of the e p i g r a m . Emblem b o o k s , whether s o c i a l ,

p o l i t i c a l , . o r r e l i g i o u s , were a l i k e i n b r i n g i n g the v i s u a l and the

verbal together, i n ' a s s o c i a t i n g the sensuous and the a b s t r a c t l y intel-

lectual. A u s t i n Warren comments on the consequence of t h i s form of

p i c t o r i a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t of p o e t r y :

The i n f l u e n c e on p o e t r y was n o t o n l y to encourage the m e t a p h o r i c a l

h a b i t but t o i m p a r t t o . t h e metaphors a h a r d n e s s , a p a l p a b i l i t y
w h i c h , m e r e l y c o n c e i v e d , they were u n l i k e l y to p o s s e s s . And y e t
the metaphors o r d i n a r i l y a n a l o g i z e d i m p a l p a b i l i t i e s — r s t a t e s of the
s o u l , concepts, a b s t r a c t i o n s . The e f f e c t was a s t r a n g e t e n s i o n
between m a t e r i a l i t y and s p i r i t u a l i t y w h i c h almost d e f i n e s the .
s p i r i t of the C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n . 3 2

J u s t as the e p i g r a m , once s e p a r a t e d from t h e a r t o b j e c t , fre-

q u e n t l y remained i c o n i c i n i t s d e d i c a t i o n to an imagined s c u l p t u r e o r
 • 24

monument, so too the emblem poem, detached from i t s g r a p h i c s y m b o l ,

o f t e n remained i c o n i c i n i t s c e n t r a l concern w i t h an image or d e s i g n .

The poems of F r a n c i s Q u a r l e s , f o r example, have o f t e n been p r i n t e d

without t h e i r o r i g i n a l designs. And some of H e r b e r t ' s poems, though

never accompanied by v i s u a l emblems, v e r b a l l y i m p l y images and d e s i g n s

t a k i n g the p l a c e of the engraved scenes of emblem v e r s e and ^serving

as g r a p h i c embodiments of the a b s t r a c t meaning of the poems. "The

C o l l a r , " "The P u l l e y , " "The W i n d o w s , " and " C h u r c h Monuments" are

instances. O c c a s i o n a l l y , t o o , i n " p a t t e r n " poems l i k e "The A l t a r " o r

" E a s t e r W i n g s , " H e r b e r t l e s s s u b t l y focuses* a t t e n t i o n on the o b j e c t i n

the t i t l e by o u t l i n i n g i t s shape i n the p r i n t e d form of the ppem on

the page.

Such emblematic p o e t r y i s not d e s c r i p t i v e i n the manner of

Homer's d e s c r i p t i o n of A c h i l l e s ' s h i e l d or S p e n s e r ' s d e p i c t i o n of the

Bower or B l i s s . H e r b e r t n e i t h e r contemplates nor d e s c r i b e s the object,

a l l u d i n g to i t o n l y f o r the purpose of t r a d i n g i n s u b t l e correspondences

or w i t t y c o m p a r i s o n . P o e t r y of t h i s k i n d , by r e v e a l i n g a ^ c l o s e n e s s

between the s i s t e r a r t s i n a p e r i o d of l i t t l e c r i t i c a l demand f o r veri-

s i m i l i t u d e , i n v i t e s comment on the n a t u r e of baroque a r t . .

P o e t r y and p a i n t i n g were s i s t e r a r t s i n a n t i q u i t y and the

Renaissance because of t h e i r common f i d e l i t y to v i s i b l e n a t u r e . The

v e r y d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n f o r t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n d u r i n g the baroque p e r i o d

i s twofold. F i r s t l y , baroque a r t , l i k e m e d i e v a l C h r i s t i a n a r t , was

d i d a c t i c , u s i n g l i n e , c o l o u r , f o r m , and mass i n the same way t h a t the

emblem poem used i t s accompanying scene or d e s i g n , and f o r the same

 25
ends. J u s t a s t h e p i c t u r e i n t h e emblem poem was t h e b a i t f o r the i n -

s t r u c t i o n a l hook i n t h e p o e t r y , so forms o f e x p r e s s i o n i n baroque a r t

found their c e n t r a l importance i n t h e r e l i g i o u s experience, the con-

f r o n t a t i o n of the supersensory, which t h e y made p o s s i b l e f o r t h e

beholder. S e c o n d l y j b a r o q u e a r t was c o n g e n i a l t o t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f

p o e t r y and p a i n t i n g b e c a u s e b y i t s v e r y n a t u r e i t tended to blur dis-

t i n c t i o n s between a l l t h e v i s u a l a r t s . A u s t i n Warren w r i t e s of t h e

"exuberant, rhetorical, s e n s u a l , grandiose" s t y l e of the baroque t h a t

t h e . r e p o s e and symmetry o f R e n a i s s a n c e a r t have y i e l d e d t o a g i t a -

t i o n , a s p i r a t i o n , a m b i t i o n , an i n t e n s e s t r i v i n g t o t r a n s c e n d t h e .
l i m i t s of each genre. S c u l p t u r e and a r c h i t e c t u r e w o u l d e l i c i t t h e
e f f e c t s of p a i n t i n g ; p a i n t i n g — w e a r y of exact draftsmanship,
c l e a r l y o u t l i n e d m a s s e s , . g r o u p i n g w i t h i n t h e p l a n e , and t h e a r c h i -
t e c t u r a l f i t t i n g of the d e s i g n t o the square or c i r c l e of the
c a n v a s — w o u l d move u p w a r d o r b a c k w a r d , w o u l d a n t i c i p a t e t h e a g i l i t y
of t h e cinema, w o u l d f l o w , w o u l d d i s a p p e a r i n t o m o d u l a t e d glooms
o r d i s s o l v e i n t o l u m i n o s i t y . I n a r c h i t e c t u r e , a l l i s s p l e n d o r and
s u r p r i s e : p o l y c h r o m e m a r b l e , g o l d c o f f e r i n g , l i f e - s i z e and u n -
t r a n q u i l s t a t u e s , c e i l i n g s f r e s c o e d so as t o open t h e b a s i l i c a n
h o r i z o n t a l i n t o a firmament of f l o a t i n g angels, ingenious perspec-
t i v e s , f a c a d e s d e s i g n e d n o t t o r e v e a l t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n .but t o b e , ,
i n t h e m s e l v e s , impressive.,33

A r t o f t h i s k i n d , s e e k i n g t o show t h e i n s u b s t a n t i a l through

the s u b s t a n t i a l , g e n e r a t i n g t h e " s t r a n g e t e n s i o n between m a t e r i a l i t y

and spirituality" c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f emblem p o e t r y , -and d e d i c a t i n g i t s e l f

to t r a n s p o r t i n g the beholder beyond i t s e l f to other r e a l i t i e s , invites

a more t h a n p u r e l y a e s t h e t i c r e s p o n s e . I t c h a l l e n g e s and i n v o l v e s t h e

whole mind and s o u l . Toward.this end a l l t h e v i s u a l a r t s conspire, .

and in.this c o n s p i r a c y l i e s much o f t h e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e c l o s e a s s o c -

i a t i o n of the s i s t e r arts.

Ut p i c t u r a p o e s i s i n t h e E n g l i s h seventeenth c e n t u r y i s more
 26
e a s i l y d i s c e r n i b l e i n emblematic poetry than i n metaphysical. The

sensuous d e s c r i p t i o n s of a r t o b j e c t s ' b y the E l i z a b e t h a n s are not

m a t c h e d i n t h e w o r k o f Donne and his school. Metaphysical poetry,is

p s y c h o l o g i c a l , d r a m a t i c , and w i t t y , b u t seldom d e s c r i p t i v e or visual,

and still less pictorial.

Nonetheless, as t h e i n d i r e c t l y emblematic poetry of Herbert

shows, m e t a p h y s i c a l p o e t r y d i d h a v e i t s p i c t o r i a l moments. An e x c e l l e n t

e x a m p l e i s M a r v e l l ' s "The G a l l e r y , " " a poem.which m e t a p h o r i c a l l y l o c a t e s

a picture gallery i n the s o u l of the poet. Though f u n d a m e n t a l l y psycho-

l o g i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s , t h e s c e n e s d i s p l a y e d i n t h e p a i n t i n g s hung i n

t h i s g a l l e r y r e t a i n t h e o b j e c t i v i t y o f i c o n i c p o e t r y and are reminiscent

of s i m i l a r scenes i n I t a l i a n p a i n t i n g of the seventeenth century or

earlier. "The G a l l e r y " a l s o e x e m p l i f i e s t h e . " p i c t u r e - g a l l e r y " method

o f o r g a n i z i n g p o e t i c a l d e t a i l p r e v i o u s l y seen' i n G r e e k r o m a n c e and Kebes'

P a i n t i n g , a method w h i c h l e a d s the r e a d e r from scene to scene, image to

image. It will appear again i n the poetry of the e i g h t e e n t h century.

What "The G a l l e r y " i s t o t h e s e c u l a r mood o f t h e E n g l i s h

seventeenth century (and the p o e t r y of Herbert t o i t s d e v o t i o n a l mood),

C r a s h a w ' s poem, "THE FLAMING HEART Upon t h e b o o k and p i c t u r e of the

seraphical Saint Teresa, as s h e i s u s u a l l y expressed with a seraphim

34

beside her," i s t o t h e r e l i g i o u s mood o f t h e C o n t i n e n t a l b a r o q u e .

The title i n d i c a t e s the i c o n i c character of t h i s emotionally charged

poem. I t not only shares the emblematic q u a l i t y of H e r b e r t ' s and other

p o e t r y of the p e r i o d but a l s o d i s p l a y s the Anacreontic tendency to

address and instruct the a r t i s t , engaging i n f i e r c e e x p o s t u l a t i o n w i t h

 27
the p a i n t e r o v e r h i s method of r e p r e s e n t i n g the saint.

S i m i l a r l y , though w i t h o u t the e m o t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y of Crashaw

and f o r a d i f f e r e n t purpose, M a r y e l l , i n h i s "Last I n s t r u c t i o n s to a

P a i n t e r , " a d d r e s s e s a p a i n t e r e n g a g e d on a representation of "Lady

State." I n t h i s poem t h e analogy with p a i n t i n g i s u s e f u l since i t

suggests that the,poem's s a t i r i c a l message, l i k e p a i n t i n g , mirrors

actuality, t h a t i t i s as b e l i e v a b l e and r e a l as p a i n t e d reality. This

k i n d of p i c t o r i a l i s m i s particularly relevant to neo-classicism.

The final strain t o be considered i n seventeenth-century English

poetry i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the doctrine of e x p r e s s i o n seen before in

P l u t a r c h and P h i l o s t r a t u s , and importantaduring the-Renaissance

when t h e g r e a t p o w e r o f p a i n t i n g was u n d e r s t o o d t o be the utilization

of p h y s i c a l d a t a to e x p r e s s c h a r a c t e r , i n t e n t i o n , or m o r a l i t y . In the

century of L e l y ' s and Van D y c k ' s p o r t r a i t s i t was also widely felt that

p a i n t i n g , though l i m i t e d to the v i s i b l e , could r e v e a l the psychological

and the m o r a l , t h a t i t .demonstrated f o r the poet the r e v e l a t i o n of

inner reality. Lovelace, f o r example., f o u n d L e l y ' s art significant in

its naturalistic representation of s t a t e s of mind. I n t h e poem t o his

f r i e n d L e l y on "That E x c e l l e n t P i c t u r e " of the King and t h e Duke of York

"Drawne By Him At Hampton-Court," L o v e l a c e r e j e c t s the old, crude

" h i e r o g l y p h i c k s " of the naive symbolism i n which "only a black beard

cried villaine" and e x t o l s L y l y ' s more s o p h i s t i c a t e d c o m b i n a t i o n o f the

outer "colour" with the inner "flame":

Thou s o r r o w c a n s t d e s i g n e w i t h o u t a t e a r e ,
And w i t h t h e man h i s v e r y h o p e o r f e a r e ;
 So that th' amazed world s h a l l henceforth finde
None but my L i l l y ever drew a minde.35

Inspired by painters, poets thus seem "to have taken large strides t o -

ward r e j e c t i n g the metaphysically hieroglyphic and recommending the

36

naturally symbolic." Lovelace anticipates the simple, n a t u r a l i s t i c

icon of the next century which was to express psychological and moral

truth without v i o l a t i n g natural resemblance.

 29

FOOTNOTES

T h i s p r e l i m i n a r y account i s l a r g e l y based on the abundant

h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e d i n Jean- Hagstrum's The S i s t e r A r t s : The
T r a d i t i o n of L i t e r a r y P i c t o r i a l i s m and E n g l i s h P o e t r y From Dryden to
Gray ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , c h a p s . 1-4. Less
comprehensive statements on the development of u t p i c t u r a p o e s i s
i n c l u d e W. G . Howard, " U t P i c t u r a P o e s i s , " PMLA, XXIV ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 4 0 - 1 2 3 ;
C i c e l y D a v i e s , " U t P i c t u r a P o e s i s , " MLR, XXX ( 1 9 3 5 ) , 1 5 9 - 1 6 9 ; and
R e n s s e l a e r W. L e e , , " U t P i c t u r a P o e s i s : The H u m a n i s t i c Theory of
P a i n t i n g , " A r t B u l l e t i n , X X I I ( 1 9 4 0 ) , 197-269.

1448a-1448b, t r a n s . Ingram Bywater,- i n I n t r o d u c t i o n to

A r i s t o t l e , e d . R i c h a r d McKeon, The Modern L i b r a r y , ( N e w Y o r k : Random
House, 1 9 4 0 ) , p . 626.

3
15, 1454b-1455a, i b i d . , p . 644.
4
T r a n s . Edward Henry B l a k e n e y , i n The Complete Works of H o r a c e ,
e d . Caspar J . Kraemer, The Modern L i b r a r y (New Y o r k : Random House,
1 9 3 6 ) , p . 409. .
5
Ibid., p. 397.

M o r a l i a , 1 7 f - 1 8 a , t r a n s . Frank C o l e B a b b i t t , i n P l u t a r c h ' s
M o r a l i a , Loeb C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y (London: Heinemann, 1 9 6 0 - 6 9 ) , I , 9 1 ,
93.

M o r a l i a , 346f.
7

g
P l u t a r c h ' s L i v e s E n g l i s h e d by S i r Thomas N o r t h , e d . W. H . D .
Rouse, The Temple P l u t a r c h (London: D e n t , 1 8 9 9 ) , V I I , 2 - 3 .
9
On the S u b l i m e , x v , 2 , t r a n s . W. Rhys R o b e r t s , , i n Longinus on
the Sublime (Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 8 9 9 ) , p . 8 5 .
Hagstrum ( S i s t e r A r t s , p . 12) d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between A r i s t o t -
e l i a n e n e r g e i a and P l u t a r c h a n e n a r g e i a : " P o e t r y p o s s e s s e s e n e r g e i a
w h e n . i t has a c h i e v e d i t s f i n a l form and produces i t s p r o p e r p l e a s u r e , -
when i t has a c h i e v e d i t s own independent b e i n g q u i t e a p a r t from i t s
a n a l o g i e s w i t h n a t u r e or another a r t , and when i t o p e r a t e s as an a u t o n -
omous form w i t h an e f f e c t i v e w o r k i n g power of i t s own. But P l u t a r c h ,
H o r a c e , and the l a t e r H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman c r i t i c s found p o e t r y e f f e c -
t i v e when i t a c h i e v e d v e r i s i m i l i t u d e — w h e n i t resembled n a t u r e or a
p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of n a t u r e . For P l u t a r c h i a n e n a r g e i a , the
analogy w i t h p a i n t i n g i s i m p o r t a n t ; f o r A r i s t o t e l i a n e n e r g e i a , i t i s
not."
 30

^On t h e S u b l i m e , x v , 7, R o b e r t s , p . 8 9 .

^""4)e a n i m a , 4 2 8 b - 4 2 9 b , t r a n s . J . A. S m i t h , i n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o
A r i s t o t l e , e d . R i c h a r d McKeon, pp. 216-217.

12
De o r a t o r e , I I I , 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 , i n C i c e r o : De o r a t o r e , t r a n s . H.
Rackham ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 8 ) ,
I I , 125, 127.
13
P l i n y and C i c e r o , f o r example, f u r n i s h v e r s i o n s o f t h e t a l e .
See T h e E l d e r P l i n y ' s C h a p t e r s o n t h e H i s t o r y o f A r t , t r a n s . K.
J e x - B l a k e (London: M a c m i l l a n , 1896), p. 109; and t h e "Second T r e a t i s e
on R h e t o r i c a l I n v e n t i o n , " I I , 1., t r a n s . C. D. -Yonge, i n O r a t i o n s
(London, 1894),.IV, 308.
14
H a g s t r u m , S i s t e r A r t s , p. 16.

X V I I I , 4 7 4 - 6 0 7 . H a g s t r u m ( p . 1 8 , n . 34) j u s t i f i e s t h e a p p l i -
1 5

cation of the adjective " i c o n i c " to verse descriptions of r e a l or

i m a g i n e d a r t o b j e c t s b y t h e p r e c e d e n t o f L u c i a n a n d P h i l o s t r a t u s , who
r e f e r r e d t o t h e i r p r o s e works i n t h i s c a t e g o r y as e i k o n e s .
16
H. J . R o s e (A H a n d b o o k o f G r e e k L i t e r a t u r e F r o m Homer t o t h e
Age o f L u c i a n , New Y o r k : D u t t o n , .1960, p p . 3 4 7 - 3 5 0 ) b r i e f l y o u t l i n e s
the h i s t o r y o f t h e A n t h o l o g y , i t s c o n t r i b u t o r s , t h e k i n d s and f a s h i o n s
of i t s e p i g r a m s .

"*" The i n s c r i p t i o n o n t h e s t o n e o v e r S h a k e s p e a r e ' s

7
grave utters
t h e famous w a r n i n g :

GOOD FREND FOR I E S V S SAKE FORBEARE,

TO DIGG THE DVST ENCLOASED HEARE!
BLESTE BE YE MAN YT SPARES THES STONES,
AND CURST BE.HE'YT MOVES MY BONES.

The w o r d s o n t h e t a b l e t c o n t a i n i n g h i s b u s t a l s o s p e a k t o t h e p a s s e r b y :

STAY PASSENGER, WHY GOEST THOV BY SO FAST?

READ I F THOV CANST, WHOM ENVIOVS DEATH HATH P L A S T , ,
WITH I N THIS M0NVMENT SHAKSPEARE . . .

The i n s c r i p t i o n s b o r n e b y t h e " f u r n i t u r e " , o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

l a n d s c a p e g a r d e n s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n B. S p r a g u e A l l e n ' s T i d e s i n E n g l i s h
T a s t e ( 1 6 1 9 - 1 8 0 0 ) : A B a c k g r o u n d f o r t h e S t u d y o f L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k :
Rowman a n d L i t t l e f i e l d , 1 9 6 9 ) , I I , 1 6 0 - 1 6 9 .

18
The G r e e k A n t h o l o g y , t r a n s . W. H. P a t o n (London: Heinemann,
1916-1925) , 1 1 1 , 3 9 5 , 399.
 31
19
I n one e x a m p l e ( A n a c r e o n t i c s 2 8 , t r a n s . Thomas S t a n l e y , i n
The G r e e k P o e t s , e d . M o s e s H a d a s , The M o d e r n L i b r a r y , New Y o r k : Random
H o u s e , 1 9 5 3 , p p . 1 9 1 - 1 9 2 ) t h e p o e t r e q u e s t s t h e p a i n t e r t o "come, my
a b s e n t m i s t r e s s t a k e , / As I s h a l l d e s c r i b e h e r , " t h e i c o n i c d e s c r i p -
t i o n o f t h e d e s i r e d p a i n t i n g b e i n g a t t h e same t i m e a l y r i c a l tribute
to the beauty of the m i s t r e s s .

A good example o f A n a c r e o n t i c i m i t a t i o n i s t h e E a r l o f
R o c h e s t e r ' s poem, "Upon D r i n k i n g i n a B o w l " ( S e v e n t e e n t h - C e n t u r y P r o s e
a n d P o e t r y , e d s . A l e x a n d e r M. W i t h e r s p o o n a n d F r a n k J . W a r n k e , 2nd ed..
New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , a n d W o r l d , 1 9 6 3 , p . 1 0 4 9 ) , w h o s e f i r s t
stanza reads:

V u l c a n , c o n t r i v e me s u c h a c u p
As N e s t o r u s e d o f o l d :
Show a l l t h y s k i l l t o t r i m i t u p ,
Damask i t r o u n d w i t h g o l d .
20
A e n e i d , I , 446-493; V I I I , 626-731; S a t y r j c d n , 83, 88, 89;
M e t a m o r p h o s e s , I I , 1-30; V I , 1-145.
21
H. J . R o s e , A , H a n d b o o k o f L a t i n L i t e r a t u r e F r o m t h e E a r l i e s t
T i m e s t o t h e D e a t h o f S t . A u g u s t i n e (New Y o r k : D u t t o n , 1 9 6 0 ) , p. 227.
22
F o r t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f l i t e r a r y w o r k s , i n c l u d i n g t h e "two
c o l l e c t i o n s o f d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p i c t u r e s , p r o b a b l y i m a g i n a r y , " among
t h e f o u r men who b o r e t h e name " P h i l o s t r a t u s , " s e e H. J . R o s e , A H a n d -
book^ o f G r e e k L i t e r a t u r e , p. 4 0 3 .

Of t h e d o c t r i n e o f e x p r e s s i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o P h i l o s t r a t u s ,
H a g s t r u m a s s e r t s ( p . 31) t h a t "none b e f o r e and f e w s i n c e h a v e s o
s t r i k i n g l y e x p l o i t e d t h e d o c t r i n e o f e x p r e s s i o n a s a means o f m a k i n g .
graphic value available to l i t e r a r y a r t ; " P h i l o s t r a t u s "treated v i s u a l
a r t as_ l i t e r a t u r e ; and t h a t i s a f i r s t s t e p a b s o l u t e l y r e q u i s i t e t o .
the s e c o n d , t h a t o f u s i n g g r a p h i c a r t i n l i t e r a t u r e . "

23
C. S. L e w i s , The A l l e g o r y o f L o v e : A S t u d y i n M e d i e v a l
Tradition (New Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 ) , p . 1 1 3 .
2 4
Ibid., pp. 44-45.
25
Hagstrum (pp. 59-62) t r a c e s t h e c h a n g i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
the p h r a s e u t p i c t u r a p o e s i s , "one.of t h e most f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d t e x t s
of a n c i e n t c r i t i c i s m , " f r o m t h e c l a s s i c a l p e r i o d t o t h e t i m e o f t h e
"dogmatic i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n " ' o f the phrase i n Renaissance c r i t i c a l
theory.
W i l l i a m G u i l d H o w a r d , "Ut P i c t u r a P o e s i s , " PMLA, X X I V (1909),
43.
 32

27
T i m b e r : . O r D i s c o v e r i e s Made U p o n Men and M a t t e r , i n S e v e n t e e n t h -
C e n t u r y P r o s e and P o e t r y , e d s . W i t h e r s p o o n and W a r n k e , p. 1 2 1 .

Ibid.

29
A n A p o l o g y f o r P o e t r y , i n C r i t i c i s m : The M a j o r T e x t s , e d .
W a l t e r J a c k s o n B a t e (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , . a n d W o r l d , 1 9 5 2 ) , p p .
86, 89.
30
1 3 7 4 , 1 4 4 7 , i n S h a k e s p e a r e : The C o m p l e t e W o r k s , e d . G. B.
H a r r i s o n (New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , a n d W o r l d , 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . 1 5 7 7 , 1 5 7 8 .
3 1
III, 2, 1 1 6 - 1 1 9 , 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 , i b i d . , p. 599.
32
" B a r o q u e A r t a n d t h e Emblem," W i t h e r s p o o n a n d W a r n k e , p.. 1081.
3 3
Ibid.,,p. 1078.

3 4
Ibid., p. 929.•
35
L u c a s t a : The Poems o f R i c h a r d L o v e l a c e , I n t r o . W i l l i a m L y o n .
Phelps ( C h i c a g o : Caxton. C l u b , . 1 9 2 1 ) , I , 123.
36
H a g s t r u m , p. 1 2 2 .
 CHAPTER I I

THE S I S T E R ARTS I N THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The-genealogy of ut p i c t u r a p o e s i s t r a c e d i n the previous

chapter reveals that l i t e r a r y p i c t o r i a l i s m i s not an i s o l a t e d phenomenon

limited t o one p e r i o d o r . l i t e r a r y genre. A long-flourishing tradition

w i t h i n the h i s t o r y of p o e t r y , i t had e x h i b i t e d from the time of i t s

beginnings i n early antiquity until t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y many c h a n g e s

in the a r t of c o n s t r u c t i n g p o e t i c i c o n s . Of g r e a t e s t importance among

t h e s e n u m e r o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s w e r e two a n t i t h e t i c a l verbal icons that

arose i n response to great, a l t e r n a t i n g shifts in social, philosophical,

and aesthetic history. These i c o n s , c e n t r a l to the h i s t o r y of ut

p i c t u r a p o e s i s , are i l l u s t r a t e d r e s p e c t i v e l y by the n a t u r a l i s t i c prac-

t i c e o f a n t i q u i t y and the Renaissance, whose p i c t o r i a l i m a g e was char-

a c t e r i z e d by t h e r h e t o r i c a l and critical i d e a of e n a r g e i a , . o r vivid

lifelikeness of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; , a n d by the m e d i e v a l , and later the

baroque, tendency to d i s s o c i a t e t h e p i c t o r i a l f r o m t h e m a t e r i a l and

natural, i n order t o i n t e g r a t e i t w i t h t h e i m m a t e r i a l and supernatural.

The imagery of Augustan p o e t r y , viewed a g a i n s t t h i s background, falls

i n t o the p i c t o r i a l i s t t r a d i t i o n o f c l a s s i c a l and Renaissance times.

The English eighteenth century, l i k e the I t a l i a n sixteenth century,

turned i t s a t t e n t i o n to the e n t h u s i a s t i c contemplation of nature.

L e o n a r d o d a V i n c i was translated and the metaphorical m i r r o r a p p l i e d to

literature. I n i t s b a s i c r e a l i s m , i t s i d e a l i z a t i o n o f n a t u r e , and the

33
 34

new d e g r e e o f i n t i m a c y i t e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n p a i n t e r and poet, the

eighteenth century f o l l o w e d the t r a d i t i o n o f H o r a c e , P l u t a r c h , and

Cicero, of I t a l i a n critics l i k e Leon B a t t i s t i A l b e r t i y and Italian

painters like Leonardo."^

B u t A u g u s t a n p o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m was not s i m p l y an eighteenth-

century c o n t i n u a t i o n of Renaissance pictorialism. For although neo-

c l a s s i c a l p o e t r y was concerned w i t h the i m i t a t i o n of nature and with

" c o r r e c t n e s s , " and was opposed t o the i n e l e g a n c e and unnaturalness of

seventeenth-century emblematic e x p r e s s i o n , i t s p i c t o r i a l imagery was

nonetheless a f f e c t e d by the .culture , of the baroque p e r i o d i n t e r v e n i n g

b e t w e e n i t and the Renaissance. Despite the h o s t i l i t y of the E n l i g h t e n -

ment t o w a r d s w h a t C. S. L e w i s h a s termed " s a c r a m e n t a l i s m , " the

i n f l u e n c e of the baroque a r t of the,seventeenth century modified the

pictorial qualities o f n e o - c l a s s i c a l i m a g e r y and played an important

p a r t . i n shaping the i c o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of n e o - c l a s s i c a l verse.

How Augustan p i c t o r i a l i s m developed upon the f o u n d a t i o n of pre-

ceding t r a d i t i o n i s best shown b y outlining the h i s t o r i c a l developments

that e s t a b l i s h e d the p i c t o r i a l standards and m o d e l s o f t h e p e r i o d , and

by g l a n c i n g at the i n t e l l e c t u a l background of n e o - c l a s s i c i s m , p a r t i c u l a r l y

a t two c e n t r a l meanings a t t a c h e d t o t h a t "most, p r e g n a n t w o r d i n t h e

2

terminology of a l l the normative p r o v i n c e s of thought i n the West,"

t h e w o r d " n a t u r e . " ' T h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e b a s i c t o an understanding

of n e o - c l a s s i c a l p i c t o r i a l i s m , and a d i s c u s s i o n o f them, b e g i n n i n g with

the e v o l u t i o n of e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y taste i n painting, w i l l largely

3
c o n s t i t u t e the business of t h i s chapter.
 35

Until t h e a c c e s s i o n o f C h a r l e s I t o t h e t h r o n e i n 1625 t h e . c o n -

d i t i o n o f t h e g r a p h i c a r t s i n England remained comparatively undeveloped.

U n d e r t h e p a t r o n a g e o f C h a r l e s , h o w e v e r , p a i n t i n g was e n c o u r a g e d and a

r o y a l c o l l e c t i o n b u i l t up ( l a t e r s o l d t o pay o f f d e b t s ) . Charles de-

lighted i n displaying to foreign visitors the masterpieces h i s agents

had p r o c u r e d f o r h i m i n Europe; i t has been s a i d o f h i m t h a t he "might

h a v e made a n e x c e l l e n t I t a l i a n D u k e . " He i n d u c e d V a n D y c k t o come t o

E n g l a n d and i s t h u s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e famous p o r t r a i t u r e that almost

m e r g e d w i t h t h e . n a t i v e B r i t i s h movement (some o f V a n D y c k ' s m o s t f a m o u s

works " c r e a t i n g a model t h a t l a s t e d u n t i l t h e end o f t h e g r e a t t r a d i t i o n .

of English portrait painting, through Dobson, L e l y , Reynolds,.and

Gainsborough t o Lawrence")."' And i n c o m m i s s i o n i n g Rubens' work i n t h e

B a n q u e t i n g House i n W h i t e h a l l . (Rubens' only surviving c e i l i n g ) , Charles

is a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o England of the grandiose

s t y l e o f t h e C o n t i n e n t a l blaroque.

D u r i n g t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t r a v e l began t o i n c r e a s e and t h e

r o u t e o f t h e Grand Tour established itself. The p e a c e t r e a t y with

S p a i n . i n 1604 n o r m a l i z e d r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e r e a f t e r the English traveller

could v i s i t Italy s a f e l y and c o n t e m p l a t e i t s R e n a i s s a n c e and baroque

wonders w i t h o u t f e a r . By m i d - c e n t u r y o n e o f ' t h e s e t r a v e l l e r s , John

E v e l y n , was a d m i r i n g a n d p r a i s i n g i n h i s D i a r y t h e work o f such Italian

a r t i s t s as Raphael, Leonardo, M i c h e l a n g e l o , C o r r e g g i o , t h e C a r r a c c i ,

Guido R e n i , A r p i n o , C a r a v a g g i o , B e r n i n i , T i t i a n , T i n t o r e t t o , Veronese,

and Bellini.

The influence of c l a s s i c a l precedent i n l i t e r a t u r e also advanced

 36
an a w a r e n e s s o f p a i n t i n g and i t s appreciation i n c u l t i v a t e d seventeenth-

century Englishmen. P h i l o s t r a t u s was q u o t e d , and Pliny's writings on

t h e h i s t o r y o f a r t showed t h e c l a s s i c a l reader that ancient Rome had

p o s s e s s e d and b e e n c o n s c i o u s o f an artistic tradition. Influential

examples of I t a l i a n p i c t o r i a l i s m w e r e a l s o known i n t h e century;

Marvell's poem, "The G a l l e r y , " was influenced. I n title and form (a des-

c r i p t i o n o f p i c t u r e s h u n g i n a g a l l e r y ) by the G a l e r i a ^ of the Neapolitan

poet, Giambattista M a r i n o , whose c o l l e c t i o n o f i c o n i c p o e t r y was largely

d e v o t e d t o d e s c r i p t i o n s of r e a l p a i n t i n g s .
; M a r i n o ' s work r e v e a l e d a new,

b a r o q u e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o e t and art object i n which the icon rep-

resented a kind of o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e f o r the emotion expressed in

t h e poem. A l s o known was the L i v e s of the I t a l i a n Neoplatonist critic, .

G i o v a n n i P i e t r o ' B e l l o r i , - . a work w h i c h d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the

8
Lives of G i o r g i o V a s a r i . For V a s a r i , who was known i n t h e earlier

seventeenth century t h r o u g h I t a l i a n and French versions and later in an

abbreviated English translation, very s e l d o m made u s e of poetry in his

explanations and criticisms of p a i n t i n g s and w o r k s of. a r t , w h i l e Bellori

(and, to a l e s s e r extent, other I t a l i a n c r i t i c s , , s u c h as C a r l o Ridolfi

and Felippo Baldinucci) looked, upon p a i n t i n g s as m o r a l o r l i t e r a r y texts

manifesting supersensory or r e l i g i o u s meaning. Bellori, as i n d i f f e r e n t

t o t h e . l i m i t a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l a r t s as a baroque a r t i s t , , combined

v e r b a l and graphic expression and saw a profound a s s o c i a t i o n between .

p o e t r y , and painting. N o n e t h e l e s s , , i t was the unpictorialist Vasari

rather than these other Italian critics and h i s t o r i a n s , o f a r t who was

most i n s t r u m e n t a l i n introducing t o E n g l a n d , as the greatest.achievement

 37

in the h i s t o r y of graphic a r t , the painting of the High Renaissance i n

Italy.

That poets i n the seventeenth century paid tribute to w e l l -

known p a i n t e r s has a l r e a d y b e e n shown i n t h e c i t a t i o n f r o m L o v e l a c e ' s

poem t o L e l y . S i m i l a r t r i b u t e s and t h e f r i e n d s h i p s f o r m e d b e t w e e n p o e t

and painter helped to elevate the" p r e s t i g e o f p a i n t i n g and anticipated

the intimate r e l a t i o n s t h a t would e x i s t between the s i s t e r a r t s i n the

eighteenth century. L e l y , was a d d i t i o n a l l y a c c o r d e d p r a i s e b y h i s

11 12
friend Charles Cotton. Waller w r o t e a poem e u l o g i z i n g V a n D y k e ;

and Herrick, i n l i n e s a d d r e s s e d t o h i s nephew, a p a i n t e r , listed a

s e r i e s o f names w h i c h s u g g e s t e d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f , a n a r t i s t i c hierarchy:

On, a s t h o u h a s t b e g u n n e , b r a v e y o u t h , a n d g e t
The P a l m e f r o m U r b i n , T i t i a n , , T i n t a r r e t ,
B r u g e l and C o x i e , and t h e w o r k e s o u t - d o e ,
Of H o l b e n , -and t h a t m i g h t y R u b e n t o o .
So d r a w , a n d p a i n t , a s n o n e may do t h e l i k e ,
No, n o t t h e g l o r y o f t h e W o r l d , V a n d i k e . 1 3

During the Restoration the r o y a l c o l l e c t i o n s , inaugurated dur-

ing t h e r e i g n o f C h a r l e s I , c o n t i n u e d t o grow, and t h e s c a l e o f p r i v a t e

c o l l e c t i n g enlarged i t s e l f . a s , i n c r e a s i n g l y , p i c t u r e s were a c q u i r e d by-

aristocrats like t h e Dukes o f Buckingham, D e v o n s h i r e , G r a f t o n , and

L a u d e r d a l e , and t h e E a r l s o f E s s e x , A r l i n g t o n , R u t l a n d , and Sunderland;

by commoners l i k e W i l l i a m C a r t w r i g h t , - D r . Walter Charleton, S i r Francis

Child, S i r W i l l i a m C o v e n t r y , R o g e r N o r t h , and S i r W i l l i a m Temple; and

14

by painters s u c h as S i r P e t e r L e l y and P r o s p e r Henry Lankrinck.

Toward t h e end o f t h e c e n t u r y C h a r l e s A l p h o n s e D u f r e s n o y ' s 1637

L a t i n poem, De_ a r t e g r a p h i c a , having been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o French prose

 38
and p r o v i d e d w i t h n o t e s b y R o g e r de P i l e s , was introduced into England

by D r y d e n . D r y d e n ' s 1695 t r a n s l a t i o n was p r e f a c e d b y h i s own "Parallel

o f P o e t r y and P a i n t i n g , " which, together with h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of

Dufresnoy and the notes o f t h e i n f l u e n t i a l R o g e r de P i l e s , "forms f o r

us E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e the h a n d i e s t i n t r o d u c t i o n to that long-lived

esthetic t h e o r y founded upon the p r o p o s i t i o n Ut pictura poesis." "' 1

The seventeenth-century developments w h i c h were l e a d i n g t o the

establishment of a c r i t e r i o n of a r t i s t i c e x c e l l e n c e a l s o paved the way

for the congenial r e c e p t i o n given Dufresnoy's poem, a w o r k w h i c h t r a n s -

mitted to Englishmen a knowledge of I t a l i a n a r t through t h e medium o f

French criticism. In h i s opening paragraph Dufresnoy quotes Simonides

and Horace, s a y i n g , i n Dryden's translation,.that

P a i n t i n g and P o e s y a r e two s i s t e r s , w h i c h a r e s o l i k e i n a l l t h i n g s ,
t h a t t h e y m u t u a l l y l e n d t o e a c h o t h e r b o t h t h e i r name and o f f i c e . .
One i s c a l l e d a dumb p o e s y , and t h e o t h e r a s p e a k i n g p i c t u r e . . . .
those t h i n g s which the poets have thought unworthy of t h e i r pens,
t h e p a i n t e r s h a v e j u d g e d t o be u n w o r t h y o f t h e i r p e n c i l s .

In joining t o g e t h e r t h e two m o s t f a m o u s a n c i e n t t e x t s on the relations

b e t w e e n p a i n t i n g and p o e t r y and attributing to both a r t s a commonness

of subject matter, Dufresnoy r e v e a l s an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e m e a n i n g

o f u_t p i c t u r a p o e s i s e x c e e d i n g even t h a t achieved during the Italian

Renaissance. A literal t r a n s l a t i o n of the f i r s t l i n e o f h i s poem, w h o s e

d o g m a t i c q u a l i t y i s s o f t e n e d by Dryden's a b o v e - c i t e d translation, reads:

"As a picture, so a poem w i l l be; l i k e w i s e l e t a p a i n t i n g be similar to

nl7
poetry.

Dryden's " P a r a l l e l of P o e t r y a n d ' P a i n t i n g " r e f l e c t s the existence

 39

of a d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n a l t a s t e i n p a i n t i n g by referring to Holbein,

Rubens, Van Dyck, M i c h e l a n g e l o , Raphael, T i t i a n , P o u s s i n , and Correggio.

Besides drawing the important general analogy b e t w e e n p a i n t i n g and

p o e t r y , the " P a r a l l e l " also elaborates mechanically certain artificial

correspondences b e t w e e n t h e two arts. Elements of p a i n t i n g such as

i n v e n t i o n , - d i s p o s i t i o n , d e s i g n , and c o l o u r , a r e made a n a l o g o u s t o their

corresponding elements i n poetry. Thus,.to Dryden, e x p r e s s i o n i n poetry

( d i c t i o n , v e r s i f i c a t i o n , metaphor, s i m i l e , and "all the other elegancies

of sound") e x e c u t e s e x a c t l y the f u n c t i o n t h a t c o l o u r does i n p a i n t i n g .

Expression i n poetry, l i k e c o l o u r on d e s i g n , i s a p p l i e d a f t e r moral,

19

f a b l e , or p l o t have been planned.

S i n c e t h e c r e a t i o n o f an i d e a l of a r t i s t i c e x c e l l e n c e meant t h a t

t h e r e was now a model f o r p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y to f o l l o w , t h e r e n e w e d demand

t h a t p o e t r y f o l l o w p a i n t i n g made m o r e s e n s e t o E n g l i s h m e n t h a n e v e r be-

fore. Knowledgeable i n t e r e s t i n Dufresnoy's poem became a s i g n "betray-

i n g the presence, of p i c t o r i a l i s t theory" throughout the eighteenth

century, a p e r i o d i n which "the curve of Dufresnoy's popularity corres-"

20

p o n d e d t o t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e ;views h i s o p e n i n g lines express."

D r y d e n ' s t r a n s l a t i o n was f o l l o w e d by D e f o e ' s i n 1720; Wright's in 1728;

James W e l l s ' i n 1765; and W i l l i a m Mason's i n 1783, w i t h notes by Joshua

Reynolds. The poem was a l s o admired by S h a f t e s b u r y , Pope, Gray, and

Johnson (who used i t o f t e n to i l l u s t r a t e the terminology of p a i n t i n g i n

his Dictionary).

The seventeenth-century activities and tendencies responsible

f o r the t a s t e i n p a i n t i n g shared b y D r y d e n , P o p e , and Thomson, their

 40
contemporaries and followers," intensified d u r i n g the Augustan age.

F o r e i g n t r a v e l expanded g r e a t l y , together, w i t h the output of a s s o c i a t e d

g u i d e b o o k s and d e s c r i p t i v e accounts; the importance of the t o u r s taken

by A d d i s o n , T h o m s o n , and Gray i s c o n s i d e r a b l e . C o l l e c t i n g became w i d e -

spread; poets were l i k e l y to possess prints, engravings, perhaps even

some o r i g i n a l o i l s . The a r t c o l l e c t i o n s o f P r i o r , B u r k e , and Thomson,

f o r example, c o n t r i b u t e t o our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i r t a s t e and that of

t h e age. The r i s i n g p o p u l a r i t y o f t r e a t i s e s on t h e a r t s h e l p e d spread

t h e k n o w l e d g e o f p a i n t i n g a b r o a d and propagated more and m o r e w i d e l y

21

the b e l i e f t h a t p o e t r y and p a i n t i n g were s i s t e r -arts. Eighteenth-

c e n t u r y p o e t s w e r e f r e q u e n t l y on t h e b e s t o f t e r m s w i t h p a i n t e r s ,

n u m b e r i n g them s o m e t i m e s among t h e i r closest friends. On occasion, like

Pope, they even painted, canvases themselves, trying t h e i r own hand at

the s i s t e r a r t . They were l i k e l y t o h a v e s e e n some o f t h e great

Renaissance o r b a r o q u e p a i n t i n g s and s t a t u a r y o f I t a l y , and t o be con-

versant w i t h the h i s t o r y and c r i t i c i s m of a r t , or a t l e a s t w i t h i t s

l e a d i n g m a s t e r s and s c h o o l s , and w i t h i t s t e r m i n o l o g y . Participating

themselves i n the c o n n o i s s e u r s h i p of the age, they took f o r granted a

s i m i l a r degree of a r t i s t i c sophistication i n their readers, assuming

on t h e i r b e h a l f a knowledge of g r a p h i c a r t beyond what p o e t s could

have expected i n any previous period. The new degree of knowledge,

a p p r e c i a t i o n , and l o v e o f p a i n t i n g shown b y a l l these developments r e -

flected i t s e l f most c l e a r l y i n the p e r v a s i v e custom of employing the

terms of p a i n t i n g i n l i t e r a r y criticism, referring to poets as p a i n t e r s ,

and s e e i n g p o e t r y as a f o r m o f p a i n t i n g . T h i s h a b i t became more

 41
widespread i n the eighteenth century than ever before.

The p r a c t i c e of c o n s i d e r i n g poetry i n terms of p a i n t i n g was

not unknown i n c l a s s i c a l and Renaissance c r i t i c i s m , but now i t was

common w h e r e v e r p o e t r y was discussed. Lord C h e s t e r f i e l d recommended

A r i o s t o t o h i s s o n b e c a u s e " h i s p a i n t i n g i s e x c e l l e n t , " and Gray s a i d

22
of Shakespeare t h a t "every word i n him i s a picture."' The critics

echoed the t h i n k i n g of Dryden's e a r l i e r comment t h a t " i m a g i n g i s . . -.

the very height and life of p o e t r y " s i n c e i t "makes i t seem t o us that

23
we b e h o l d t h o s e t h i n g s which, the poet p a i n t s . " They i l l u s t r a t e d the

tendency t o a c t upon the i d e a of ut p i c t u r a poesis as though i t were a

law, c o n s t a n t l y drawing or i m p l y i n g the analogy between p a i n t i n g and

poetry. J o s e p h W a r t o n , d i s c u s s i n g Thomson's S e a s o n s , p r a i s e s h i m for

scenes t h a t are " f r e q u e n t l y as w i l d and r o m a n t i c as those of Salvator .

Rosa," s i n c e they are " p l e a s i n g l y v a r i e d w i t h p r e c i p i c e s and torrents,

and 'castled c l i f f s , ' and d e e p v a l l i e s , w i t h p i n y m o u n t a i n s , and the

gloomiest caverns." He lauds a Thomsonian "assemblage of circumstances"

as " f u l l , particular and picturesque," and i s pleased by a "groupe" so

"minutely d e l i n e a t e d " as t o be " w o r t h y t h e . p e n c i l of Giacomo da Bassano,"

24
who "might have worked from t h i s sketch." Warton's E s s a y i s crowded

with s i m i l a r examples. Thomas W a r t o n f e l t " t h a t M i l t o n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f

Michael as an armed a n g e l m u s t h a v e d e r i v e d f r o m , an Italian painting

"and particularly one by R a p h a e l , w h e r e M i c h a e l , ;.clad i n celestial

panoply, triumphs over Satan chained." Nichols remarked of F i e l d i n g

t h a t " h i s works e x h i b i t , a s e r i e s of p i c t u r e s drawn w i t h a l l the descrip-

tive fidelity of a Hogarth." G o l d s m i t h compared the characters of

 42

Addison's Cato w i t h the f i g u r e s i n the p a i n t i n g s o f P o u s s i n , seeing

both as drawn f a u l t l e s s l y from the antique. A n d Webb, a f t e r q u o t i n g a

passage from the Aeneid . ( I , 5 9 0 ) ,'• w h i c h e x p r e s s e d the "finest effect

of c l e a r obscure that perhaps ever entered into the imagination of

e i t h e r poet or p a i n t e r added t h a t " t h e p o e t must have had i n h i s eye

25

some c e l e b r a t e d p i c t u r e i n t h i s style."

J u s t as f u r t h e r examples beyond Dufresnoy and Dryden m i g h t b e ,

cited t o show d e t a i l e d p a r a l l e l s attributing to poetry t h e same p r i n -

c i p l e s o f d e s i g n as p a i n t i n g , so a h o s t of instances might additionally

illustrate t h e custom i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m o f r e g a r d i n g poems a s

p i c t u r e s i n words. Of t h e s e , o n e o r two i n d i c a t i n g the eighteenth-

c e n t u r y c a p a c i t y t o evoke f u l l - b l o w n p i c t o r i a l scenes from t h e b a r e s t

of v i s u a l h i n t s might u s e f u l l y be c i t e d . J o s e p h Warton p r o v i d e s an

e x c e l l e n t example. D i s c u s s i n g D r y d e n ' s "Song f o r S t . C e c i l i a ' s D a y "

( 1 8 6 7 ) , h e q u o t e s t h e o n e s t a n z a i n t h e poem c o n t a i n i n g a d e g r e e o f

pictorial suggestiveness:

What P a s s i o n c a n n o t MUSICK r a i s e a n d q u e l l !
When J u b a l s t r u c k t h e c o r d e d S h e l l ,
H i s l i s t ' n i n g B r e t h r e n stood around
And w o n d ' r i n g , o n t h e i r f a c e s f e l l
To w o r s h i p t h a t C e l e s t i a l Sound.26

Warton's response to this s l i g h t p i c t o r i a l suggestion i s surprisingly

inventive:

T h i s i s s o c o m p l e t e a n d e n g a g i n g a h i s t o r y - p i e c e , t h a t I knew a
p e r s o n o f t a s t e who was r e s o l v e d t o h a v e i t e x e c u t e d , i f a n a r t i s t
c o u l d h a v e b e e n f o u n d , on one s i d e o f h i s s a l l . o o n . In which case,
s a i d he, the p a i n t e r has n o t h i n g t o do, b u t t o s u b s t i t u t e c o l o u r s
f o r words, the design being f i n i s h e d t o h i s h a n d s . ^
 43

The Jonathon Richardsons exhibit t h e same r e m a r k a b l e response to slight

visual hints. T h e y o u n g e r R i c h a r d s o n , who f e l t that the pleasures of

poetry l a y i n "the g e t t i n g a f i n e c o l l e c t i o n of mental p i c t u r e s , " i n

" f u r n i s h i n g t h e mind w i t h p l e a s i n g images," quotes passages o f p o e t r y

f e l t by him t o y i e l d c l e a r a n d c o m p l e t e '.'mental p i c t u r e s " i n " t h e

28

Parmeggiano and i n t h e R a f a e l l e t a s t e . " These passages, however,

d r a w n f r o m t h e p o e t r y o f M i l t o n , who c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y combines, v i s u a l

elements w i t h u n p i c t o r i a l sensations of l i g h t , space, and t h e m a r v e l l o u s ,

merely demonstrate Richardson's ability t o reduce the r i c h n e s s of .

Milton's combination o f i n g r e d i e n t s , v i s u a l and n o n - v i s u a l , t o s i m p l e

pictures. I n t h e i r E x p l a n a t o r y N o t e s and Remarks on M i l t o n ' s P a r a d i s e

L o s t t h e two R i c h a r d s o n s s i m i l a r l y declare that the proper response to

M i l t o n ' s p o e t r y l e a d s t o "a W e l l - C h o s e n C o l l e c t i o n o f P o e t i c a l Pictures,"

and they comment i n t h e same s p i r i t on passages f r o m h i s work: "a

Wonderful p i c t u r e , " "Here i s an amazing P i c t u r e , " " I w i s h R a f a e l l e had

29

attempted this."

The f o r e g o i n g examples o f p o e t r y c o n s i d e r e d as p a i n t i n g i n d i -

cate t h e i n t i m a c y e x i s t i n g between t h e s i s t e r arts, the extent to which

t h e H o r a t i a n p h r a s e . u± p i c t u r a p o e s i s s e r v e d a s v i r t u a l command t o

critic and p o e t , and t h e e l e v a t e d s t a t u s g a i n e d by p a i n t i n g i n t h e

eighteenth century. T h e y c o n f i r m the. w i d e s p r e a d r e c o g n i t i o n o f an

i d e a l standard o f p e r f o r m a n c e and a c c o m p l i s h m e n t i n t h e g r a p h i c arts,

showing thereby t h a t p i c t o r i a l poetry i n t h e n e o - c l a s s i c a l p e r i o d , as

opposed t o E n g l i s h m e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y , was n o t

s u s t a i n e d by antecedent l i t e r a t u r e alone or p r i m a r i l y . F i n a l l y , the

 44

examples c i t e d above suggest t h a t , t h e t a s t e f o r European p a i n t i n g and

s c u l p t u r e w h i c h now n o u r i s h e d p i c t o r i a l i s m i n p o e t r y was b a s e d solidly

on a n u n q u e s t i o n i n g a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e , a s o n e o f

t h e g r e a t a g e s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f man. Joseph Warton d e s c r i b e d t h e

p e r i o d o f t h e I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e as t h e f o u r t h o f f i v e ages i n t h e

world " i n w h i c h t h e human m i n d h a s e x e r t e d i t s e l f i n a n

extraordinary

manner; and i n w h i c h i t s p r o d u c t i o n s i n l i t e r a t u r e and t h e f i n e arts

30
have a r r i v e d at a perfection, not equalled i n other periods." And

Pope, i n a compactly e n t h u s i a s t i c passage, e x t o l l e d the I t a l i a n

R e n a i s s a n c e as an awakening o f t h e arts, of a n t i q u i t y from their

medieval slumber t o g r e a t and " g o l d e n " d a y s :

But s e e ! each Muse, i n Leo's Golden Days,

S t a r t s from h e r T r a n c e , and t r i m s h e r w i t h e r ' d Bays!
Rome's a n c i e n t G e n i u s , o ' e r i t s R u i n s s p r e a d ,
Shakes o f f t h e D u s t , and r e a r s h i s r e v ' r e n d Head!
Then S c u l p t u r e and h e r S j s t e r - A r t s r e v i v e ;
S t o n e s l e a p ' d to' F o r m , a n d R o c k s b e g a n t o l i v e ; ,
W i t h s w e e t e r Notes each r i s i n g Temple r u n g ;
A Raphael p a i n t e d , and a V i d a sung!31

Eighteenth-century E n g l i s h taste d i dnot s e r i o u s l y concern it-

self with early fifteenth-century Italian artists l i k e M a s a c c i o and

Donatello.. These a r t i s t s were o f i n t e r e s t , i fat a l l , only, as t h e

predecessors of the great masters o f t h e H i g h R e n a i s s a n c e , who,, i n t h e

standard taste, c o m p l e t e l y e c l i p s e d e a r l i e r R e n a i s s a n c e p a i n t e r s and

sculptors.

The m o s t h i g h l y a d m i r e d and a c c l a i m e d o f H i g h Renaissance

p a i n t e r s was R a p h a e l , t h e " d i v i n e p a i n t e r . " Joseph Warton speaks o f

t h e "beauty and s u b l i m i t y o f h i s g e n i u s , " s a y i n g o f h i s V a t i c a n

 45

frescoes t h a t they a r e " w o r t h y t h e g r e a t name he at present so deser-

32

vedly possesses." Jonathon Richardson p r a i s e s him as "the great model

o f p e r f e c t i o n " and makes t h e c l a i m t h a t , i f a l l t h e p a i n t e r s w e r e

grouped-in t h r e e c l a s s e s a c c o r d i n g t o m e r i t , R a p h a e l "must be allowed

33

to possess the f i r s t alone." T h i s homage, w h i c h , was nearly universal

i n England, does not reflect itself i n the r e l a t i o n s between the

p a i n t i n g o f R a p h a e l and pictorialism i n neo-classical poetry. Raphael's

direct i n f l u e n c e i s l e s s than t h a t of p a i n t e r s c o n s i d e r e d inferior to

him. H i s c l a s s i c i s m , h i s i d e a l i z a t i o n of form, and his naturalistic

symbolism, though h i g h l y compatible w i t h the l i t e r a r y v a l u e s of neo-

c l a s s i c i s m , influenced poetry only i n d i r e c t l y — t h r o u g h Raphaelesque

p a i n t e r s l i k e C o r r e g g i o , G i u l i o Romano, and Guido Reni.

Michelangelo's r e p u t a t i o n d e c l i n e d during the l a t e seventeenth

and e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y when i t was often felt that h i s style was

s t r a i n e d and h i s n a t u r a l i s m sometimes crude, florid, or grotesque.

L a t e r i n the c e n t u r y , however, h i s r e p u t a t i o n r e v i v e d . Reynolds spoke

o f h i s " g r a n d e u r and s e v e r i t y " and regarded him as the g r e a t e s t of a l l

34
artists. B u r k e ' s p r o t e g e " , James B a r r y , a p a i n t e r o f t h e S u b l i m e ,
35

became i n 1769 "a f u r i o u s e n t h u s i a s t f o r M i c h a e l A n g e l o , " a fact

which connects Michelangelo's rise i n fame w i t h t h e g r o w t h o f the

Burkeian Sublime.•

L e o n a r d o was known and a d m i r e d more f o r t h e v e r s a t i l i t y of h i s

cultural activities than f o r h i s p a i n t i n g . Thanks t o h i s w r i t i n g ,

w h i c h was known i n t r a n s l a t i o n , he was regarded as a "most > s i n g u l a r

36
Instance o f an U n i v e r s a l G e n i u s . "
 46

Titian, s t a n d i n g a t t h e head o f t h e V e n e t i a n school,-appealed

strongly to connoisseurs, c r i t i c s , and p o e t s , as d i d t h e V e n e t i a n s

ranking a f t e r him. The a p p e a l o f T i t i a n , V e r o n e s e , T i n t o r e t t o , and t h e

whole of t h e Venetian school l a yi n their a l l u r i n g exhibition of the

q u a l i t i e s demanded b y c r i t i c i s m , i n t h e i r v i v a c i o u s , sensuous, natural-

istic rendering of r e a l i t y . R e y n o l d s , . i t i s t r u e , found only "florid

eloquence" i n their "splendid or-ornamental" style, t o w h i c h he opposed

the i d e a l of t h e " g r e a t " o r "grand" style. B u t e v e n h e made a n e x c e p -

t i o n o f T i t i a n , w h o , . " t h o u g h h i s s t y l e i s n o t a s p u r e a s t h a t o f many

o t h e r o f t h e I t a l i a n s c h o o l s , " was e x e m p t e d f r o m c o n d e m n a t i o n b y a " s o r t

37

o f s e n a t o r i a l d i g n i t y " w h i c h "seems t o become h i m h a n d s o m e l y . "

The h i g h r e g a r d f o r t h e F l e m i s h a r t i s t Rubens, s i g n i f i e s a

f u r t h e r , and e x t r e m e l y important, aspect of eighteenth-century taste i n

painting: t h e great a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e baroque masters of t h e Bolognese

school.. The g e n e r a l e s t e e m f o r t h e C a r r a c c i , D o m e n i c h i n o , G u i d o Reni,

as w e l l a s f o r o t h e r b a r o q u e a r t i s t s such as Caravaggio, Rubens, and

Nicolas Poussin, nearly r i v a l l e d the neo-classical admiration f o r the

g r e a t p a i n t e r s o f t h e Renaissance'. E n g l i s h p o e t s , i n f a c t , w e r e more

likely t o be d i r e c t l y indebted t o t h e s e B o l o g n e s e and o t h e r b a r o q u e .

artists than t o R a p h a e l , -Leonardo, M i c h e l a n g e l o , o r T i t i a n . . Though

E n g l i s h n e o - c l a s s i c i s m was f u n d a m e n t a l l y o r i e n t e d toward the I t a l i a n

Renaissance, r e b e l l i n g against seventeenth-century metaphysical w i t i n

p o e t r y a n d " s a c r a m e n t a l i s m " . i n a r t , i t s p o e t r y was n o n e t h e l e s s closer

t o and s t r o n g l y , i n f l u e n c e d by t h e B o l o g n e s e " e c l e c t i c s " and t h e i r

f o l l o w e r s , who j o i n e d t h e c l a s s i c i s m o f t h e H i g h R e n a i s s a n c e with the

 47

expressive and h i g h l y c h a r g e d movement and energy a s s o c i a t e d with the

baroque. This combination of v a l u e s i n . t h e Bologna of the Carracci is

paralleled i n t h e L o n d o n o f D r y d e n and Pope. The c l a s s i c i s m of

P a l l a d i a n a r c h i t e c t u r e was accompanied by the baroque c h o i r stalls

c a r v e d i n S t . P a u l ' s by G r i n l i n g G i b b o n s and b y the massive, dramatic

a r c h i t e c t u r e of the " B r i t i s h B e r n i n i , " Vanbrugh. Neo-classical poetry

reflected t h e s e opposed t e n d e n c i e s a s ' w e l l : the c l a s s i c a l Dryden wrote

odes w i t h Rubensian v i s u a l imagery; the admirer of R a p h a e l , Pope, was

often reminiscent o f A n n i b a l e C a r r a c c i ; Thomson, who regarded the

R e n a i s s a n c e h i g h l y , d e p e n d e d on G u i d o R e n i r a t h e r than Raphael; and

Gray s e t h i s b o r r o w i n g s . f r o m Raphael i n the w i l d e r n e s s of n a t u r e or

heroic tale.'"^

The e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i d e a l of a r t i s t i c excellence, then,

emphasized the n e o - c l a s s i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n toward the Renaissance and

c l a s s i c a l Rome, f e r t i l i z i n g the ancient critical doctrine o f u_t p i c t u r a

poesis not only with impulses from Renaissance p a i n t i n g but with sug-

gestive influences from the p a i n t i n g o f p o s t - R e n a i s s a n c e E u r o p e as well.

F u r t h e r m o r e , i t o f f e r e d models, f o r p o e t i c pictorialism not only ; in

a c t u a l p a i n t i n g s , p a i n t e r s , and schools of p a i n t i n g but also i n the

v e r y a r t "which i t r e p r e s e n t e d , t h e a r t of p a i n t i n g i t s e l f . The pictorial

image i n p o e t r y c o u l d resemble p a i n t i n g , p a i n t e r , or s c h o o l ; the poetic

technique, the a r t of painting.

P o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m as a t e c h n i q u e r e s e m b l i n g the a r t of painting

can be understood i n the light of what c r i t i c s and aestheticians felt

t o be the most i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the a r t of p a i n t i n g : i t s

 48

ability t o p r o d u c e i t s e f f e c t s u d d e n l y , i n one revealing instant.

Leonardo, arguing the s u p e r i o r i t y of p a i n t e r over p o e t , a d d r e s s e d these

w o r d s t o t h e p o e t : ,.

The p a i n t e r w i l l s u r p a s s y o u b e c a u s e y o u r p e n w i l l be w o r n o u t b e -
f o r e y o u d e s c r i b e f u l l y w h a t t h e p a i n t e r w i t h h i s medium c a n
r e p r e s e n t a t o n c e . Y o u r t o n g u e w i l l be p a r a l y z e d w i t h t h i r s t and
y o u r b o d y w i t h s l e e p and h u n g e r , b e f o r e y o u d e p i c t w i t h w o r d s what,
t h e p a i n t e r w i l l show y o u i n a moment .-39

Dryden a s s e r t e d t h a t i t was to "the advantage of p a i n t i n g , even above

t r a g e d y , t h a t what t h i s last represents i n the s p a c e o f many h o u r s , the

f o r m e r shews us i n one moment." Jonathon Richardson s a i d that "painting

pours ideas i n t o our m i n d s , words o n l y d r o p them"; w i t h p a i n t i n g "the

w h o l e s c e n e o p e n s a t one view, whereas the other way lifts up the curtain

by little and little." And Reynolds wrote that the painter "cannot,

like t h e p o e t o r h i s t o r i a n , e x p a t i a t e , and impress the mind w i t h great

veneration f o r the character o f t h e h e r o o r s a i n t he represents"; he

40

has "but one sentence to u t t e r , but one moment t o e x h i b i t . "

This c o n s c i o u s n e s s of a s i m u l t a n e i t y of d e t a i l i n painting

similar to that i n nature i m p l i e s the same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t h e imagery

emulating p a i n t i n g . And much o f the p i c t o r i a l imagery i n n e o - c l a s s i c a l

poetry d o e s seem t o d u p l i c a t e t h i s q u a l i t y i n p a i n t i n g . Neo-classical

images o f t e n s u g g e s t , b r i e f l y and economically, physical detail; they

frequently r e d u c e m o t i o n o r encompass i t w i t h i n a framework of stasis,

h i n t at s p a t i a l s i m u l t a n e i t y of d e t a i l , and evoke i d e a s . In doing this

as v i s u a l i m a g e s , they, r e s e m b l e t h e a r t of painting.

Finally, i n a d d i t i o n to supporting u_t p i c t u r a p o e s i s , accenting

 49
the o r i e n t a t i o n to Renaissance Italy and c l a s s i c a l Rome, and offering

t h e a r t o f p a i n t i n g as m o d e l i n a d d i t i o n t o a c t u a l p a i n t i n g s and

p a i n t e r s , the eighteenth-century artistic pantheon served yet another

purpose. I t helped t o d e f i n e n e o - c l a s s i c a l n a t u r a l i s m and i d e a l i s m .

T h u s T i t i a n and the V e n e t i a n s , as w e l l as s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y land- .

scapists, o f t e n e x h i b i t e d the q u a l i t i e s of e n a r g e i a i n t h e i r natural-

istic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , w h i l e Raphael, A n n i b a l e C a r r a c c i , and Nicolas

Poussin f r e q u e n t l y d i s p l a y e d the statuesque idealization typical of

Augustan p o e t i c images. N e o - c l a s s i c a l n a t u r a l i s m and idealism represent

and express t h e two k i n d s o f " n a t u r e " w h o s e c l a r i f i c a t i o n was earlier

d e s c r i b e d as important t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of n e o - c l a s s i c a l pictor-

ialism. D i s c u s s i o n of these two ideas w i l l comprise the remainder of

this chapter..

Eighteenth-century literary and a r t i s t i c naturalism and

i d e a l i s m are expressions r e s p e c t i v e l y of v i s i b l e , concrete, particular

nature and typical, generic, archetypal nature. Jonathon Richardson

makes a common d i s t i n c t i o n when he c h a r a c t e r i z e s the p a i n t i n g of North

and S o u t h E u r o p e i n t e r m s o f n a t u r a l i s m and i d e a l i s m :

T h e r e i s some d e g r e e o f m e r i t i n a p i c t u r e w h e r e n a t u r e . i s e x a c t l y
c o p i e d , t h o u g h i n a l o w s u b j e c t ; s u c h as d r o l l s , c o u n t r y - w a k e s ,
f l o w e r s , l a n d s c a p e s , e t c . and more, i n p r o p o r t i o n as t h e s u b j e c t
r i s e s , o r t h e end o f t h e p i c t u r e , i s t h i s e x a c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
H e r e i n t h e D u t c h , and F l e m i s h m a s t e r s h a v e b e e n e q u a l t o t h e
I t a l i a n s , i f n o t s u p e r i o r t o them i n g e n e r a l . What g i v e s t h e
I t a l i a n s , and t h e i r m a s t e r s t h e a n c i e n t s t h e p r e f e r e n c e , i s , t h a t
t h e y h a v e n o t s e r v i l e l y f o l l o w e d common n a t u r e , b u t r a i s e d , and
i m p r o v e d , o r a t l e a s t h a v e a l w a y s made t h e b e s t c h o i c e o f i t . 4 1

N a t u r a l i s m and i d e a l i s m are a l s o implied c l e a r l y i n Johnson's double

 50
d e f i n i t i o n of the word " m i r r o r , " a word prominent i n l i t e r a r y criticism

s i n c e the time of P l a t o . Johnson defines the word as a "looking-glass;

anything which e x h i b i t s representations of o b j e c t s by reflection," and

as a "pattern ... on w h i c h t h e eye ought t o be f i x e d " ; an "exemplar;

42

an archetype." The literary or a r t i s t i c work of a r t which exactly

copies nature, reflecting i t s details like a looking-glass, w i l l express

the values of enargeia,. the v i v i d , v i g o r o u s , palpable, lifelike imita-

t i o n of o b s e r v a b l e n a t u r e . The work s e l e c t i n g from, r a i s i n g , and

improving nature w i l l o f f e r , without destroying the t r u t h of i t s subject,.,

a generalized or s y n t h e s i z e d i d e a l i z a t i o n of nature.

Joseph Warton c o n s t a n t l y stresses the need f o r v e r b a l enargeia.

Describing the r o l e of p a r t i c u l a r i t y i n attaining poetic excellence, he

asserts that "the use, the f o r c e , and the excellence of language,

certainly consists i n raising c l e a r , c o m p l e t e , and c i r c u m s t a n t i a l images,

and i n turning readers i n t o spectators," and he w a r n s t h a t "I think I

can perceive many symptoms, e v e n among w r i t e r s o f e m i n e n c e , o f departing

from these t r u e , l i v e l y , and minute representations o f N a t u r e , and of

dwelling i n g e n e r a l i t i e s . " Warton j u s t i f i e s h i s promulgation of

literary enargeia by citing classical precedent:

Among t h e o t h e r f o r t u n a t e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t a t t e n d e d Homer, i t was

n o t one o f t h e l e a s t , t h a t he w r o t e b e f o r e g e n e r a l and a b s t r a c t
terms were i n v e n t e d . H e n c e h i s . Muse ( l i k e h i s own H e l e n s t a n d i n g
on t h e w a l l s o f T r o y ) p o i n t s o u t e v e r y p e r s o n , and t h i n g , a c c u r a t e l y
and f o r c i b l y . A l l t h e v i e w s and p r o s p e c t s he l a y s b e f o r e u s ,
appear . . . f u l l y and p e r f e c t l y , t o t h e e y e . 4 3

Warton's emphasis upon the sense of s i g h t l i n k s him to Addison,

 51

t h e c r i t i c w h o s e S p e c t a t o r p a p e r s on t h e " P l e a s u r e s of the Imagination"

best illustrate the s i g n i f i c a n c e of n a t u r a l i s m i n eighteenth-century

a e s t h e t i c thought. Addison r e i t e r a t e s the n o t i o n found i n antiquity

and the Renaissance, and i m p l i e d by W a r t o n , t h a t s i g h t i s "the most per-

44

f e e t and m o s t d e l i g h t f u l o f a l l o u r senses." To h i m the, p l e a s u r e s

of the i m a g i n a t i o n are "such P l e a s u r e s as a r i s e o r i g i n a l l y from S i g h t "

(411). But t h o u g h we " c a n n o t i n d e e d h a v e a s i n g l e Image i n t h e

F a n c y t h a t d i d n o t make i t s f i r s t Entrance through the Sight,", these

i m a g e s , o n c e r e c e i v e d , may be altered and compounded " i n t o a l l t h e

V a r i e t i e s o f P i c t u r e and Vision t h a t a r e most a g r e e a b l e to the Imagin-

a t i o n " ' (411) . The p l e a s u r e s o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n may thus arise from

v i s i b l e o b j e c t s i n two w a y s : " e i t h e r when we h a v e them a c t u a l l y in our

V i e w , o r when we c a l l up their Ideas i n t o our Minds by P a i n t i n g s ,

S t a t u e s , D e s c r i p t i o n s , o r any the l i k e Occasion" (411). Hence the

d i s t i n c t i o n between the primary p l e a s u r e s of the i m a g i n a t i o n , which .

" e n t i r e l y proceed from such Objects as a r e . b e f o r e o u r , E y e s , " and the

secondary p l e a s u r e s , which " f l o w from the Ideas of v i s i b l e Objects,

when t h e O b j e c t s are not actually before the' E y e , " being "called up

i n t o bur Memories, or formed i n t o agreeable V i s i o n s of Things that are

e i t h e r Absent or F i c t i t i o u s " (411). Addison finds three principal

sources f o r primary p l e a s u r e s i n t h e g r e a t , t h e uncommon, and the

beautiful (412), w h i l e , i n the comparison between the ideas, " a r i s i n g

f r o m t h e O r i g i n a l O b j e c t s " and the " I d e a s we r e c e i v e from the Statue,

P i c t u r e , D e s c r i p t i o n , o r Sound t h a t r e p r e s e n t s t h e m , " he finds the

secondary p l e a s u r e s t h a t g i v e us o u r " r e l i s h of S t a t u a r y j P a i n t i n g , and

 52

D e s c r i p t i o n " '(416). He orders, the mimetic arts (except for gardening

and architecture) after the degree of t h e i r resemblance to t h e i r orig,-

inals: s c u l p t u r e , p a i n t i n g , v e r b a l d e s c r i p t i o n , and m u s i c (416).

T h i s p o s i t i o n e m p h a s i z e s o r i g i n a l n a t u r e , and supports the

wartonian idea that excellence i s achieved in.art and poetry through

the n a t u r a l i s t i c r e p r o d u c t i o n of v i s u a l experience. Enargeia is

a t t a i n e d when " a r t i f i c i a l Works" b e n e f i t from " t h e i r Resemblance of

such as a r e n a t u r a l " ( 4 1 4 ) , when s t a t u a r y and painting simulate

physical reality and p o e t r y e m u l a t e s them.by r e c a l l i n g v i s i b l e nature

and p l a c i n g i t w i t h i n mental,view. I t i s no s u r p r i s e t h a t the pleasures

associated w i t h nature are primary, t h o s e w i t h a r t and poetry, secondary.

Addison's s y s t e m , h o w e v e r , c o m p r e h e n d s more t h a n a simple,

direct naturalism. F o r h i s n a t u r a l i s m , "an e x t e n s i o n o f L o c k e ' s on the

45

sources o f i d e a s , " - t h o u g h b a s e d on v i s i b l e , o b j e c t i v e n a t u r e , - i s com-

p l i c a t e d by . t h e f a c t t h a t the appeal e x e r t e d by t h e . g r e a t , t h e uncommon,

and the b e a u t i f u l i n nature exceeds the p u r e l y v i s u a l , s t i m u l a t i n g

psychological effects and r e a c t i o n s whose wholesome m o r a l , emotional,

and o t h e r v a l u e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e . , "Unbounded V i e w s " o f mountain,

d e s e r t , o r o c e a n f l i n g us into "a p l e a s i n g A s t o n i s h m e n t " i n which we

f e e l " a d e l i g h t f u l S t i l n e s s and Amazement i n t h e S o u l . " "A spacious

H o r i z o n " , b e c o m e s "an Image o f L i b e r t y . " The new o r uncommon "fills

t h e S o u l w i t h an a g r e e a b l e Surprise, gratifies i t s C u r i o s i t y , and gives .

it a n I d e a o f w h i c h i t was not before possest" (412). And "delight-

ful scenes, whether i n Nature, P a i n t i n g , or P o e t r y , have a kindly

I n f l u e n c e on t h e B o d y , as w e l l as t h e M i n d . " They n o t only "serve to

 53
c l e a r and b r i g h t e n the Imagination," but they a l s o " d i s p e r s e G r i e f and

Melancholy" and "set the Animal Spirits i n p l e a s i n g and agreeable

Motions" (411). P o e t r y adds t o our v i s u a l p l e a s u r e of o b j e c t s t h a t

o f t h e " A p t n e s s o f t h e D e s c r i p t i o n " w h i c h e x c i t e s them. Thus the

p l e a s u r e of comparing the o r i g i n a l w i t h i t s p o e t i c r e f l e c t i o n permits

enjoyment of even the d i s a g r e e a b l e or r e p e l l e n t : "The D e s c r i p t i o n of a

D u n g h i l l i s p l e a s i n g to the Imagination, i f t h e Image be represented

to our. M i n d s b y suitable Expressions" (418).

Addison's n a t u r a l i s m i s f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by the f a c t that

his d i s t i n c t i o n between primary and secondary pleasures i s not the dis-

t i n c t i o n between n a t u r e and art. Nature, f o r example, can y i e l d secon-

dary pleasures. For although i t alone i s t r u l y v a s t and w i l d , and

although " w i l d S c e n e s " a r e "more d e l i g h t f u l t h a n any artificial Shows,"

the works of n a t u r e are " s t i l l more p l e a s a n t , t h e more t h e y resemble

those of a r t " :

For i n t h i s case our P l e a s u r e r i s e s from a double P r i n c i p l e ; from

t h e A g r e e a b l e n e s s . o f t h e O b j e c t s t o t h e E y e , and f r o m t h e i r S i m i l i -
t u d e t o o t h e r O b j e c t s : We a r e p l e a s e d as w e l l w i t h c o m p a r i n g t h e i r
B e a u t i e s , as w i t h s u r v e y i n g t h e m , and c a n r e p r e s e n t t h e m t o o u r
M i n d s , e i t h e r as C o p i e s o r O r i g i n a l s ; (414) :

Here n a t u r e produces a secondary p l e a s u r e by suggesting the a r t works

it resembles. Addison thus b r i n g s t o mind the p i c t u r e s q u e of W i l l i a m

Gilpin, the landscape a p p r o p r i a t e f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on canvas because

composed l i k e a p i c t u r e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , he sees a r c h i t e c t u r e

y i e l d i n g primary pleasures. The "immediate Tendency" of a r c h i t e c t u r e

to produce secondary p l e a s u r e s stems from i t s " g r e a t n e s s , " an

 54

excellence which manifests itself not only i n s i z e but i n "manner."

"Manner" has "such f o r c e upon the Imagination, that a small Building,

where i t appears, s h a l l g i v e the Mind n o b l e r I d e a s t h a n one of twenty

times the B u l k , where the Manner i s o r d i n a r y or l i t t l e " (415).

These m a t t e r s c o m p l i c a t e the n a t u r a l i s m of Addison's a e s t h e t i c

system but a t t h e same t i m e t h e y show t h a t f o r h i m aesthetic value is

t o be f o u n d i n . t h e human m i n d as w e l l as i n nature. His system embraces

the ancient d o c t r i n e of enargeia, t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f f o r c e and vividness

in the t r a n s c r i p t i o n of v i s i b l e n a t u r e , thereby maintaining the

important eighteenth-century v i e w t h a t t h e power o f a r t l a y i n d e a l i n g

with r e a l nature. But i t also locates this enargeia not i n the observed

o b j e c t or scene or i n t h e i r rendering but i n the process of s e e i n g , in

t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e human i m a g i n a t i o n . In h i s "Preface to Shakespeare"

J o h n s o n makes t h e same d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " o b j e c t i v e " and "mental".

e n a r g e i a when h e says that

i m i t a t i o n s produce p a i n or p l e a s u r e , not because they are mistaken

f o r r e a l i t i e s , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y b r i n g r e a l i t i e s t o m i n d . When t h e
i m a g i n a t i o n i s r e c r e a t e d by a p a i n t e d l a n d s c a p e , the t r e e s a r e n o t
s u p p o s e d c a p a b l e t o g i v e us s h a d e , o r t h e f o u n t a i n s c o o l n e s s ; b u t
we c o n s i d e r , how we s h o u l d be p l e a s e d w i t h s u c h f o u n t a i n s , p l a y i n g
b e s i d e u s , and s u c h woods w a v i n g o v e r u s . ^6.

Similarly, Reynolds says that the "great end" of the a r t of p a i n t i n g i s

"to strike the imagination." The p a i n t e r i s " t o make no o s t e n t a t i o n of

t h e means b y w h i c h t h i s i s done;.the s p e c t a t o r i s only to f e e l the

47

result i n h i s bosom."

To the t r a d i t i o n a l d o c t r i n e of the imitation of n a t u r e , then,

A d d i s o n added "the sanctions of Newtonian p h y s i c s and Lockean

 55

epistemology," producing thereby, a " c o m b i n a t i o n of a n c i e n t aesthetic

p r i n c i p l e and modern s c i e n t i f i c p s y c h o l o g y t h a t was e x c i t i n g to the

48

eighteenth century." Later poets, l i k e T h o m s o n , . l e a r n e d many things

from him, "but p e r h a p s none more i m p o r t a n t then the n e c e s s i t y of

developing the imagination by l o o k i n g a t and seeing those objects in

49

the n a t u r a l world t h a t most s t i m u l a t e d the imagination."

The shift of focus d e m o n s t r a t e d by A d d i s o n f r o m o b j e c t , canvas,

o r page t o mind o r i m a g i n a t i o n i s r e f l e c t e d elsewhere i n the century by

attitudes hostile to the ancient and R e n a i s s a n c e v i e w o f a r t as illus-

ionistic deception. Johnson's words quoted above a r e taken from the

s e c t i o n of h i s " P r e f a c e " a t t a c k i n g the need f o r s l a v i s h adherence to

the u n i t i e s i n drama, the "supposed n e c e s s i t y of making the drama

c r e d i b l e " by making i t a p p r o x i m a t e o r i m i t a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s of real

t i m e and place. S i m i l a r l y , R e y n o l d s ' a b o v e - q u o t e d r e m a r k on the purpose

o f p a i n t i n g comes f r o m t h e a t t a c k i n h i s f o u r t h D i s c o u r s e on the

s e n s u o u s n a t u r a l i s m o f V e r o n e s e , T i n t o r e t t o , and Rubens. Reynolds

d e c r i e s elsewhere the "mere c o p i e r o f n a t u r e , " t h e a r t i s t who seeks

p r a i s e by "deceiving the s u p e r f i c i a l sense of the spectator" instead of

fame t h r o u g h " c a p t i v a t i n g t h e imagination." A r t should be concerned

not w i t h "a n a t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a . g i v e n o b j e c t " b u t with "what i t

i s n a t u r a l f o r the imagination t o be delighted with." And as for the

analogy of the mirror:

When s u c h a man as P l a t o s p e a k s o f P a i n t i n g as o n l y an i m i t a t i v e
a r t , and t h a t o u r p l e a s u r e p r o c e e d s f r o m o b s e r v i n g and a c k n o w l e d g -
i n g t h e t r u t h o f t h e i m i t a t i o n , I t h i n k he m i s l e a d s us b y a p a r t i a l
theory. I t i s t h i s p o o r , p a r t i a l , and s o f a r , f a l s e , v i e w o f t h e .
 56

a r t . . . t h a t i s a d o p t e d b y P o p e i n h i s E p i t a p h on S i r G o d f r e y
K n e l l e r . . . h e t u r n s t h e p a n e g y r i c k s o l e l y on i m i t a t i o n as i t i s
a s o r t of deception.50

For Cowper, t o o , , t h e m i r r o r i s no longer t h e poem b u t the mind. In

The .Task he w r i t e s t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r the poet to " a r r e s t the

fleeting i m a g e s , " t o " h o l d them f a s t " i n "the m i r r o r o f t h e m i n d " until

he has "p e n c i l ' d o f f " a " f a i t h f u l l i k e n e s s o f t h e f o r m s he views."

The shift of focus, from work of a r t t o b e h o l d e r enabled the

eighteenth-century,poet to r e a l i z e ut p i c t u r a poesis without resorting

to the d e s c r i p t i v e technique common i n c l a s s i c a l and Renaissance

p i c t o r i a l poetry. Instead of sensuously "painting" static verbal

d u p l i c a t e s of a r t o b j e c t s , d e s c r i p t i v e l y enumerating t h e i r d e t a i l s one

a f t e r another, as i n Homer, V i r g i l , Ovid, S p e n s e r and Shakespeare, the

n e o - c l a s s i c a l poet suggested p i c t u r e s b r i e f l y and economically, evoking

them i n t h e m i n d s o f h i s r e a d e r s by h i n t s of p a i n t e r l y t e c h n i q u e or

composition o r by p i c t o r i a l d e t a i l s e l e c t e d from f a m i l i a r p a i n t i n g s ,

p a i n t e r s , or schools of p a i n t i n g . The p o e t c o u l d s a f e l y d e p e n d on the

v i s u a l imagination o f h i s a u d i e n c e , , on its ability to recognize and

a p p r e c i a t e h i s i c o n i c r e f e r e n c e s . . Not o n l y c o u l d he appeal to this

imaginative f a c u l t y , as shown by the l i v e l y and inventive reactions of

J o s e p h W a r t o n and the Jonathon Richardsons, but a l s o he could c o n t r o l

it through h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n of

e x c e l l e n c e i n p a i n t i n g and sculpture.

But i f pictorial suggestiveness i n n e o - c l a s s i c a l poetry i s .

dissimilar to the i m i t a t i v e p i c t o r i a l i s m o f c l a s s i c a l and Renaissance

times, i t i s not a l t o g e t h e r so w i t h r e s p e c t , t o t h e p i c t o r i a l i s m o f the

 57

m e t a p h y s i c a l and baroque c e n t u r y p r e c e d i n g i t . This p i c t o r i a l i s m too,

as has been shown, i s h i g h l y s u g g e s t i v e . However, p i c t o r i a l s u g g e s t i o n

i n the emblematic and " s a c r a m e n t a l " p o e t r y of the s e v e n t e e n t h century

i s o r i e n t e d to the i n v i s i b l e , e t e r n a l w o r l d of the s u p e r n a t u r a l , w h i l e

the p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y s u g g e s t i v e n e o - c l a s s i c a l i c o n , i l l u s t r a t e d i n the

p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r by the example, of L o v e l a c e , i s o r i e n t e d to the o r d i n a r y

w o r l d of v i s i b l e n a t u r e , human e x p e r i e n c e , and s o c i a l r e a l i t y . Though

the n e o - c l a s s i c a l m i r r o r , as A d d i s o n shows, i s h e l d up to the i m a g i n a -

t i o n , the i m a g i n a t i o n i t s e l f , as he f u r t h e r shows, i s h e l d up i n i t s

turn to nature.

A d d i s o n ' s n a t u r a l i s m shows how u_t p i c t u r a p o e s i s depended on

v i s i b l e , o b j e c t i v e n a t u r e , how i t r e l a t e d t o the t r a d i t i o n of E n g l i s h

empiricism. H i s n a t u r a l i s m a l s o shows t h a t e n a r g e i a , though s t i l l the

unweakened p r o d u c t of man's l i v i n g c o n t a c t w i t h e x t e r n a l n a t u r e , was

now more s u b j e c t i v e a phenomenon than ever b e f o r e i n i t s h i s t o r y .

P o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m , however, was not l i m i t e d to l i t e r a r y n a t u r a l i s m

and r e a l i s t i c e f f e c t . :
The e a r l i e r - q u o t e d remarks of Jonathon R i c h a r d s o n

on the "common" and " r a i s e d " n a t u r e of Dutch and I t a l i a n p a i n t i n g and

J o h n s o n ' s d e f i n i t i o n of the word " m i r r o r " as " p a t t e r n " o r "exemplar"

i n t r o d u c e not o n l y t h e . c o n c r e t e , c i r c u m s t a n t i a l n a t u r e e x p r e s s e d by

l i t e r a r y n a t u r a l i s m b u t a l s o the u n i f o r m , g e n e r i c n a t u r e e x p r e s s e d by

the a r t i s t i c i d e a l i s m t h a t sought essence and permanence by h e i g h t e n i n g

and u n i v e r s a l i z i n g r e a l i t y w i t h o u t d e s t r o y i n g i t s form o r meaning.

P i c t o r i a l i s m was as c l o s e l y bound up w i t h t h i s i d e a l i s m as i t was w i t h

n a t u r a l i s m and h e l p e d t o s e r v e i t s purposes no l e s s .
 58

The t h e o r y o f i d e a l n a t u r e i n a r t , a n d poetry, i s t y p i f i e d by

the c r i t i c i s m o f Samuel Johnson and h i s f r i e n d Joshua Reynolds. Johnson,

through I m l a c , made t h e famous statement t h a t t h e poet's aim i s " t o

examine,.not t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t t h e s p e c i e s ; t o remark g e n e r a l p r o p e r -

t i e s and l a r g e appearances." F o r " n o t h i n g can p l e a s e many, and p l e a s e

52

long,,but j u s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of general nature." This idea i s

echoed and e l a b o r a t e d by R e y n o l d s ' pronouncement t h a t

t h e r e i s b u t one p r e s i d i n g p r i n c i p l e w h i c h r e g u l a t e s , and g i v e s
s t a b i l i t y t o e v e r y a r t . The w o r k s , whether o f p o e t s , p a i n t e r s ,
m o r a l i s t s , o r h i s t o r i a n s , w h i c h are, b u i l t upon g e n e r a l n a t u r e , l i v e
f o r e v e r ; w h i l e those w h i c h depend f o r t h e i r e x i s t e n c e on p a r t i c u l a r
customs and h a b i t s , a p a r t i a l v i e w o f n a t u r e , o r t h e f l u c t u a t i o n o f
f a s h i o n , can o n l y be c o e v a l w i t h t h a t w h i c h f i r s t r a i s e d them from
obscurity.

I d e a l n a t u r e was a l s o a c h i e v e d and i s s y m b o l i z e d by t h e s o - c a l l e d

"Claude g l a s s , " t h e plano-convex m i r r o r c a r r i e d by t o u r i s t s l i k e Gray

because t h e s l i g h t c o n v e x i t y o f t h e g l a s s , mounted on i t s b l a c k foil,

reduced c o l o u r s t o a lower r a t i o , and accented tonal values. The g l a s s

gathered each scene r e f l e c t e d i n i t i n t o a t i n y i d e a l i z e d p i c t u r e , r e -

54

p r o d u c i n g a n a t u r e " c o r r e c t e d " and "improved" b u t y e t n a t u r e still.

Its f u n c t i o n e x a c t l y p a r a l l e l s and demonstrates t h a t o f t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l

m i r r o r w h i c h " r e f i n e d " n a t u r e by r e f l e c t i n g q u a l i t i e s , t e n d e n c i e s , and

forms w i t h i n o r b e h i n d t h e a c t u a l rather, than g r o s s and i n d i s c r i m i n a t e

reality itself.

The i d e a l i z e d n a t u r e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y had l i t t l e o r

n o t h i n g i n common w i t h the" t r a n s c e n d e n t a l Ideas o r Forms o f N e o p l a t o n i s m

w h i c h were " u l t i m a t e l y t r a n s - e m p i r i c a l , m a i n t a i n i n g an independent

 59

existence i n t h e i r own i d e a l s p a c e , a n d a v a i l a b l e o n l y t o the.eye of

t h e mind.""'"' Reynolds expressed the general v i e w when he s t a t e d that

i d e a l p e r f e c t i o n and b e a u t y " a r e n o t t o be sought i n t h e heavens, b u t

56
upon t h e e a r t h , " s i n c e " t h e y a r e about us and upon e v e r y s i d e o f u s . "

Since, d i k e almost every other w r i t e r , he " p s y c h o l o g i z e d the Platonic

I d e a , and e m p i r i c i z e d t h e method o f a c h i e v i n g it," Reynolds demonstrated

that the transcendental v e r s i o n o f t h e i d e a l i n a r t was " a l i e n to the

this-worldly and e m p i r i c a l - m i n d e d t h e o r i s t s of English neo-classicism.

F u r t h e r m o r e , i n b r i n g i n g t h e i d e a l , s o l i d l y down t o e a r t h , Reynolds

implied t h e d u a l i t y o f t h o u g h t i n w h i c h t h e demand f o r t h e t y p i c a l ,

general, a n d f a m i l i a r i n a r t was s o o f t e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e r e c o m m e n d a -

t i o n of the "leavening" qualities o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , u n i q u e n e s s , and

novelty as w e l l . J o h n s o n , f o r e x a m p l e , may b e s a i d " t o l o c a t e t h e

highest and r a r e s t e x c e l l e n c e " i n t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of thei n d i v i d u a l i z e d

58
type, the circumstantially general, and t h e n o v e l - f a m i l i a r . "

This, then, i s the h i s t o r i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n of ut

p i c t u r a poesis i n the English eighteenth century. The d o c t r i n e was e n -

c o u r a g e d by t h e growth and development o f a h i g h degree of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n

in the v i s u a l a r t s which f a m i l i a r i z e d the poet'with t h e p a i n t i n g and

sculpture o f R e n a i s s a n c e and p o s t - R e n a i s s a n c e E u r o p e . How i t s e r v e d the

l i t e r a r y naturalism which s h i f t e d the ancient values of enargeia from

work t o b e h o l d e r and t h e u n P l a t o n i c i d e a l i z a t i o n of nature i n poetry will

be s e e n when t h e p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y o f P o p e a n d Thomson i s e x a m i n e d i n t h e

following chapter.
 60

FOOTNOTES

''"A u s e f u l r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f t h e I d e a s i n A l b e r t i ' s and L e o n a r d o ' s

t r e a t i s e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y D e l i a P i t t u r a ( 1 4 3 6 ) and L i b r o d i P l t t u r a ( f i r s t
p u b l i s h e d 1 6 5 1 ) , i s g i v e n i n W. G. H o w a r d ' s "Ut P i c t u r a P o e s i s , " PMLA,
XXIV ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 45-51.
2
A r t h u r 0. L o v e j o y , • " ' N a t u r e ' a s A e s t h e t i c Norm," E s s a y s i n t h e
H i s t o r y o f I d e a s (New Y o r k : P u t n a m , 1 9 6 0 ) , p . 6 9 . Of t h e d o z e n s o f
e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y meanings c h a r t e d by L o v e j o y f o r the word " n a t u r e "
(pp. 69-77), t h i s c h a p t e r . i s concerned o n l y w i t h t h o s e l i s t e d under
" D e s i d e r a t a i n W o r k s o f A r t " a s " a " ( s e n s e 1) a n d " d , " " e , " a n d " f "
( s e n s e s 2, 3, and 4 ) .
3
An e s s e n t i a l g e n e r a l g u i d e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e complex m a t t e r s
d e a l t w i t h i n t h i s c h a p t e r , i s J e a n H a g s t r u m ' s The S i s t e r A r t s : The
T r a d i t i o n o f L i t e r a r y P i c t o r i a l i s m and E n g l i s h P o e t r y f r o m D r y d e n t o
Gray (Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s , 1968). Also useful i n chart-
i n g a c o u r s e t h r o u g h t h e s e m a t e r i a l s i s C i c e l y D a v i e s ' "Ut P i c t u r a
P o e s i s , " MLR, XXX ( 1 9 3 5 ) , 1 5 9 - 1 6 9 .
4
M a u r i c e A s h l e y , England i n t h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y (London:
P e n g u i n , 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 56.
~*Peter a n d L i n d a M u r r a y . A D i c t i o n a r y o f A r t and A r t i s t s (London:
P e n g u i n , 1 9 6 4 ) , p. 96.

The D i a r y o f J o h n E v e l y n , e d . W i l l i a m B r a y , E v e r y m a n ' s L i b r a r y
(London: Dent, 1 9 2 0 ) , I , 93, 94, 95, 102, 105, 107, 109, 123, 132, 207,
222, 223.

7
L a g a l e r i a d e l C a v a l i e r M a r i n o : D i s t i n t a i n p i t t u r e 6^ s c u l t u r e
(Venice, 1620). The m a i n s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n on I t a l i a n p i c t o r i a l i s t
i n f l u e n c e i s J e a n H a g s t r u m ' s The S i s t e r A r t s : The T r a d i t i o n o f L i t e r a r y
P i c t o r i a l i s m and E n g l i s h P o e t r y f r o m D r y d e n t o Gray ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y
o f -Chicago P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 102-104, 106-108..
g
R e s p e c t i v e l y , Le_ v i t e d e ' p i t t o r i , s c u l t o r i e t a r c h i t e t t i
m o d e r n i (Rome, 1 6 7 2 ) , a n d L e v i t e d e ' p i u ; e c c e l l e n t i a r c h i t e t t i , p i t t o r i ,
e t s c u l t o r i i t a l i a n i (1550 and 1 5 6 8 ) .
9
W i l l i a m A g l i o n b y , P a i n t i n g I l l u s t r a t e d i n Three D i a l o g u e s . . .
Together w i t h the L i v e s of the Most Eminent P a i n t e r s . •• ( L o n d o n : 1 6 8 5 ) ,
" ^ P e t e r and L i n d a M u r r a y ( D i c t i o n a r y o f A r t and A r t i s t s , p. 330)
t e r m V a s a r i ' s L i v e s " t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b o o k on t h e h i s t o r y o f a r t e v e r
written."
 61

± 1
T O my F r i e n d M r . L e l y , on h i s P i c t u r e o f t h e E x c e l l e n t l y
M

V i r t u o u s " L a d y ; • t h e L a d y I s a b e l l a ' T h y n n , " Poems o f C h a r l e s C o t t o n :

1630-1687, ed. J o h n B e r e s f o r d (London: S a n d e r s o n , 1 9 2 3 ) , pp. 275-276.

12
"To V a n d y c k , " T h e P o e m s o f Edmund W a l l e r , e d . G. T h o r n D r u r y
7

( L o n d o n : B u l l e n , 1 9 0 1 ) , I , .44-45.
13
"To h i s Nephew, t o b e p r o s p e r o u s i n h i s a r t o f P a i n t i n g , "
The Poems o f R o b e r t H e r r i c k , e d . L. C. M a r t i n ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r -
s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 150.;
14
H e n r y V. S. Ogden and M a r g a r e t S. O g d e n , E n g l i s h T a s t e i n
t h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y (Ann A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n P r e s s ,
1 9 5 5 ) , p. 86.
15
W. G. H o w a r d , "Ut P i c t u r a P o e s i s , " PMLA, X X I V ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 40.

16
The W o r k s o f J o h n D r y d e n , e d s . S i r W a l t e r S c o t t and George
Saintsbury ( E d i n b u r g h : M o r r i s o n and G i b b , 1 8 9 2 ) , X V I I , 343.
x 7
J e a n Hagstrum, The S i s t e r A r t s , p . 1 7 4 , n.. 5.
18
Works, S c o t t and S a i n t s b u r y , X V I I , 290, 311.
1 9
Ibid.,.p. 328.

^ H a g s t r u m , , p. 175.

21
The t r e a t i s e s l i s t e d b y J o n a t h b h R i c h a r d s o n (The W o r k s o f
J o n a t h o n R i c h a r d s o n , S t r a w b e r r y H i l l , 1/92, p . 207) i n c l u d e t h o s e o f
R i d o l f i , B e l l o r i , B a l d i n u c c i , F e l i b i e n , S a n d r a r t , de P i l e s , and
Dufresnoy. .
22
L e t t e r s W r i t t e n by L o r d C h e s t e r f i e l d t o H i s Son, ed. Charles.
S t o k e s C a r e y ( L o n d o n : R e e v e s , n . d . ) , I , 394; G r a y t o W e s t , A p r i l 8, ,
1 7 4 2 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f Thomas G r a y , e d s . P a g e t T o y n b e e and L e o n a r d
W h i b l e y ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , , 1 9 3 5 ) , I , 193.
F o r e x a m p l e s o f t h i s p r a c t i c e i n a n c i e n t and R e n a i s s a n c e times
s e e H a g s t r u m (pp., 5 7 - 5 8 ) a n d W. G. Howard ( p p . 4 5 - 4 6 ) .

23
L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m o f J o h n D r y d e n , e d . A r t h u r C. K i r s c h
( L i n c o l n : . U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b r a s k a P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 ) , p. 1 1 0 .
24
An E s s a y on t h e G e n i u s a n d W r i t i n g s , o f P o p e ( L o n d o n , 1782) ,
I , 42, 44, 45.
25
T h e s e e x a m p l e s come f r o m C i c e l y D a v i e s ' "Ut. P i c t u r a P o e s i s , "
MLR, XXX ( 1 9 3 5 ) , 1 6 3 - 1 6 5 .
 62
' 2 6
The Poems a n d F a b l e s o f J o h n D r y d e n , e d . James K i n s l e y
(London: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967), p. 422.

27
Essay, 1
I , 51-52.
28
Works o f J o n a t h o n R i c h a r d s o n , , p . 2 4 1 .
29
C i t e d b y Hagstrum, p. 132. J o s e p h Warton ; ( E s s a y , I I , 229)
a l s o f i n d s t h a t t h e u n p i c t o r i a l : M i l t o n has "drawn.his f i g u r e s , and
e x p r e s s e d h i s images, w i t h energy and d i s t i n c t n e s s . "

. °Essay, I , 184-186.
3

31
E s s a y o n C r i t i c i s m , 6 9 7 - 7 0 4 , T h e Poems o f A l e x a n d e r P o p e , e d .
John B u t t (London: Methuen, 1965), p. 166.
3 2
E s s a y , I , 101.
33
Works, p. 72.
34
D i s c o u r s e I V , D i s c o u r s e s o n A r t , e d . R o b e r t R. Wark ( S a n
M a r i n o , C a l i f o r n i a : H u n t i n g d o n L i b r a r y , 1 9 5 9 ) , p . 72.
35
James T. B o u l t o h , , e d . Edmund B u r k e : A P h i l o s o p h i c a l E n q u i r y
i n t o t h e O r i g i n o f o u r I d e a s o n t h e S u b l i m e a n d B e a u t i f u l ( N o t r e Dame,
I n d i a n a : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e Dame P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , p . c x i .
36
S p e c t a t o r ,554, A d d i s o n a n d S t e e l e a n d O t h e r s : T h e S p e c t a t o r ,
ed. G r e g o r y S m i t h , Everyman's L i b r a r y (London: Dent, 1967).
37
D i s c o u r s e I V , D i s c o u r s e s , e d . R o b e r t Wark, p p . 6 7 , 7 1 .
38
D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f R e n a i s s a n c e and baroque p a i n t -
i n g on E n g l i s h p o e t r y i s based on Hagstrum, p p . 162-170. Hagstrum s u g -
g e s t s (pp. 166-167) t h a t t h e c o n f l i c t o f v a l u e s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e
e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y o p p o s i t i o n '.'between c l a s s i c , a n d r o m a n t i c , H o r a c e
and L o n g i n u s , F r e n c h i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y a n d E n g l i s h e m o t i o n " i s b e t t e r e x -
p l a i n e d " i f we l o o k b a c k t o t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y r a t h e r t h a n f o r w a r d
t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h o r a l l t h e w a y . b a c k t o Rome a n d G r e e c e . I f we do
t h a t , we o b s e r v e t h a t t h i s d i c h o t o m y was a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n s e v e n t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y g r a p h i c a r t . N i c o l a s P o u s s i n had b o t h h i s c l a s s i c and baroque
s i d e s , as d i d h i s m a s t e r s , t h e C a r r a c c i . "
39
T r e a t i s e o n P a i n t i n g , t r a n s . A. P h i l i p McMahon ( P r i n c e t o n :
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1956), I , 24.
40
Works o f J o h n D r y d e n , e d s . S c o t t and S a i n t s b u r y , X V I I , 3 0 7 ;
W o r k s o f J o n a t h o n R i c h a r d s o n , , p . 6; D i s c o u r s e I V , W a r k , p . 6 0 .
 63

4
''"Works, p . 72.

A D i c t i o n a r y o f t h e E n g l i s h . Language., 5 t h e d . (London:
Strahan, 1784).

4 3
E s s a y , I I , 223, 230.

44
S p e c t a t o r 4 1 1 , The S p e c t a t o r , e d . G r e g o r y S m i t h .
1
Subsequent
p a r e n t h e t i c a l references are to t h i s e d i t i o n .
4 5
C i c e l y D a v i e s , "Ut P i c t u r a P o e s i s , " MLR, XXX (1935), 160.

46
S a m u e l J o h n s o n : R a s s e l a s , Poems, a n d S e l e c t e d Pr.ose, e d .
B e r t r a n d H. B r o n s o n (New Y o r k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t , a n d W i n s t o n , 1 9 6 6 ) ,
p. 2 5 6 .
47
D i s c o u r s e I V , Wark, p. 59.
4
^Hagstrum, p. 136.

49
M a r j o r i e Hope N i c o l s o n , - M o u n t a i n G l o o m a n d M o u n t a i n G l o r y :
The D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e A e s t h e t i c s o f t h e I n f i n i t e (New Y o r k : N o r t o n ,
1 9 6 3 ) , p. 309.
" ^ D i s c o u r s e s I I I , X I I I , Wark, pp. 4 1 , 42, 234.

5 1
I I , 2 8 5 - 2 9 3 , The L i f e a n d W o r k s o f W i l l i a m C o w p e r , e d . R o b e r t
Southey ( L o n d o n : . B a l d w i n and C r a d o c k , 1 8 3 5 - 3 7 ) , I X ( 1 8 3 6 ) , 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 .

52
" R a s s e l a s " and " P r e f a c e t o S h a k e s p e a r e , " S a m u e l J o h n s o n , ed.
B e r t r a n d B r o n s o n , pp. 527, 241.
53
D i s c o u r s e I V , W a r k , p. 7 3 .
54
C h r i s t o p h e r H u s s e y , The P i c t u r e s q u e : S t u d i e s i n ji P o i n t of
View (London: P u t n a m , . 1 9 2 7 ) , p. 107.
^^M. H. A b r a m s , The M i r r o r a n d t h e Lamp: R o m a n t i c Theory and
the Critical T r a d i t i o n (New Y o r k : , N o r t o n , 1 9 5 8 ) , p. 3 6 .

56
D i s c o u r s e I I I , W a r k , p. 44.

" ^ A b r a m s , p. 45.

58
I b i d . , pp. 39-41. The v i e w s e n t e r t a i n e d b y c r i t i c s l i k e
J o h n s o n and R e y n o l d s w e r e n o t , o f c o u r s e , o r i g i n a l . The i d e a o f n a t u r e
a s a s y n t h e s i s o f i n d i v i d u a l e x c e l l e n c i e s , an a b s t r a c t i o n o f . c e n t r a l
f o r m and s p e c i e s f r o m p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s , g o e s b a c k t o t h e a n c i e n t s
who e n d l e s s l y p r o m u l g a t e d t h e s t o r y o f t h e p a i n t e r . Z e u x i s and h i s f i v e
models t o e x e m p l i f y i d e a l i z a t i o n i n a r t .
 CHAPTER III

POETIC PICTORIALISM IN POPE AND THOMSON

A comprehensive survey of the widespread and varied expression

of pictorialism in neo-classical poetry would require a f u l l volume in

itself and lies beyond the scope of this paper. However, through the

study of a few poems exemplifying important aspects of ut pictura

poesis, much can be revealed of eighteenth-century poetic pictorialism.

The following discussion, utilizing examples from the work of Pope and

Thomson, is intended to illuminate the .iconic tradition in neo-classical

verse, the antipi'ctorialr's.t' position and values of Edmund Burke, and

subjects introduced, in the preceding chapter; verbal naturalism and

enargeia, the pictorialist idealization of nature, the suggestiveness

of neo-classical pictorialism, and the relationship between pictorialism

and painting, considered either as technique or as finished expression

of painter or school. This demonstration w i l l not only make up the

business of this chapter but at the same time lay the basis for the

next. It w i l l set the stage for a consideration of neo-classical pictor-

ialism in a new and different light from that in which i t has so far

been viewed, a consideration which w i l l extend the significance of the

term "picturesque" by examining i t s meanings and applications, in arts

and activities additional to poetry, notably those associated with

landscape and scenery. The present chapter and the next, then, taken

together, w i l l complete and round out the picture to be presented in

64
 65

t h i s paper of eighteenth-century pictorialism.

Suggestive of the fact that ut p i c t u r a poesis i s n o w h e r e more

r i c h l y demonstrated i n Augustan poetry t h a n i n t h e work o f Pope i s h i s

own " E p i s t l e t o M r . J e r v a s , " a poem i n p r a i s e o f h i s a r t i s t - f r i e n d

which continues the t r a d i t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d by L o v e l a c e , D r y d e n , and

others. T h e poem s i g n i f i c a n t l y stresses t h e a s s o c i a t i o n between t h e

sister a r t s and a r t i s t s :

S m i t . w i t h t h e l o v e o f S i s t e r - a r t s we came, .
And met c o n g e n i a l , m i n g l i n g f l a m e . w i t h flame;
L i k e f r i e n d l y c o l o u r s f o u n d them b o t h u n i t e , ^
And e a c h f r o m e a c h c o n t r a c t new s t r e n g t h a n d l i g h t .

It f u r t h e r e m p h a s i z e s t h e t r a d i t i o n o f u_t p i c t u r a p o e s i s by c o u n s e l l i n g

Jervas to read the " i n s t r u c t i v e leaves" of Dryden's t r a n s l a t i o n of

D u f r e s n o y ' s De a r t e g r a p h i c a , i n which "conspire" "Fresnoy's close a r t ,

and Dryden's n a t i v e f i r e " ( 1 1 . 7 - 8 ) . And, i n p r o j e c t i n g an i m a g i n a r y

trip over t h e Alps to Italy, t h e poem makes c l e a r P o p e ' s a l l e g i a n c e t o

the ruling t a s t e o f h i s age i n m a t t e r s o f a r t i s t i c excellence. Pope

sees h i m s e l f and J e r v a s c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e work of t h e great Italians

they mutually admire:;

Here t h y w e l l - s t u d y ' d Marbles f i x our eye;

A f a d i n g F r e s c o h e r e demands a s i g h :
E a c h h e a y ' n l y p i e c e u n w e a r y ' d we c o m p a r e ,
Match Raphael's grace, w i t h thy l o v ' d Guido's a i r ,
Caracci's strength, Correggio's softer l i n e ,
P a u l o ' s f r e e s t r o k e , and T i t i a n ' s warmth d i v i n e .
( 1 1 . 33-38)

The reverence displayed i n these l i n e s f o r s t a t u a r y and

 66

R e n a i s s a n c e and baroque painting translates i t s e l f into the d i f f e r e n t

forms o f p i c t o r i a l i s t p r a c t i c e w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e Pope's p o e t r y , o f

w h i c h an e x c e l l e n t i n t r o d u c t o r y example can be found i n t h e s t y l i z e d

d e s c r i p t i o n o f f o r e s t and p a r k l a n d i n "Windsor Forest":

Here H i l l s and V a l e s , t h e Woodland and t h e P l a i n ,

H e r e E a r t h a n d W a t e r seem to' s t r i v e a g a i n ,
Not C h a o s - l i k e t o g e t h e r c r u s h ' d and b r u i s ' - d ,
But a s . t h e World, h a r m o n i o u s l y c o n f u s ' d :
Where O r d e r i n V a r i e t y we s e e ,
And w h e r e , t h o ' a l l t h i n g s d i f f e r , a l l a g r e e .
Here waving Groves a checquer'd Scene d i s p l a y ,
And p a r t a d m i t a n d p a r t e x c l u d e t h e D a y ;
A s some c o y Nymph h e r L o v e r ' s warm A d d r e s s
Not q u i t e i n d u l g e s , n o r can q u i t e r e p r e s s .
T h e r e , i n t e r s p e r s ' d i n Lawns a n d o p e n i n g G l a d e s ,
T h i n Trees a r i s e t h a t shun each o t h e r s Shades.
Here i n f u l l L i g h t t h e r u s s e t P l a i n s extend;
There wrapt i n Clouds t h e b l u i s h H i l l s ascend.
(11. 11-24)

This passage shows P o p e d i r e c t i n g t h e mental eye o f t h e reader

o v e r t h e ;landscape as though he were d e s c r i b i n g t h e e l e m e n t s o f an

ordered composition. The g u i d i n g w o r d s " h e r e " a n d " t h e r e " introduce

d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s e e l e m e n t s a n d c o n t r a s t them w i t h o n e a n o t h e r .

Hills and v a l e s a r e opposed t o woodland and p l a i n , earth to water;

waving groves a r e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h i n t r e e s , and p l a i n s w i t h hills.

T h i s s e r i e s o f a n t i t h e t i c a l c o n t r a s t s does n o t , i t i s t r u e , produce a

c o h e r e n t , . u n i f i e d s c e n e ; no s e n s e o f t o t a l " O r d e r " emerges f r o m t h e

" V a r i e t y " o f opposed elements. But although the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between

them a r e d i f f i c u l t to visualize i n terms o f t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n space,

in terms o f f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e d i s t a n c e , and background,.and. though t h e

scene i s n o t i r i t h i s sense p a i n t a b l e , t h e c o n t r a s t e d o b j e c t s n o n e t h e l e s s
show, i n t h e m s e l v e s , a p a i n t e r l y i n t e r e s t i n the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of

v a l u e s : the " f u l l Light" of the flat russet p l a i n a g a i n s t the cloud-

darkened b l u e of the ascending h i l l s , the waving groves w i t h their

half light and m o t t l e d appearance a g a i n s t t h i n , s i n g l e trees standing

alone i n s u n l i t i s o l a t i o n . These c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n h i g h and low,

light and d a r k , i n d i v i d u a l and g r o u p , b e t w e e n m a s s e s and colours, show

a n a t u r e s t y l i z e d a f t e r t h e manner o f p a i n t i n g . By d i r e c t i n g the eye

to these oppositions within the s c e n e Pope d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t the anti-

t h e t i c a l m e t h o d so fundamental to h i s p o e t i c a r t can become a-means to.

elicit p a i n t e r l y e f f e c t s ; he shows how h i s m e t h o d becomes pictorial.

The coy nymph, w h o s e i n d e c i s i v e r e s p o n s e t o h e r lover's advances

is used to illustrate the q u a l i t y of the groves' v a r i a b l e light, hints

at the habit o f p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n so w i d e s p r e a d i n n e o - c l a s s i c a l poetry.

Pope, whose work i s crowded w i t h e x a m p l e s , was p a r t i c u l a r l y fond of

personifications pictorially conceived or, i n Warton's words, " p a r t i c -

u l a r and picturesque." Such p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s , v i v i d , capable of

visualization, and paintable, are not t o be mistaken f o r the figures

so commonly f o u n d i n n e o - c l a s s i c a l p o e t r y (not. e x c l u d i n g Pope's)

who, m e r e l y named o r a p o s t r o p h i z e d , e m e r g e as l i t t l e more t h a n colour-

less, lifeless abstractions: p a l e t e r r o r , gloomy c a r e , h o a r y age, cruel

h a t e , v a i n b e a u t y , mighty wisdom, s p r i g h t l y j o y . Warton, a f t e r prais-

i n g a "groupe of a l l e g o r i c a l p e r s o n a g e s " i n "Windsor F o r e s t " as

"worthy the p e n c i l o f R u b e n s o r J u l i o Romano," w e n t on to state his

complaining wish

t h a t t h e e p i t h e t s b a r b a r o u s ( d i s c o r d ) , mad (ambition), hateful

( e n v y ) , h a d b e e n p a r t i c u l a r and p i c t u r e s q u e , i n s t e a d o f g e n e r a l
 68

a n d i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g ; t h o u g h i t may p o s s i b l y b e u r g e d , t h a t i n d e s - .
c r i b i n g t h e d r e a d f u l i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e p o r t a l o f H e l l , V i r g i l has
n o t a l w a y s used s u c h a d j u n c t s and e p i t h e t s as a p a i n t e r o r s t a t u a r y
might work a f t e r . 2

"Windsor F o r e s t " exemplifies the d i f f e r e n t categories i n t o which

" p a r t i c u l a r and p i c t u r e s q u e " f i g u r e s may f a l l . T h e y may b e , . l i k e t h e

nymph i n t h e s i m i l e , m y t h o l o g i c a l : .

See P a n w i t h F l o c k s , w i t h F r u i t s Pomona c r o w n ' d ,

Here b l u s h i n g F l o r a p a i n t s th'enamel'd Ground.
(11. 37-38)

Or t h e y may b e m o r a l :

T h e r e h a t e f u l E n v y . h e r own S n a k e s s h a l l f e e l ,
And P e r s e c u t i o n mourn h e r b r o k e n Wheel:
There F a c t i o n r o a r , R e b e l l i o n b i t e h e r C h a i n ,
And g a s p i n g F u r i e s t h i r s t f o r B l o o d i n v a i n .
(11. 419-422)

Of "these l i v i n g figures, painted by Pope," Joseph Warton,,again reflect-

ing the c r i t i c a l tendency t o encourage p i c t o r i a l p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , s a i d

3

that " V i r g i l h a s e x h i b i t e d no images so,lively and d i s t i n c t . "

Pope's p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s may a l s o b e n a t u r a l , a s e x e m p l i f i e d by

the f i g u r e o f F a t h e r Thames, who e m e r g e s i n " W i n d s o r F o r e s t " a s a com-

plete allegorical representation:

I n t h a t b l e s t Moment, f r o m h i s Oozy B e d
O l d F a t h e r Thames a d v a n c ' d h i s r e v ' r e n d H e a d .
H i s t r e s s e s d r i p t w i t h Dews,, a n d o ' e r t h e S t r e a m
H i s s h i n i n g Horns d i f f u s ' d a g o l d e n Gleam:
Grav'd on h i s U r n appear'd t h e Moon,.that g u i d e s
H i s s w e l l i n g W a t e r s , and a l t e r n a t e Tydes;
The f i g u r ' d S t r e a m s i n Waves o f S i l v e r r o l l ' d ,
And on t h e i r Banks A u g u s t a r o s e i n G o l d .
 69

Around h i s Throne the Sea-born B r o t h e r s stood,

Who s w e l l w i t h T r i b u t a r y U r n s h i s F l o o d .
(11. 329-338)

The a n c i e n t r i v e r god who. l i f t s h i s v e n e r a b l e head from t h e

w a t e r , l o c k s d r i p p i n g and g o l d e n h o r n s r a d i a t i n g l i g h t , i s the c e n t r a l

f i g u r e i n a scene encompassing motion w i t h i n a s t a t i c p i c t o r i a l a r r a n g e -

ment. The s c e n e e n g r a v e d on h i s u r n , p o r t r a y i n g t h e moon, t h e a c t i o n .

of t h e t i d e s , and t h e r i s e o f t h e c i t y o f L o n d o n , also freezes t h e move-

ment i t d e p i c t s i n t o s t a s i s , becoming a s c e n e w i t h i n a s c e n e , and

exemplifying a t the.same t i m e t h e k i n d of i c o n i c d e s c r i p t i o n seen

before i n Homer's r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f n a t u r e and t h e l i f e o f man i n the

shield of A c h i l l e s . Further i n d i c a t i n g the p i c t o r i a l conception of the

entire tableau i s the g r o u p i n g of the "Sea-born B r o t h e r s ' round the

t h r o n e o f F a t h e r Thames and t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o h i s solemn f i g u r e ,

made e v e n more i m p r e s s i v e l y c e n t r a l by the gleam o f s i l v e r and gold.

The d i g n i f i e d f i g u r e , o n w h o s e e n g r a v e d u r n we see Augusta, the

city of London, rising i n gold, hails " S a c r e d Peace", a n d s p e a k s o f

f u t u r e d a y s w h i c h "Thames's G l o r y to the Stars s h a l l r a i s e " (11. 355-356).

His r e g a l a p p e a r a n c e and h i s s t a t e l y p r e d i c t i o n s o f London's great

mercantile f u t u r e and E n g l a n d ' s g l o r i o u s i m p e r i a l p r o s p e c t s r e v e a l him .

as a p i c t o r i a l symbol used not o n l y to personify t h e Thames b u t a l s o to

idealize reality. As an a l l e g o r i c a l figure within a pictorial scene

F a t h e r Thames t h u s r e s e m b l e s t h e f i g u r e s s e e n i n i n n u m e r a b l e Italian

mythological paintings. As a p i c t o r i a l l y - c o n c e i v e d n a t u r a l p e r s o n i f i -

c a t i o n , he i s t h e p o e t i c counterpart, f o r example, of the f i g u r e s

depicted i n G u i d o R e n i ' s A u r o r a o r N i c o l a s P o u s s i n ' s The K i n g d o m o f

 70
4
Flora. Guido p i c t u r e s A p o l l o surrounded i n h i s c h a r i o t by the dancing

m a i d e n s who p e r s o n i f y t h e h o u r s and p r e c e d e d by Aurora.who f l i e s on

before to bring the f i r s t light and s c a t t e r f l o w e r s on t h e e a r t h below.

Poussin represents the s m i l i n g f i g u r e of F l o r a , i n a garden distributing

her p e t a l s among t h e g r o u p who s u r r o u n d h e r w h i l e overhead A p o l l o guides

his horses across t h e sky..

.Pope's v i s u a l p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f F a t h e r Thames r e f l e c t s more

than the s a t i s f a c t i o n of the c r i t i c a l demand t h a t s u c h f i g u r e s b e

" p a r t i c u l a r , and p i c t u r e s q u e , " that the general b e made c o n c r e t e and

p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n and a l l e g o r y r e s c u e d f r o m a b s t r a c t lifelessness, It

s u g g e s t s more t o o t h a n t h e s t r o n g general i n f l u e n c e o f I t a l i a n mytho-

logical painting. I t a l s o comments o n t h e h a b i t of a l l e g o r i z i n g

mythology. F o r , as a consequence of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the d e i t i e s

o f G r e e c e a n d Rome l o n g b e f o r e i n t o n a t u r a l and m o r a l a b s t r a c t i o n s , t h e

eighteenth century naturally associated the e a s i l y v i s u a l i z e d figures

of a n c i e n t gods o r h e r o e s w i t h the moral or n a t u r a l q u a l i t i e s approp-

riate t o them. To P o p e , f o r e x a m p l e , J u n o was a n " e l e m e n t o f a i r , "

Jupiter, the "ether," and Neptune,.the s e a . M a r s h e saw a s "mere

m a r t i a l Courage w i t h o u t Conduct," Venus as t h e " P a s s i o n o f L o v e , " and

M i n e r v a a s " m a r t i a l C o u r a g e w i t h W i s d o m " o r "Wisdom.""' This associa-

t i o n of v i s u a l l y p a r t i c u l a r i z e d m y t h o l o g i c a l figures with abstract

q u a l i t i e s , or the habit o f a l l e g o r i z i n g m y t h o l o g y , was g r e a t l y rein-

f o r c e d b y t h e many b o o k s o f e n g r a v i n g s w h i c h f o r m e d p a r t of the eight-

t e e n t h - e e n t u r y i n h e r i t a n c e f r o m t h e R e n a i s s a n c e and i t s a f t e r m a t h . Of

t h e s e b o o k s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d i n f l u e n t i a l was C e s a r e R i p a ' s
 71

Iconologia (1593) w h i c h rendered hundreds of a b s t r a c t i o n s v i s u a l , re- .

p r e s e n t i n g v i r t u e s and v i c e s , e m o t i o n s , ideas, arts, natural phenomena,

cities, and c o u n t r i e s each as s i n g l e f i g u r e s b e a r i n g t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e

insignia. R i p a ' s b o o k was w i d e l y known t h r o u g h o u t Europe i n Pope's

day, and t h e c r e a t i o n of images i n l i t e r a t u r e a f t e r i t s manner was

commonplace.. The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f F a t h e r Thames, t h e n , t h o u g h his

p o r t r a y a l cannot c o n c l u s i v e l y be s a i d t o be the d i r e c t consequence of

Italian allegorical painting, the h a b i t of a l l e g o r i z i n g mythology, or

Ripa's icons, l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t he b r i n g s a l l o f t h e s e influences

to m i n d , t h a t he fairly typif ies the p e r s o n i f i e d or a l l e g o r i c a l figures

they tended to produce.

Understood i n t h e s e t e r m s , t h e f i g u r e o f F a t h e r Thames makes

an i n s t r u c t i v e c o n t r a s t to a n o t h e r of Pope's p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s , the

f i g u r e of Melancholy i n h i s " E l o i s a to Abelard":

B u t o ' e r t h e t w i l i g h t g r o v e s , and d u s k y c a v e s , .
L o n g - s o u n d i n g i s l e s , and i n t e r m i n g l e d g r a v e s ,
B l a c k M e l a n c h o l y , s i t s , and round h e r throws
A d e a t h - l i k e s i l e n c e , and a d r e a d r e p o s e :
H e r g l o o m y p r e s e n c e "saddens a l l t h e s c e n e ,
S h a d e s e v ' f y f l o w e r , and d a r k e n s e v ' r y g r e e n , .
D e e p e n s t h e murmur o f t h e f a l l i n g f l o o d s ,
And b r e a t h e s a b r o w n e r h o r r o r on t h e w o o d s .
(11. 163-170)

H e r e a g a i n one sees Pope's r e l i a n c e upon a p e r s o n i f i e d figure

to h e l p s e t f o r t h and comment on h i s s c e n e . . The f i g u r e of Melancholy,

who, a s a p a i n t e r l y d e v i c e , c o u l d be a n a c t u a l f i g u r e r a t h e r , t h a n a

personification, s e r v e s to" a c c o u n t ' f o r t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f the' s c e n e and

to e x p l a i n i t s d e p l o y m e n t o f l i g h t , and' s h a d e . Joseph Warton a p p r e c i a t e d

 72

t h a t the a c t u a l scene was not enough i n i t s e l f , t h a t " t h e e f f e c t and

i n f l u e n c e of MELANCHOLY," a f i g u r e " b e a u t i f u l l y p e r s o n i f i e d , " was shown

"on every o b j e c t t h a t o c c u r s , and on every, p a r t of the c o n v e n t " because

"that temper of mind c a s t s a gloom on a l l t h i n g s . " 7

The d a r k and obscure presence of M e l a n c h o l y c r e a t e s i t s e f f e c t .

w i t h o u t e x h i b i t i n g those sharp v i s u a l d e t a i l s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h the.

f i g u r e of F a t h e r Thames and b r i n g him c l e a r l y b e f o r e the e y e . Her

effectiveness as a d a r k , u n c l e a r p r e s e n c e , out of f o c u s , and not c i r c u m - .

s t a n t i a l l y p r e s e n t e d to us i n the l i g h t of d a y , seems to contradict

the p r i n c i p l e s of p i c t o r i a l i s m and to c o r r o b o r a t e the a n t i p i c t o r i a l i s t

arguments and v a l u e s of L e s s i n g ' s most i m p o r t a n t p r e d e c e s s o r , Edmund

B u r k e , who d i r e c t l y c h a l l e n g e d the t h e o r y , p r a c t i c e , and v a l u e s of n e o -

classical pictorialism. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , and because q u a l i t i e s p r i z e d

by Burke appear i n n e o - c l a s s i c a l p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y , a b r i e f examination

of h i s p o s i t i o n w i l l be u s e f u l h e r e .

Burke m a i n t a i n e d t h a t o b s c u r i t y i s of g r e a t e r aesthetic impor-

tance than c l a r i t y and t h a t words r a t h e r than images or v i s u a l details

are the means whereby emotions are s t i r r e d and p a s s i o n s a f f e c t e d . The

s e c r e t of " h e i g h t e n i n g , " or of s e t t i n g t h i n g s " i n t h e i r s t r o n g e s t light"

g

is "by the f o r c e of a j u d i c i o u s o b s c u r i t y . " In f a c t , a c c o r d i n g to

Burke,

so f a r i s a c l e a r n e s s of imagery from b e i n g a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y to
an i n f l u e n c e upon the p a s s i o n s , , t h a t they may be c o n s i d e r a b l y o p e r -
a t e d upon w i t h o u t p r e s e n t i n g any image at a l l , by c e r t a i n sounds
adapted to t h a t p u r p o s e ; of w h i c h we have a s u f f i c i e n t p r o o f i n the
acknowledged and p o w e r f u l e f f e c t s of i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c . ( p . 60)
 7
3

Painting t o B u r k e i s n e c e s s a r i l y an i m i t a t i v e art confined to

t h e r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a y a l o f n a t u r a l s c e n e s and o b j e c t s ; i t cannot, there-

fore, successfully depict the sublime. Poetry, on the other hand,

f i n d s one of i t s g r e a t e s t triumphs i n the sublime; " i t s apparitions,

its chimeras, i t s harpies, i t s a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s , are grand and

affecting" (p. 64). T h u s , s a y s B u r k e , who m i g h t have added Pope's

Melancholy to the list, " t h o u g h V i r g i l ' s Fame, and Homer's D i s c o r d are

obscure, they are magnificent f i g u r e s " (p. 64). C l e a r l y , then, poetry, ;

" t a k e n i n i t s most g e n e r a l sense, cannot w i t h strict propriety be

c a l l e d an a r t of i m i t a t i o n " (p. 172). For though dramatic poetry may

be s a i d t o i m i t a t e i n d e s c r i b i n g m a n n e r s and passions, "descriptive

poetry o p e r a t e s c h i e f l y by s u b s t i t u t i o n ; by t h e means o f s o u n d s , w h i c h

by custom have the e f f e c t of r e a l i t i e s " (p. 173). M u s i c and poetry

thus l o g i c a l l y emerge as the s i s t e r arts.

Burke a l s o a t t a c k s the "common n o t i o n " t h a t w o r d s h a v e the

power t o " a f f e c t t h e mind by raising i n i t ideas of t h o s e t h i n g s for

w h i c h custom has appointed,them to stand" (p. 163). Language performs

a s o c i a l r a t h e r than i m a g i s t i c f u n c t i o n ; words are not productive of

images but evocative o f e m o t i o n s and ideas:

The t r u t h i s , a l l v e r b a l d e s c r i p t i o n , m e r e l y as n a k e d d e s c r i p t i o n ,
t h o u g h n e v e r s o e x a c t , c o n v e y s s o p o o r and i n s u f f i c i e n t an i d e a o f
the t h i n g d e s c r i b e d , t h a t i t c o u l d s c a r c e l y have the s m a l l e s t
e f f e c t , i f t h e s p e a k e r d i d n o t c a l l i n t o h i s a i d t h o s e modes o f
s p e e c h t h a t m a r k a s t r o n g and l i v e l y f e e l i n g i n h i m s e l f . (p. 175)

The view of v e r b a l enargeia t h a t had endured from P l u t a r c h to

A d d i s o n was e x p r e s s e d b y W a r t o n : "The use, the. f o r c e , , and the excellence

 74

of language, certainly consists i n raising c l e a r , complete, and circum-

s t a n t i a l i m a g e s , and i n turning readers into spectators." Burke's

r e v o l u t i o n a r y a n t i p i c t o r i a l i s m , s e p a r a t i n g words from images, i s

d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d : "So little does p o e t r y depend f o r i t s e f f e c t on

t h e power o f r a i s i n g s e n s i b l e i m a g e s , t h a t I am convinced i t would

l o s e a very c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t of i t s energy, i f t h i s were the necessary

r e s u l t of a l l d e s c r i p t i o n " (p. 170).

C l e a r l y Burke's theory, espousing the v a l u e s of darkness and

shadowy o b s c u r i t y , s e e i n g w o r d s as e v o c a t i v e n o t of v i s u a l images but

o f i d e a s and powerful emotional e f f e c t s , , and r e g a r d i n g p o e t r y as an

a r t i n which "the picturesque connection i s not demanded; b e c a u s e no

r e a l p i c t u r e i s formed" (p. 1 7 1 ) , i s h o s t i l e to ut p i c t u r a poesis.

Burke's a t t a c k , , however j u s t i f i e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o pictorial

poetry, e x c e s s i v e l y d e s c r i p t i v e , merely enumerative, o r empty o f emotional

and m o r a l v a l u e s , d i d n o t w e a k e n o r d e s t r o y p i c t o r i a l i s m . This i s

a t t e s t e d by t h e r i s e o f t h e p i c t u r e s q u e movement, t h e s u b j e c t of. t h e

next chapter, which f l o u r i s h e d later i n the century. In fact, as Pope's

p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of Melancholy shows, t h e q u a l i t i e s recommended b y Burke

sometimes a p p e a r e d t o good e f f e c t i n n e o - c l a s s i c a l p i c t o r i a l poetry.

Besides the f i g u r e of Melancholy, P o p e a l s o g i v e s us t h e amorphous but

controlling images of t h e Dunciad: t h e " c l o u d - c o m p e l l i n g Queen", o f

D u l l n e s s , " D a u g h t e r o f C h a o s and e t e r n a l N i g h t , " who, w i t h "her mighty-

wings out-spread," peers " t h r o ' fogs t h a t magnify the scene" until, at

t h e end o f t h e poem, a c c o m p a n i e d b y h e r p a r e n t s , "Night.Primaeval" and

"Chaos O l d , " s h e causes the l i g h t t o d i e ( I , 79, 12, 27, 80; IV, 630).
 75

And so t h e c u r t a i n f a l l s , "and U n i v e r s a l D a r k n e s s b u r i e s A l l " (IV,

655-656).

The B u r k e i a n v a l u e s o f o b s c u r i t y and d a r k n e s s h a d b e e n seen

before i n a r t . Rembrandt, C a r a v a g g i o , and S a l v a t o r R o s a , for example,

o f t e n embodied them i n t h e i r p a i n t i n g s . I n d o i n g so t h e y demonstrated

that, the c o n t r a s t between c l e a r , d e t a i l e d f i g u r e s s u c h a s F a t h e r Thames

and s i m p l i f i e d , shadowy, d i m l y - s e e n f i g u r e s l i k e M e l a n c h o l y does n o t

d i s t i n g u i s h the p i c t o r i a l from the n o n - p i c t o r i a l but merely expresses

the d i f f e r i n g c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h s u c h f i g u r e s a p p e a r and t h e different

purposes each i s i n t e n d e d t o s e r v e . T h e y make t h i s c l e a r by showing

t h a t the absence of c l e a r , sharp, b r i g h t l y - l i t detail i n painting does

n o t mean t h a t t h e v i e w e r no l o n g e r s e e s b u t m e r e l y t h a t , more d i m l y

a n d d i f f e r e n t l y , he s e e s l e s s . It i s i n this sense t h a t Pope's black,

amorphous image o f M e l a n c h o l y d i f f e r s p i c t o r i a l l y f r o m t h e more easily

visualized f i g u r e s o f h i s p a r t i c u l a r i z e d F a t h e r Thames.

A n o t h e r o f P o p e ' s poems, "The Temple o f F a m e , " u s e f u l l y

r illus-

t r a t e s f u r t h e r aspects of n e o - c l a s s i c a l p i c t o r i a l i s m , n o t a b l y i t s

utilization o f t h e i c o n i c t r a d i t i o n and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c l a s s i c a l and

baroque sculpture. The poem o p e n s w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l a n d s c a p e

w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e p a t t e r n seen i n "Windsor Forest":

H e r e n a k e d R o c k s , a n d empty W a s t e s w e r e s e e n ,
T h e r e T o w ' r y C i t i e s , a n d t h e F o r e s t s green.:
Here s a i l i n g Ships d e l i g h t the wand'ring Eyes;
T h e r e T r e e s , and i n t e r m i n g l ' d T e m p l e s r i s e :
Now a c l e a r Sun t h e s h i n i n g S c e n e d i s p l a y s ,
The t r a n s i e n t L a n d s c a p e now i n C l o u d s decays."
( 1 1 . 15-20)
 76

H e r e a g a i n we see Pope d i r e c t i n g a t t e n t i o n to antithetically

placed elements w i t h i n the scene. Some o f these—the ships, trees,

the " t r a n s i e n t " l a n d s c a p e , and the "intermingl'd Temples"—recall the

l a n d s c a p e s o f C l a u d e and P o u s s i n , and, together with the gloomy

Salvatorian scene over which the f i g u r e of Melancholy p r e s i d e s , reveal

that the influence o f C l a u d e , P o u s s i n , and R o s a was not r e s t r i c t e d to

Thomson and the l a t e r p i c t u r e s q u e movement..

More i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h i s , however, i s the d e s c r i p t i o n of the

m a g n i f i c e n t domed T e m p l e o f F a m e , . f r o n t e d b y i t s "four brazen Gates,

on Columns l i f t e d high" (1. 67), and a d o r n e d w i t h i n and without by

sculptured figures. The representation of t h i s imaginary e d i f i c e and

its s c u l p t u r a l accoutrements c o n s t i t u t e s an extended i l l u s t r a t i o n of

the iconic tradition in neo-classical verse.

A good, i n i t i a l example of the dozens of s p e c i f i c icons making

up the poem i s t h e picture of the temple gates, a d e s c r i p t i o n which

demonstrates the i c o n i c e x p r e s s i o n of n e o - c l a s s i c a l v a l u e s . In the

same way that the descriptions of A c h i l l e s ' s h i e l d , the Bower o f Bliss,

and the tapestry v i e w e d by L u c r e c e t r a n s c e n d e d mere e n u m e r a t i o n and

articulated moral, a r t i s t i c , or emotional v a l u e s , Pope's d e s c r i p t i o n of

the n o r t h e r n " F r o n t i s p i e c e " of the T e m p l e e m b o d i e s an expression of

d i s t a s t e f o r the Gothic. T h i s gate i s "o'er-wrought w i t h Ornaments of

barb'rous P r i d e " ( 1 . 120) among w h i c h " h o r r i d F o r m s " s t a n d "on rude

I r o n Columns smear'd w i t h Blood" (11. 125-126). The western gate,

however, e x p r e s s e s the n e o - c l a s s i c a l admiration for ancient Greek art

and architecture:
 Westward, a sumptuous F r o n t i s p i e c e a p p e a r ' d ,
On D o r i c p i l l a r s o f w h i t e M a r b l e r e a r ' d ,
C r o w n ' d w i t h an A r c h i t r a v e o f a n t i q u e M o l d ,
And S c u l p t u r e r i s i n g on t h e r o u g h e n ' d G o l d .
( 1 1 . 75-78)

These i c o n i c d e s c r i p t i o n s suggest t h e theme o f t h e poem. For

j u s t a s Homer's s h i e l d e x p r e s s e d i n m e t a l many o f t h e t h e m e s o f the

Iliad, so Pope's m a g n i f i c e n t , s c u l p t u r a l l y - d e c o r a t e d Temple visualizes

i n p o e t r y t h e c u l t u r a l and ethical history o f man. The sculpturesque

portraits within this pictorialist p r o j e c t i o n o f human h i s t o r y are

particularly significant, frequently illustrating further aspects of

neo-classical pictorialism.

For example, the f i g u r e s g r a c i n g the w a l l s of the Temple are

s e e n as " H e r o e s " who " i n animated Marble f r o w n " o r as "Legislators"

who "seem t o t h i n k i n s t o n e " (11. 73-74). Such f i g u r e s e x e m p l i f y the

d o c t r i n e of e x p r e s s i o n i n a r t important during the Renaissance and

s e e n b e f o r e i n P l u t a r c h , P h i l o s t r a t u s , and Lovelace.

Another significant f i g u r e i s t h a t o f H e r c u l e s who, together,

w i t h the heros T h e s e u s and Perseus, stands on t h e w e s t w a r d wall:

There great A l c i d e s , stooping w i t h h i s T o i l ,

R e s t s on h i s C l u b , and h o l d s t h e H e s p e r i a n S p o i l .
( 1 1 . 81-82)

That t h i s b r i e f iconic portrait i s meant t o r e c a l l t h e famous a n c i e n t

s t a t u e known a s t h e F a r n e s e - H e r c u l e s , ^ a c o l o s s a l m a r b l e f i g u r e lean-

i n g sideways on h i s c l u b , i s shown b y P o p e ' s s t a t e m e n t that "this

F i g u r e o f H e r c u l e s i s _ drawn w i t h an eye t o the P o s i t i o n of the famous

Statue of Farnese" (p. 175). The i c o n i c d e s c r i p t i o n i n t h e poem i s

 78

thus a p e r f e c t example of p i c t o r i a l s u g g e s t i v e n e s s , showing a neo-

c l a s s i c a l poet evoking a p i c t u r e i n t h e m i n d s o f h i s r e a d e r s by making

economical r e f e r e n c e t o a famous w o r k o f a r t , c o n f i d e n t o f h i s readers'

ability t o r e c o g n i z e and appreciate i t .

The sculpturesque p o r t r a i t of Hercules also exemplifies another

form of p i c t o r i a l i s t idealization. J u s t as F a t h e r Thames, s o like

Reni's and Poussin's i d e a l i z e d n a t u r a l i c o n s , i s a p i c t o r i a l means o f

achieving idealization, so t h e p o r t r a i t of H e r c u l e s permits idealiza-

t i o n through the e v o c a t i o n of the i d e a l beauty of a n c i e n t s c u l p t u r e .

R e y n o l d s saw t h e b e a u t y and nobility o f c l a s s o r s p e c i e s as s u p e r i o r t o

that of the i n d i v i d u a l i n i t s g e n e r a l i t y , c e n t r a l form, and invariability.

He r e j e c t e d the " p i c t u r e s q u e " s c u l p t u r e of a r t i s t s l i k e B e r n i n i and

related i d e a l b e a u t y t o t h e s c u l p t u r e d f o r m r e p r e s e n t e d by statues like

the Farnese Hercules. Pope's i c o n i c r e f e r e n c e , c l e a r l y e v o k i n g such

s c u l p t u r a l form, achieves pictorially t h e same i d e a l i z e d b e a u t y sought

by. Reynolds.

In contrast to i c o n i c d e s c r i p t i o n s evoking the s e v e r i t y , nobility,

and g r a n d e u r t h a t R e y n o l d s saw i n ancient s c u l p t u r e are others which

recall the dramatic excitement of h i g h baroque s c u l p t u r e . Pope's

s c u l p t u r e s q u e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of P i n d a r i n h i s "Carr of S i l v e r bright"

s u s t a i n e d by f o u r swans " w i t h H e a d s a d v a n c ' d , and Pinions stretch'd for

Flight" (11. 210-211) i s a v e r y g o o d e x a m p l e . The dramatization i n

stone o f t h e a e r i a l p a s s a g e o f P i n d a r who rides "like some f u r i o u s

Prophet" (1. 212), h i s swans' heads e l o n g a t e d in flight and their wings

outspread, resembles the m y t h o l o g i c a l progresses of I t a l i a n painting,

 79

such as t h o s e depicted i n the Aurora f r e s c o e s o f Guido. R e h i and

Guercino.^ Both of these ceiling paintings i l l u s i o n i s t i c a l l y portray

A p o l l o h i g h i n h i s c a r sweeping p a s t drawn by flying steeds.

An e v e n b e t t e r b a r o q u e i c o n i n t h e poem i s t h e g r o u p o f s c u l p -

t u r e d f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t i n g an a n c i e n t G r e e k c h a r i o t r a c e :

N e p t u n e and J o v e s u r v e y t h e r a p i d R a c e :
The Y o u t h s h a n g o ' e r t h e i r C h a r i o t s as t h e y r u n ;
The f i e r y S t e e d s seem s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e S t o n e ;
The C h a m p i o n s i n d i s t o r t e d P o s t u r e s t h r e a t ,
And a l l a p p e a r ' d I r r e g u l a r l y g r e a t .
(11. 217-220)

I f Pope's i c o n i c r e f e r e n c e t o H e r c u l e s shows h i m consciously re-

capturing the austere, formal, r e g u l a r i z e d s t a b i l i t y and repose of

a n c i e n t s c u l p t u r e i n w h i c h R e y n o l d s saw i d e a l beauty, this iconic depic-

t i o n shows h i m exciting the emotionalism, the flowing i l l u s i o n i s m , and

t h e a g i t a t e d , d r a m a t i c movement o f t h e e q u a l l y w e l l - k n o w n s c u l p t u r e o f

the I t a l i a n h i g h baroque. I t w o u l d n o t be difficult f o r Pope's readers

to v i s u a l i z e t h e f l o w i n g d r a p e r i e s and t h e e x c i t e d .'faces o f t h e y o u n g men

hanging over their c h a r i o t s ; the s t r a i n of t h e i r champions, displaying

itself i n " d i s t o r t e d P o s t u r e s " ; and the h e r o i c p h y s i c a l e x e r t i o n of a l l

t h e c o m p e t i t o r s who, conscious of the "survey" of the gods, appear not

as c a l m l y a u s t e r e , b a l a n c e d f i g u r e s but as figures "Irregularly great."

The n o v e l e f f e c t s o f t h i s b a r o q u e d i s t o r t i o n and irregularity,

as w e l l as t h e i l l u s i o n i s m i n w h i c h t h e h o r s e s "seem s t a r t i n g from the

Stone," w e r e condemned i n t h e s c u l p t u r e o f B e r n i n i b y R e y n o l d s . He

saw them as e x p r e s s i o n s o f " f a n c y " and " c a p r i c e , " merely "picturesque

e f f e c t s , c o n t r a s t s , o r p e t t y e x c e l l e n c i e s , " and therefore "incompatible

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w i t h t h a t s o b r i e t y and g r a v i t y w h i c h i s p e c u l i a r l y the characteristick

of t h i s a r t . " He w o u l d n o t h a v e a p p r o v e d P o p e ' s s c u l p t u r e s q u e i c o n

because i t p e r m i t s the u n c l a s s i c a l detachment of drapery from the

f i g u r e , " i n order to g i v e the appearance of f l y i n g i n the a i r , " because

it demonstrates the baroque "folly o f a t t e m p t i n g t o make s t o n e sport

12

and flutter i n the a i r . " But the v e r y f a c t t h a t Reynolds' criticism

of B e r n i n i i s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o Pope's i c o n . s e r v e s t o measure how

w e l l t h i s i c o n e x e m p l i f i e s the baroque i n Pope's p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y .

The scene of the competing c h a r i o t e e r s b e i n g watched by the

gods b i n d s gods and m o r t a l s t o g e t h e r i n a pagan f o r m o f t h e Christian

baroque t r a d i t i o n o f j o i n i n g H e a v e n and E a r t h . Another manifestation

of t h i s baroque habit i n the p o e t r y of Pope, t h i s time s e r v i n g the

purposes of s a t i r e , i s the c l i m a x of the D u n c i a d , where the g r e a t

Goddess a p p e a r s , causes t h e l i g h t t o d i e , and b r i n g s u n i v e r s a l darkness

to a l lthe earth. And a f u r t h e r example, more i n t h e m a n n e r o f t h e

C h r i s t i a n baroque, can be found i n E l o i s a ' s p r o j e c t i o n of the death of

Abelard:

I n t r a n c e e x t a t i c may t h y p a n g s b e d r o w n ' d ,
B r i g h t c l o u d s d e s c e n d , and A n g e l s w a t c h t h e e r o u n d ,
F r o m o p e n i n g s k i e s may s t r e a m i n g g l o r i e s s h i n e ,
And S a i n t s e m b r a c e t h e e w i t h a l o v e l i k e m i n e .
(11. 339-342)

I n t h e s e l i n e s we s e e H e a v e n and e a r t h j o i n e d together i n the spirit

of the C h r i s t i a n baroque t r a d i t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d by such p a i n t i n g s as

Domenichino's Communion o f S t . J e r o m e and s u c h s c u l p t u r e a s Bernini's

13
E c s t a s y of S t . Theresa i n the Cornaro Chapel.
 81

Y e t , though such pagan, satirical, or C h r i s t i a n baroque moments

demonstrate Pope's v e r s a t i l i t y , t h e y do n o t d o m i n a t e t h e poems i n w h i c h

t h e y a p p e a r a n d r e n d e r t h e s e poems b a r o q u e . T h u s i n "The Temple of

Fame" t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e g r o u p o f c h a r i o t e e r s , a n d , f o r t h a t m a t t e r ,

the d e s c r i p t i o n of a l l the great l i t e r a r y , h i s t o r i c a l , . a n d mythological

f i g u r e s of t h e p a s t , a r e d e d i c a t e d n o t t o t h e r e v e l a t i o n of Heaven and

its angels i n the s p i r i t of the C h r i s t i a n baroque b u t , i n l i n e w i t h the

b a s i c r e a l i s m of the century, t o the v i s u a l i z a t i o n of the achievements

o f man on e a r t h . The D u n c i a d , t o o , makes u s e o f i t s g r e a t g o d d e s s and

its d a r k s i n i s t e r movements i n o r d e r t o more e f f e c t i v e l y satirize and

condemn t h e l i t e r a r y h a c k s a n d . v i c e s o f Grub S t r e e t . And "Eloisa to

A b e l a r d , " w h i c h seems c l o s e s t t o C h r i s t i a n b a r o q u e v a l u e s , i s p r i m a r i l y

concerned w i t h r e s o l v i n g E l o i s a ' s i n t e r n a l debate between earthly love

and r e l i g i o u s d u t y r a t h e r t h a n r e v e a l i n g t h e g l o r y o f H e a v e n and i t s

a n g e l s t o the eyes of men.

Before turning t o t h e p o e t r y o f Thomson, a f e w f i n a l o b s e r v a -

t i o n s s h o u l d b e made c o n c e r n i n g p i c t o r i a l i s m i n Pope's translations

and s a t i r i c a l poetry. W i t h r e s p e c t t o Homer's I l i a d , w h i c h P o p e f o u n d

h i g h l y p i c t o r i a l and l e f t even more so i n h i s t r a n s l a t i o n , i t i s worth

n o t i n g t h a t Pope f o u n d t h e " p r i n c i p a l B e a u t y " o f Book X t o be the

" L i v e l i n e s s of i t s P a i n t i n g s . " This "distinguishes i t among a l l the

others." The details of t h e scene i n w h i c h D o l o n meets h i s . d e a t h ,

t h e "marshy Spot o f Ground" w i t h t h e " T a m a r i s k , o r a q u a t i c P l a n t s upon

w h i c h t h e y h a n g h i s S p o i l s and t h e R e e d s t h a t a r e h e a p ' d together to

mark t h e p l a c e , " a r e d e t a i l s "the.most P i c t u r e s q u e i m a g i n a b l e . " But

 82
the c h i e f b e a u t y of the book l i e s " i n the Prospect, a f i n e r than which
14

was n e v e r d r a w n b y any P e n c i l . " H e r e P o p e shows t h e a d m i r a t i o n o f .

literary landscape
: that i s often associated only with Thomson a n d the

p i c t u r e s q u e movement t h a t came l a t e r i n t h e century.

The richness of Pope's p i c t o r i a l i s t practice i s further dis-

played i n h i s s a t i r i c a l poetry. The p r o g r e s s i o n of h i g h l y pictorial

s c e n e s i n "The Rape o f t h e L o c k , " f o r e x a m p l e , often i n themselves

r e m i n i s c e n t of I t a l i a n m y t h o l o g i c a l painting, constitutes a good n e o -

c l a s s i c a l example of t h e " p i c t u r e - g a l l e r y " method o f a c h i e v i n g total

f o r m i n a poem, t h e m e t h o d u s e d e a r l i e r b y L o n g u s , Kebes, and Marvell.

The movement f r o m s c e n e t o s c e n e , a s s i s t e d b y a u t h o r i a l comment and

narrative links, i s the r e v e r s e of the usual Aristotelian narrative

f o r m whose s u p p o r t i n g p i c t u r e s , i f any, a r e m e r e l y i n c i d e n t a l . The

same p i c t o r i a l construction governs the form of E p i s t l e I I of the

" M o r a l E s s a y s , " "Of t h e C h a r a c t e r s o f Women," i n w h i c h t h e movement,

like the scenic progression i n "The Rape o f t h e L o c k , " i s f r o m one

satiric l i t e r a r y p o r t r a i t to another.

The n e o - c l a s s i c a l p i c t o r i a l s c e n e i s a n e n o r m o u s l y varied one,

enriched by a m u l t i t u d e of i n f l u e n c e s from the l a r g e t r a d i t i o n of

I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e and b a r o q u e art. The passages f r o m Pope c i t e d t o

this point have been intended t o i l l u s t r a t e some o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

of these influences: painting techniques, a l l e g o r i c a l painting, and

R i p a i n "Windsor Forest"; c l a s s i c a l m a r b l e s and b a r o q u e sculpture in

''The T e m p l e o f Fame"; s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l a n d s c a p e p a i n t i n g i n "Eloisa

t o A b e l a r d " arid "The T e m p l e o f Fame"; a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n b a r o q u e in

 83
"Eloisa to Abelard." A t t h e same t i m e these passages usefully,

illustrate the i c o n i c t r a d i t i o n i n n e o - c l a s s i c a l p o e t r y , the technique

of p i c t o r i a l s u g g e s t i o n , the methods of i d e a l i z a t i o n , and the "picture-

g a l l e r y " technique of a c h i e v i n g t o t a l p o e t i c form.

A l m o s t e v e r y n e o - c l a s s i c a l p o e t d i s p l a y s t o some e x t e n t the

influences from I t a l i a n Renaissance and b a r o q u e a r t and the pictorial

practices t h a t h a v e been, d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o P o p e . Of these poets

n o n e i s m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n James Thomson. F o r Thomson c a n b e seen

as a p o e t l o o k i n g b a c k , as d i d P o p e , t o a n c i e n t s c u l p t u r e a n d the a r t

of the I t a l i a n Renaissance and i t s a f t e r m a t h , and as a p o e t l o o k i n g

forward, a n t i c i p a t i n g the r i s e of the p i c t u r e s q u e s c h o o l . ^ His

pictorial s c e n e c a n b e v i e w e d i n a . d o u b l e p e r s p e c t i v e : as a p r o d u c t of

its creator's a l l e g i a n c e to eighteenth-century standards of e x c e l l e n c e

in a r t o r , more t r a d i t i o n a l l y , as a n o r i g i n a l i n f l u e n c e p a v i n g the way

for t h e l a n d s c a p e - o r i e n t e d w o r k o f p i c t u r e s q u e p o e t s , p a i n t e r s , and

gardeners. The l a t t e r and m o r e common i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Thomson tends

to v i e w him as a p r e - r o m a n t i c t o d i s s o c i a t e him from other neo-

c l a s s i c a l poets l i k e P o p e and to interpret h i s p i c t o r i a l i s m only i n

t e r m s o f i t s e v o c a t i o n s o f C l a u d i a n and S a l v a t o r i a n scenes. Because the

p i c t u r e s q u e movement i s t h e s u b j e c t : o f t h e n e x t chaptery the illustra-

t i o n o f Thomson's p i c t o r i a l scene w i l l be presented h e r e i n t h e same

t e r m s as P o p e ! s , i n t h e l i g h t of i t s r e l a t i o n s to the i c o n i c tradition,

classical s c u l p t u r e , and I t a l i a n Renaissance and baroque a r t .

Despite i t s i n f l u e n c e upon l a t e r p i c t u r e s q u e a t t i t u d e s towards

scenery and though h i s blank v e r s e d i f f e r s from Pope's c o u p l e t s ,

 84
Thomson b e l o n g s i n t e l l e c t u a l l y and a e s t h e t i c a l l y to the same n e o -

c l a s s i c a l school as P o p e and h i s contemporaries. His pictorialism

shows t h a t h e , no l e s s than they, looked t o a n t i q u i t y and to the

R e n a i s s a n c e and baroque a r t of I t a l y . He read the same critical

treatises, c o l l e c t e d the same k i n d o f p r i n t s and e n g r a v i n g s , and made

h i s journey to I t a l y . And finally, i n the spirit of Pope's " E p i s t l e

t o Mr. Jervas," T h o m s o n , i n h i s poem "On t h e D e a t h o f Mr. William

Aikman, the P a i n t e r , " d i s p l a y e d the typical neo-classical appreciation

of p a i n t e r s and painting:

Oh, c o u l d I d r a w , my f r i e n d , t h y g e n u i n e m i n d
J u s t as t h e l i v i n g f o r m s by t h e e d e s i g n e d , .
Of R a p h a e l ' s f i g u r e s n o n e s h o u l d f a i r e r s h i n e ,
Nor " T i t i a n ' s c o l o u r s l o n g e r l a s t t h e n m i n e . 1 6

H o w e v e r , s i n c e Thomson h a s been p l a c e d by some c r i t i c s "at the

head of a s c h o o l o f r u r a l and n a t u r a l poetry as opposed to the urban and

artificial school of P o p e " ± 7

and h i s landscape d e s c r i p t i o n s interpreted

as revolutionary challenges to the r e f i n e m e n t s o f .a p o e t r y preoccupied

w i t h men, m a n n e r s , and town, i t i s w o r t h p o i n t i n g o u t , t h a t Thomson,

despite the f a c t t h a t h i s c h i e f d i s t i n c t i o n as p o e t i s p r o p e r l y recog-

nized t o be h i s n a t u r a l s c e n e , was not e x c l u s i v e l y dedicated to the

representation o f n a t u r a l s c e n e s and objects. For example, h i s natural

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t e n move f r o m o b j e c t or scene to nature considered as a

whole. His d e i s t i c v i s i o n frequently presents phenomena as the compon-

ent parts of a g r e a t e r organic e n t i t y , a universe ordered p e r f e c t l y by

n a t u r a l law but at the same t i m e d i v i n e . T h u s h i s theme i s n o t simply

 85

the b e a u t y and a p p e a l o f l a n d s c a p e b u t t h e l a r g e r d e s i g n and p e r f e c t i o n

o f t h e c o s m i c scheme, t h e d i v i n e work o f a r t w h i c h i s " t h e f i n i s h e d

university of things" revealed " i na l l i t s o r d e r , m a g n i t u d e , .and p a r t s . "

The u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s grand system leads t o a d o r a t i o n of that

" P o w e r " who " f i l l s , s u s t a i n s , and a c t u a t e s t h e w h o l e " (11. 140-144).

Furthermore, j u s t as h i s s t y l i z e d language, h i s M i l t o n i c phrases,

and h i s L a t i n a t e d i c t i o n mark h i m s t y l i s t i c a l l y , as a n e o - c l a s s i c a l poet,

so h i s p o e t i c c o n c e r n w i t h a r t , i n d u s t r y , and c i v i l i z a t i o n r e f l e c t s the

social, ethical,.and cultural themes t y p i c a l of Augustan verse. A good

example i l l u s t r a t i n g Thomson's b a s i c n e o - c l a s s i c a l p o s i t i o n c a n b e

f o u n d i n t h e poem L i b e r t y w h e r e h e e x p r e s s e s h i s v i e w o f a r t , p r e s e n t i n g

it a s t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e e v i d e n c e o f man's a c h i e v e m e n t s , a s t h e r e c o r d

w i t h o u t which c i v i l i z a t i o n would be f u t i l e and empty:

H o w e v e r p u f f e d w i t h power a n d g o r g e d w i t h w e a l t h
A n a t i o n b e ; l e t t r a d e enormous r i s e ,
L e t E a s t and South t h e i r m i n g l e d t r e a s u r e pour
T i l l , swelled impetuous, the c o r r u p t i n g f l o o d
B u r s t o ' e r t h e c i t y and devour t h e l a n d — r
Yet, these neglected, these recording a r t s ,
Wealth r o t s , a nuisance;.and, o b l i v i o u s sunk,
T h a t n a t i o n must a n o t h e r C a r t h a g e l i e .
I f n o t b y them, on monumental b r a s s ,
On s c u l p t u r e d m a r b l e , o n t h e d e a t h l e s s p a g e
I m p r e s s e d , renown h a d l e f t no t r a c e b e h i n d :
I n . v a i n , t o f u t u r e t i m e s , the.sage had thought,
The l e g i s l a t o r p l a n n e d , t h e h e r o f o u n d
A beauteous death, t h e p a t r i o t t o i l e d i n v a i n .
The a w a r d e r s t h e y o f fame's i m m o r t a l w r e a t h !
They r o u s e a m b i t i o n , t h e y t h e mind e x a l t ,
G i v e g r e a t i d e a s , l o v e l y forms i n f u s e ,
D e l i g h t t h e g e n e r a l e y e , a n d , d r e s s e d by them,
T h e m o r a l V e n u s g l o w s w i t h d o u b l e charms".
(V, 381-399)

Thomson's poem p r e s e n t s a " v i s i o n " o f L i b e r t y from ancient

 86

times t o ^the E n g l i s h p r e s e n t , f o l l o w i n g h e r s t o r y f r o m a g e t o a g e ,

country t o c o u n t r y , and c i v i l i z a t i o n to civilization.. I t differs from

t h e c u l t u r a l and e t h i c a l h i s t o r y v i s u a l i z e d b y Pope i n h i s "Temple o f

Fame" i n i t s o r i e n t a t i o n t o p o l i t i c a l and c i v i c tradition rather than

to s p e c i f i c a r t i s t s and works o f a r t . Nonetheless, as t h e passage

a b o v e makes c l e a r , t h e poem a t t a c h e s g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e to a r t , seeing

it as v i t a l to the c i v i c t r a d i t i o n s , and v i r t u e s w h i c h i t s e r v e s .

T h i s v i e w o f t h e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n o f a r t and t h e emphasis upon i t s impor-

tance, scarcely a t t r i b u t e s of a r u r a l poet dedicated only t o f r e s h

d e s c r i p t i o n s of landscape scenery, l e a d Thomson i n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n

of Greek a r t which p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l guide to h i s attitude towards

pictorialism. He b e g i n s by d e s c r i b i n g t h e o r i g i n o f t h e a r t s i n

Greece:

F i r s t , e l d e r Sculpture taught her s i s t e r a r t

C o r r e c t d e s i g n ; where g r e a t i d e a s shone,
And i n t h e s e c r e t t r a c e e x p r e s s i o n s p o k e ;
Taught h e r t h e g r a c e f u l a t t i t u d e , t h e t u r n
And b e a u t e o u s a i r s o f h e a d ; t h e n a t i v e a c t ,
Or b o l d o r e a s y ; a n d , c a s t f r e e b e h i n d ,
The s w e l l i n g m a n t l e ' s w e l l a d j u s t e d f l o w .
( I I , 324-330)

S c u l p t u r e comes f i r s t and, reminding us o f Reynolds, teaches

painting t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f d e s i g n a n d how t o c o n v e y i d e a s . , The

primacy of sculpture i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n the l i g h t of i t s role i n neo-

classical pictorial i d e a l i z a t i o n , a r o l e demonstrated by Pope's Farnese

Hercules in."The T e m p l e o f Fame." S c u l p t u r e a l s o e x e m p l i f i e s two

q u a l i t i e s regarded i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y as t h e h a l l m a r k s of the

b e s t p a i n t i n g : g r a c e f u l n e s s and p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e v e l a t i o n .
 87

The accompanying descriptions i n L i b e r t y of the p a i n t i n g and

s c u l p t u r e of a n c i e n t Greece emphasize the q u a l i t y of e n a r g e i a which

this a r t d i s p l a y s and f u r t h e r r e v e a l Thomson's n e o - c l a s s i c a l orienta-

t i o n towards the v a l u e s of c l a s s i c a l and R e n a i s s a n c e p i c t o r i a l i s m .

The "fair i d e a s " and " d e l i g h t f u l forms" of Greece, f o r example, though

i d e a l i z e d , are n a t u r a l i s t i c a l l y represented i n l i f e l i k e terms by those

famous s c u l p t u r e d f i g u r e s i n which.

S e l e c t i n g b e a u t y ' s c h o i c e , and t h a t a g a i n
E x a l t i n g , blending i n t o a p e r f e c t whole,
Thy workmen l e f t e v e n n a t u r e ' s s e l f b e h i n d .
( I I , 230, 234-236)

Thomson s e e s t h e g e n i u s o f G r e e c e e x p r e s s e d i n " t h e l i v e features . . .

of breathing stone" (II, 302), i n the v e r i s i m i l i t u d e of i t s sculptured

forms. His laudatory d e s c r i p t i o n of the i m i t a t i v e lifelikeness of

a n c i e n t Greek s t a t u a r y i s e n t i r e l y i n the s p i r i t o f P l u t a r c h and the

Renaissance:

Minutely perfect a l l ! Each d i m p l e sunk,

And e v e r y m u s c l e s w e l l e d , a s n a t u r e t a u g h t .
In t r e s s e s , b r a i d e d gay, t h e m a r b l e waved;
Flowed i n l o o s e r o b e s , or t h i n t r a n s p a r e n t v e i l s ;
Sprun'g i n t o m o t i o n ; s o f t e n e d i n t o f l e s h ;
Was f i r e d t o p a s s i o n , o r r e f i n e d i n t o s o u l . :
( I I , 307-312)

Similarly, the p a i n t i n g of Greece, though i t too i d e a l i z e s i t s

s u b j e c t , i s s e e n b y Thomson a s i m i t a t i n g life:

Nor l e s s thy p e n c i l w i t h c r e a t i v e t o u c h
Shed m i m i c l i f e , when a l l thy. b r i g h t e s t "dames
Assembled Z e u x i s i n h i s Helen mixed.
( I I , 313-315)
 88

In a d d i t i o n t o these g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s Thomson provides

direct i c o n i c p o r t r a i t s of those i n d i v i d u a l a n c i e n t marbles seen i n

P o p e ' s " T e m p l e o f Fame" a n d a d m i r e d s o w i d e l y i n the n e o - c l a s s i c a l

period. H i s sculpturesque image o f t h e F a r n e s e H e r c u l e s , f o r example,

though i t c o n t r a s t s w i t h Pope's b r i e f iconic reference,.implies the

same a d m i r a t i o n f o r the i d e a l beauty a s s o c i a t e d w i t h such figures:

In l e a n i n g s i t e , r e s p i r i n g from h i s t o i l s ,
The w e l l known h e r o who d e l i v e r e d G r e e c e , .
H i s ample c h e s t a l l tempested w i t h f o r c e ,
Unconquerable reared. She saw t h e h e a d ,
Breathing the hero, s m a l l , of Grecian s i z e ,
S c a r c e more e x t e n s i v e t h a n t h e s i n e w y n e c k ;
The s p r e a d i n g s h o u l d e r s , m u s c u l a r a n d b r o a d ;
The w h o l e a mass o f s w e l l i n g s i n e w s j . t o u c h e d
I n t o harmonious shape. ( I V , 140-148)

This detailed i c o n i c p a s s a g e , so d i f f e r e n t from Pope's suggestive

couplet i n i t s i m p r e s s i o n i s t i cnaturalism, r e f l e c t s t h e same s e n s e o f

h a r m o n y a n d u n P l a t o n i c i d e a l i s m , t h e same f e e l i n g f o r the i d e a l beauty

of c l a s s i c a l l y s c u l p t u r e d marbles t y p i c a l of Pope, Reynolds, and t h e

age.'

The importance, t h e n , o f t h e c i v i c v i r t u e s and t r a d i t i o n s and

the a r t s which served them, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i c o n i c a l l y expressed

admiration o f t h e n a t u r a l i s m and i d e a l i z e d b e a u t y o f a n c i e n t Greek a r t

demonstrate Thomson's i n t e l l e c t u a l and a e s t h e t i c a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e

n e o - c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f Pope and h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . H i s vague

p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n i n L i b e r t y of the f i g u r e of Painting,,the P a i n t i n g of

I t a l i a n Renaissance I t a l y , shows h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e a r t w h i c h

shaped E n g l i s h t a s t e s i n t h e p e r i o d and i s c o n f i r m a t o r y of t h i s affil-

iation:
 89

In elegant design,
Improving nature: i n ideas, f a i r
Or g r e a t , e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e . f i n e a n t i q u e ;
In a t t i t u d e , expression, a i r s d i v i n e —
H e r s o n s o f Rome and F l o r e n c e b o r e t h e p r i z e .
To t h o s e o f V e n i c e s h e t h e m a g i c a r t
Of c o l o u r s m e l t i n g i n t o c o l o u r s g a v e .
T h e i r s t o o i t was b y one e m b r a c i n g m a s s
Of l i g h t and s h a d e , t h a t - s e t t l e s r o u n d t h e w h o l e ,
Or v a r i e s t r e m u l o u s f r o m p a r t t o p a r t ,
O'er a l l a b i n d i n g h a r m o n y t o t h r o w , .
To r a i s e t h e p i c t u r e , and r e p o s e t h e s i g h t .
( I V , 232-243)

Thomson's r e n d i t i o n s o f n a t u r a l s c e n e s , u p o n w h i c h h i s reputa-

t i o n as p o e t l a r g e l y r e s t s ' , a l s o r e v e a l h i s r e l a t i o n t o preceding

e x a m p l e and tradition. T h u s The Seasons, the l a s t o f h i s poems t o be

considered, not only f a l l s w i t h i n the long literary tradition that

embraces the Idylls of T h e o c r i t u s , the Eclogues of V i r g i l , and the

Shepheards Calender of Spenser but also brings to mind the scenes of

18

cyclical activity common i n m e d i e v a l a r t , e s p e c i a l l y the season

p i e c e s i n s u c h B o o k s o f H o u r s as L e s T r e s R i c h e s H e u r e s du Due de B e r r y ,
b o o k s p r o d u c e d i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s d u r i n g t h e f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h

19
centuries. Thomson's S e a s o n s i s a l s o r e m i n i s c e n t of N i c o l a s Poussin's

f o u r p a i n t i n g s of t h e d i f f e r e n t s e a s o n s as w e l l as those i n the same

20

genre p a i n t e d by R u b e n s , B a s s a n o , and others.

Then, t o o , the d e s c r i p t i o n s of e x t e r n a l n a t u r e i n Thomson's

poem a c c o r d with the taste in.landscape created by seventeenth-century

E n g l i s h l a n d s c a p e p a i n t i n g : f o r e s t and farm, parkland, w a t e r f a l l s ,

21 -

r i v e r s , harbours, mountains, h i l l s , and ruins. Arid i t i s w o r t h

noting t h a t o f t h e many s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l i s h s c e n e s , prospects,

 90

and vistas depicting this kind of scenery "season p i c t u r e s were certainly

22

one of the most p o p u l a r . " Thus w i t h respect to models f o r picturesque

vision

t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y man o f t a s t e f o u n d t h e s e , f i r s t l y i n h i s own
n a t i v e l a n d s c a p e t r a d i t i o n , h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d as i t was t o p a i n t e r s
s u c h a s S w a n e v e l t , Van E v e r d i n g e n , B e r c h e m , and Van D i e s t , and
s e c o n d l y i n t h e w o r k s o f S a l v a t o r R o s a , G a s p a r P o u s s i n , and C l a u d e
L o r r a i n , p a i n t e r s f o r whom he d e v e l o p e d a p a r t i c u l a r e n t h u s i a s m . 2 3

T h e r e i s no doubt t h a t , long b e f o r e the eighteenth-century

"return t o n a t u r e , " a t a s t e f o r l a n d s c a p e had been formed that.included

features often associated with this " r e t u r n " and frequently attributed

t o Thomson. In the light of t h i s t a s t e i t can be perceived that "the

originality o f Thomson's v i s u a l s c e n e l a y i n b r i n g i n g to poetry the

24

v e r y themes m o s t p r o m i n e n t i n s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y landscape."

This simplified account of the general v i s u a l background of

Thomson's n a t u r a l s c e n e s c a n be made c o m p l e t e by p o i n t i n g out that the

great R e n a i s s a n c e and baroque p a i n t e r s of Europe e x e r c i s e d an important

i n f l u e n c e upon s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l a n d s c a p e t a s t e i n E n g l a n d , the

taste i n n a t u r a l scenery displayed i n Thomson's.Seasons. And, as will

be s e e n , t h e y w e r e e v e n more i m p o r t a n t i n s h a p i n g Thomson's m e t h o d of

presenting this natural scenery.

B e c a u s e l a n d s c a p e i n Thomson's S e a s o n s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e gener-

alized or i d e a l i z e d nature not only of C l a u d e , S a l v a t o r Rosa, and

Gaspard Dughet but a l s o of Leonardo, G i o r g i o n e , . T i t i a n , Annibale

C a r r a c c i , Rubens, Guido R e n i , G u e r c i n o , and Nicolas Poussin, i t is not

surprising to discover t h a t Thomson, l i k e a l l t h e s e p a i n t e r s , frequently

 91

idealizes his subject, presenting s c e n e s as more t h a n p u r e l y , p h y s i c a l

landscape. P a i n t i n g s such as N i c o l a s Poussin's Landscape w i t h t h e

B u r i a l of Phocion, i n w h i c h " t h e l a n d s c a p e becomes i t s e l f a m e m o r i a l

to S t o i c v i r t u e " ; Claude L o r r a i n e ' s A P a s t o r a l , w h i c h , as a n o s t a l g i c

vista,,evokes "the p o e t i c essence of a countryside f i l l e d with echoes

of a n t i q u i t y " ; and A n n i b a l e Carracci's seminal Landscape w i t h the

Flight i n t o Egypt, i n w h i c h t h e f i g u r e s form a n a t u r a l and i n e v i t a b l e

part of the c i v i l i z e d and d o m e s t i c a t e d n a t u r a l s e t t i n g , d e p i c t scenes

25

of n a t u r e expressing heroic, pastoral,.or social ideals. Thomson

a l s o humanizes l a n d s c a p e , p r e s e n t i n g i t i n t h e manner o f t h e p a i n t e r s

enumerated above i n o r d e r t o g i v e i t meaning, beyond t h a t which, i t

possesses i n i t s e l f . The f o l l o w i n g l i n e s , f o r example, taken from

"Spring," v i s u a l i z e a p a s t o r a l scene e x p r e s s i y e of social-nationalistic

i d e a l s , a . s c e n e w h i c h i d e a l i z e s Thomson's B r i t a i n t h r o u g h i t s e v o c a t i o n

of former b a r b a r i t i e s and i t s s u g g e s t i o n of present-day conditions.

The poet describes a "mountain-brow"

Where s i t s t h e s h e p h e r d o n t h e g r a s s y t u r f , .
Inhaling h e a l t h f u l the descending sun.
Around him feeds h i s many-bleating f l o c k ,
Of v a r i o u s c a d e n c e ; . a n d h i s s p o r t i v e l a m b s ,
T h i s way a n d t h a t c o n v o l v e d i n . f r i s k f u l g l e e ,
Their f r o l i c s play. A n d now t h e s p r i g h t l y r a c e
I n v i t e s t h e m f o r t h ; when s w i f t , t h e s i g n a l g i v e n ,
T h e y s t a r t away,.and sweep t h e m a s s y mound
That runs around t h e h i l l — t h e rampart once
Of i r o n w a r , i n a n c i e n t b a r b a r o u s t i m e s , .
When d i s u n i t e d B r i t a i n e v e r b l e d ,
L o s t i n e t e r n a l b r o i l , e r e y e t s h e grew
To t h i s d e e p - l a i d i n d i s s o l u b l e s t a t e
Where w e a l t h a n d commerce l i f t t h e g o l d e n h e a d ,
And o ' e r o u r l a b o u r s l i b e r t y a n d l a w
I m p a r t i a l w a t c h , t h e wonder o f a w o r l d !
(11. 832-848)

I
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This i d y l l i c scene o f f r o l i c s o m e lambs d i s p o r t i n g themselves

f r e e l y on a g r a s s y h i l l s i d e u n d e r t h e eye of t h e i r , shepherd suggests

w h a t i s made e x p l i c i t b y Thomson l a t e r i n the passage: the peaceful

c o n d i t i o n o f a n E n g l a n d w h o s e l a b o u r s and c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t i e s are

c a r r i e d on u n d e r t h e i m p a r t i a l eye of l i b e r t y and law. The "massy

mound" o f t h e a n c i e n t r a m p a r t i s s i m i l a r l y e v o c a t i v e of the wars and

" e t e r n a l b r o i l " of the d i s u n i t e d B r i t i s h past. The description thus

p r e s e n t s more t h a n a s i m p l e p a s t o r a l s c e n e . I t e m b o d i e s and contrasts

p r e s e n t a n d p a s t , e x p r e s s i n g t h e same i d e a l s o f p e a c e , p r o g r e s s ,

liberty, and law t h a t were p r o m u l g a t e d by Pope t h r o u g h t h e f i g u r e of

his F a t h e r Thames.

Thomson u t i l i z e d o t h e r methods of i d e a l i z i n g the n a t u r a l scene,

rendering i t c l a s s i c a l , f o r example, by i n c l u d i n g s c u l p t u r e d f i g u r e s or

architecture. Of t h e s e m e t h o d s , h o w e v e r , n o n e i s more i m p o r t a n t t h a n

his p r a c t i c e o f p e r s o n i f y i n g n a t u r a l phenomena, a p r a c t i c e s e e n already

in Pope, found i n Gray, p a r t i c u l a r l y prominent in Collins, and wide-

spread t h r o u g h o u t t h e age. Thomson's n a t u r a l personifications,

"deliberately competing w i t h the a l l e g o r i c p o r t r a i t s of popular Italian

26

painters," show h i m h u m a n i z i n g and m y t h o l o g i z i n g t h e phenomena o f

n a t u r e a s d i d P o p e w i t h t h e - p e r s o n i f i e d Thames, t h a t i s , a f t e r the

manner o f t h e g r e a t R e n a i s s a n c e and b a r o q u e p a i n t e r s of I t a l y . A few

examples i l l u s t r a t i n g how. s u c h p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n e n a b l e d Thomson t o

achieve h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c landscape form w i l l serve, to b r i n g this

chapter to a close.

In h i s i n v o c a t i o n to. S p r i n g , i n v i t i n g h e r d e s c e n t t o e a r t h , , he
 93
presents t h e s e a s o n as a n e a r - d i v i n e presence:

Come g e n t l e S p r i n g , e t h e r e a l m i l d n e s s , come;
And f r o m t h e b o s o m . o f y o n d r o p p i n g c l o u d ,
W h i l e m u s i c wakes r o u n d , v e i l e d i n a shower
Of s h a d o w i n g r o s e s , o n o u r p l a i n s d e s c e n d .
( 1 1 , 1-4)

This p e r s o n i f i e d f i g u r e of Spring i s t y p i c a l of the f i g u r e s

used t o i n t r o d u c e the other t h r e e , poems o f t h e S e a s o n s . I t thus

t y p i f i e s Thomson's b a r o q u e - a l l e g o r i c a l c o n c e p t i o n of h i s subject, h i s

v i e w o f t h e f o u r seasons as n o b l e , c e l e s t i a l beings whose p e r i o d i c v i s i -

t a t i o n s from above t r a n s f o r m the e a r t h l y realm of nature a n d man. It

is true that "gentle, Spring" i s not c i r c u m s t a n t i a l l y presented, that

her figure i s not easily v i s u a l i z e d , and t h a t , i n t h i s r e s p e c t , s h e

r e s e m b l e s o t h e r n a t u r a l a n d m o r a l p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e poem. How-

e v e r , many o t h e r figures are sharply visualized and i t i s t h e s e

individualized portraits that i l l u s t r a t e the kind of scenic pictorial-

ism, the picturesque landscape form, that i s found a t i t s best i n the

poetry o f Thomson. The f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e sun as t h e

c e n t r a l f i g u r e i n a p i c t o r i a l scene which i s r e m i n i s c e n t of I t a l i a n

a l l e g o r i c a l p a i n t i n g , i s taken f r o m "Summer" a n d w i l l sufficiently

illustrate t h i s Thomsonian p i c t o r i a l i z a t i o n of landscape:

P a r e n t o f S e a s o n s ! who t h e pomp p r e c e d e
That w a i t s t h y t h r o n e , as t h r o u g h t h y v a s t , domain,
Annual, along the b r i g h t e c l i p t i c road
I n w o r l d - r e j o i c i n g s t a t e i t moves s u b l i m e .
Meantime t h e e x p e c t i n g n a t i o n s , c i r c l e d gay
With a l l the various t r i b e s of f o o d f u l earth,
I m p l o r e t h y b o u n t y , o r s e n d g r a t e f u l up
 94

A common hymn: w h i l e , r o u n d t h y b e a m i n g car-,

High-seen, t h e Seasons l e a d , i n s p r i g h t l y dance
Harmonious k n i t , t h e r o s y - f i n g e r e d h o u r s ,
The z e p h y r s f l o a t i n g l o o s e , t h e t i m e l y r a i n s ,
Of b l o o m e t h e r e a l t h e l i g h t - f o o t e d d e w s ,
And, s o f t e n e d i n t o j o y , t h e s u r l y storms.
These, i n s u c c e s s i v e t u r n , w i t h l a v i s h hand
Shower e v e r y b e a u t y , e v e r y f r a g r a n c e s h o w e r ,
H e r b s , f l o w e r s , and f r u i t s ; t i l l , k i n d l i n g a t t h y t o u c h ,
F r o m l a n d t o l a n d i s f l u s h e d t h e v e r n a l year."
(11.. 1 1 3 - 1 2 9 )

J u s t as t h e f i g u r e of Pope's M e l a n c h o l y explains the d i s t r i b u -

t i o n of l i g h t and shade i n t h e S a l y a t o r i a n scene over which she

p r e s i d e s and a c c o u n t s f o r i t s gloomy atmosphere, so here t h e e f f e c t s

o f t h e a p p r o a c h i n g summer s e a s o n — r - t h e " t i m e l y r a i n s , " t h e s t o r m s

" s o f t e n e d i n t o j o y , " and t h e v e g e t a t i o n o f h e r b , f l o w e r , and fruit—

are interpreted i n terms o f t h e sun's p r o g r e s s a l o n g t h e " b r i g h t

ecliptic r o a d " i n h i s "beaming" c a r , " h i g h - s e e n . " The c a r i s s u r r o u n d e d

by t h e Seasons who,."harmonious k n i t , " lead the "rosy-fingered hours"

in " s p r i g h t l y dance" u n t i l , together w i t h other dancing figures—the,

" f l o a t i n g " z e p h y r s , " l i g h t - f o o t e d " dews, and " s u r l y " s t o r m s — t h e y lavish

the beauty and f r a g r a n c e , t h e h e r b s , f l o w e r s , and f r u i t s o f s p r i n g and

summer o v e r t h e f a c e o f t h e e a r t h below.

The a l l e g o r i c a l progress of t h e mighty " P a r e n t o f Seasons" and

the groups of s u b o r d i n a t e f i g u r e s dancing round h i s c a r i s conceived

as a c o m p l e t e scene encompassing w i t h i n s p a t i a l b o u n d s t h e movement'

and the figures i t depicts. This p i c t o r i a l representation of the r e -

t u r n i n g sun k i n d l i n g the land t o new b e a u t y , f r a g r a n c e , and growth

suggests the strong influence of I t a l i a n mythological painting, i n

 95
particular the s p e c i f i c painting referred to e a r l i e r i n connection

w i t h Pope's r i v e r god i n " W i n d s o r F o r e s t " and h i s sculpturesque image

o f P i n d a r ' s a e r i a l f l i g h t i n "The T e m p l e o f Fame," n a m e l y t h e Aurora

f r e s c o of Guido R e n i . I n t h i s m y t h o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s , as we saw,

Apollo, riding i n h i s c a r , i s shown s u r r o u n d e d by the dancing hours

while Aurora prepares t o s c a t t e r f l o w e r s upon the l a n d b e l o w . Reni's

painting, thus a l l e g o r i c a l l y d e p i c t i n g t h e day dawning upon the land,

c l o s e l y corresponds t o and perfectly i l l u s t r a t e s t h e m e t h o d o f Thomson's

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e w a r m t h , g r o w t h , and change d e v e l o p i n g i n the

n a t u r a l s c e n e as i t s phenomena r e s p o n d t o t h e r e t u r n of sun and summer..

His Aurora typifies the i n f l u e n c e of baroque I t a l y on the Thomsonian

d e s c r i p t i o n and p o r t r a y a l of i d e a l landscape.

In fulfilling this f u n c t i o n , Reni's painting also clearly demon-

strates t h a t Thomsonjs d e p i c t i o n o f t h e . n a t u r a l s c e n e c a n n o t be fully

understood or a p p r e c i a t e d i f i n t e r p r e t e d o n l y i n terms of C l a u d i a n and

Salvatorian prospects. The e x t e n t t o w h i c h C l a u d e and Salvator are

factors i n Thomson's l a n d s c a p e art will be shown i n t h e n e x t chapter;

h e r e we are mainly concerned w i t h the b a s i c i n f l u e n c e represented by

p a i n t e r s l i k e R e n i "and w o r k s u c h as h i s A u r o r a , w i t h s h o w i n g t h a t their

significance c a n n o t be overlooked.

F o r Thomson's i m a g e r y i s n o t p i c t o r i a l i n a m e r e l y descriptive

or enumerative sense alone. At i t s best h i s p i c t o r i a l i s m becomes an

instrument serving larger aesthetic, emotional, i n t e l l e c t u a l , s o c i a l ,

o r m o r a l p u r p o s e s and v a l u e s . And i t fulfils this important function

b e c a u s e Thomson's p o e t r y i s fundamentally r e l a t e d , as t h i s chapter has

tried t o make c l e a r , t o; t h a t w i d e and influential frame of r e f e r e n c e

w h i c h he s h a r e d w i t h P o p e and h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , t o t h o s e standards

of e x c e l l e n c e w h i c h d e r i v e d f r o m a n t i q u i t y and t h e p a i n t i n g and sculp-

t u r e of the g r e a t a r t i s t s of Renaissance and b a r o q u e Italy.

 97

FOOTNOTES

13-16. P a r e n t h e t i c a l l i n e o r page r e f e r e n c e s f o r Pope r e f e r

t o t h e o n e - v o l u m e e d i t i o n o f t h e T w i c k e n h a m t e x t , The Poems o f A l e x a n d e r -
Pope, ed. John B u t t (London: Methuen, 1965).
2
An E s s a y on t h e G e n i u s and W r i t i n g s o f P o p e ( L o n d o n : 1782),
I, 28.

3
lbid., p. 29.
4
A u r o r a , c e i l i n g f r e s c o , 1 6 1 3 , C a s i n o R o s p i g l i o s i , Rome; The
Kingdom o f F l o r a , S t a a t l i c h e Kunstsammlungen, Dresden.

"*"A P o e t i c a l I n d e x t o Homer's I l i a d , - The Poems o f A l e x a n d e r

1 1

P o p e , e d . J o h n B u t t , The T w i c k e n h a m e d i t i o n ( L o n d o n : M e t h u e n , 1 9 3 9 -
1967), V I I I , 592-595.

J e a n H a g s t r u m , The S i s t e r A r t s : The T r a d i t i o n o f L i t e r a r y
P i c t o r i a l i s m and E n g l i s h P o e t r y f r o m D r y d e n t o G r a y ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y
of C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 148-149.

7
Essay, I, 317.
g
Edmund B u r k e , A P h i l o s o p h i c a l E n q u i r y i n t o t h e O r i g i n o f o u r
I d e a s o f t h e S u b l i m e a n d B e a u t i f u l , e d . James T. B o u l t o n ( N o t r e Dame,
I n d i a n a : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e Dame P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 5 9 . C i t a t i o n s from
Burke quote t h i s e d i t i o n .
9
E s s a y , I I , 223.

" ^ N a t i o n a l Museum, N a p l e s . A n a d a p t a t i o n o f a t y p e o f s t a t u e
t r a d i t i o n a l f r o m t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B.C. The o r i g i n a l h a s b e e n i m p u t e d ,
to Lysippus.

X ±
Guercino, Aurora, c e i l i n g fresco, 1621-23, V i l l a Ludovisi,.
Rome.
12
D i s c o u r s e X, D i s c o u r s e s o n A r t , e d . R o b e r t R. Wark ( S a n
M a r i n o , C a l i f o r n i a : H u n t i n g d o n L i b r a r y , 1 9 5 9 ) , pp. 176-183.
13
The Communion o f S t . Jerome,, V a t i c a n ; The E c s t a s y , o f S t .
T h e r e s a , 1 6 4 5 - 5 2 , S t a . M a r i a d e l l a V i t t o r i a , Rome.
14
Poems o f A l e x a n d e r P o p e , e d . J o h n B u t t ( L o n d o n : M e t h u e n ,
1939-1967), V I I I , 32.
 98

J e a n H a g s t r u m (The S i s t e r A r t s ) i s t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t
c r i t i c v i e w i n g Thomson's p i c t o r i a l i s m a s an e f f e c t , w h i l e E l i z a b e t h
Manwaring ( I t a l i a n Landscape i n E i g h t e e n t h Century England: A Study
C h i e f l y o f t h e I n f l u e n c e o f C l a u d e L o r r a i n and S a l v a t o r R o s a on E n g l i s h
T a s t e 1 7 0 0 - 1 8 0 0 , L o n d o n : C a s s , 1965) a n d C h r i s t o p h e r H u s s e y (The
P i c t u r e s q u e : S t u d i e s i n a P o i n t o f V i e w , London: Putnam,.1927) a r e t h e
m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l among t h o s e who v i e w i t a s / a c a u s e .

16
1-4. P a s s a g e s f r o m Thomson a r e q u o t e d f r o m James Thomson:
P o e t i c a l Works, ed. J . L o g i e R o b e r t s o n (London: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1965).

^ E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y P o e t r y and P r o s e , e d s . L o u i s I . . B r e d v o l d ,
A l a n D. M c K i l l o p , and L o i s W h i t n e y , 2nd e d . (New Y o r k : R o n a l d P r e s s ,
1 9 5 6 ) , p. 4 4 8 . :

18
S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , H. W. J a n s o n , H i s t o r y o f A r t : a. S u r v e y o f
t h e M a j o r V i s u a l A r t s f r o m t h e Dawn o f H i s t o r y t o t h e P r e s e n t Day (New
Y o r k : A b r a m s , 1 9 6 3 ) , p. 253 a n d f i g . 4 0 3 .
19 -
H e n r y V. S. Ogden a n d M a r g a r e t S. 'Ogden ( E n g l i s h T a s t e i n Land-
s c a p e i n t h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y , Ann A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n
P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 , p. 48) p o i n t o u t t h a t " t h e p i c t u r e s o f t h e m o n t h s i n some
o f t h e b o o k s o f h o u r s o f t h e f i f t e e n t h arid e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s
almost reached the s t a t u s of pure landscape."
20
I b i d . , p p . 4 8 - 4 9 ; H a g s t r u m , The S i s t e r A r t s , p . 2 5 1 .
21
Ogden and O g d e n , E n g l i s h T a s t e i n L a n d s c a p e , pp. 40-49.
2 2
I b i d . , p. 49.

23
C a r l P a u l B a r b i e r , W i l l i a m G i l p i n : H i s Drawings, Teaching,
and T h e o r y o f t h e P i c t u r e s q u e ( O x f o r d : , C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 1-2.
24
Hagstrum, S i s t e r A r t s , pp. 251^252.
25
H. W. J a n s o n , H i s t o r y o f A r t , p p . 4 0 1 , . 4 0 8 . L a n d s c a p e w i t h
t h e B u r i a l o f P h o c i o n , 1 6 4 8 , The L o u v r e , P a r i s ; A P a s t o r a l , c. 1 6 5 0 ,
Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y A r t G a l l e r y , New H a v e n , C o n n e c t i c u t ; L a n d s c a p e w i t h t h e
F l i g h t i n t o E g y p t , c. 1 6 0 3 , D o r i a G a l l e r y , Rome.
26
F. W. B a t e s o n , A G u i d e to. E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k :
D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 99.
 CHAPTER I V

THE "RETURN TO NATURE," THOMSON, AND

THE LANDSCAPE PICTURESQUE

S m o l l e t t ' s n o v e l , The E x p e d i t i o n o f Humphry C l i n k e r , published

i n 1771, dramatizes two u s e s o f t h e t e r m " p i c t u r e s q u e " w h i c h s e r v e t o

distinguish the poetic p i c t o r i a l i s m so f a r d i s c u s s e d from t h e c o e x i s -

tent t a s t e f o r domesticated and w i l d scenery, the taste f o r picturesque

landscape. Thus f a r " p i c t o r i a l i s m " h a s s e r v e d as a g e n e r a l literary

term embracing t h e a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c a l and c r i t i c a l doctrine of enargeia,

the t r a d i t i o n of i c o n i c d e s c r i p t i o n , techniques of poetic idealization,

s p e c i f i c v i s u a l images, t o t a l p o e t i c f o r m , and a l l i e d m a t t e r s . Humphry,

Clinker reflects this t r a d i t i o n a l , p o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m a n d a t t h e same

time suggests t h e p i c t u r e s q u e o r i e n t a t i o n towards landscape and

scenery.

Jeremy M e l f o r d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f Humphry h a r a n g u i n g h i s fellow

inmates i n t h e chapel of C l e r k e n w e l l P r i s o n , l i k e h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f

Lismahago's escape from t h e f i r e a t S i r Thomas B u l l f o r d ' s h o u s e , demon-

s t r a t e s t h e p i c t o r i a l i s t mode o f t h o u g h t s o f a r d i s c u s s e d . Jeremy,

j o i n i n g Humphry's p r i s o n a u d i e n c e , views the strange scene b e f o r e him

as a p a i n t e d scene:

I n e v e r saw a n y t h i n g s o s t r o n g l y p i c t u r e s q u e a s t h i s c o n g r e g a t i o n
o f f e l o n s c l a n k i n g t h e i r c h a i n s , i n t h e m i d s t o f whom s t o o d o r a t o r
C l i n k e r , e x p a t i a t i n g i n a t r a n s p o r t o f f e r v o r , on t h e t o r m e n t s o f
h e l l , denounced i n s c r i p t u r e a g a i n s t e v i l - d o e r s , comprehending

99
 100

m u r d e r e r s , r o b b e r s , t h i e v e s , and w h o r e - m o n g e r s . The v a r i e t y o f
a t t e n t i o n e x h i b i t e d i n the f a c e s of those r a g a m u f f i n s , formed a
group t h a t would not have d i s g r a c e d the p e n c i l of a R a p h a e l . x

T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n , p r e s e n t i n g Humphry as t h e c e n t r a l o b j e c t of

a t t e n t i o n i n an a r r a n g e m e n t o f f i g u r e s r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e Renaissance

p a i n t e r c o n s i d e r e d g e n e r a l l y t o be the g r e a t e s t , d i s p l a y s e x a c t l y the

l a n g u a g e and h a b i t o f t h o u g h t seen b e f o r e i n Wartonian d e s c r i p t i o n s of

p i c t o r i a l s c e n e s i n P o p e and Thomson. In t h i s sense i t resembles

J e r e m y ' s l a t e r d e s c r i p t i o n o f L i s m a h a g o ' s c l i m b down t h e l a d d e r during

the f i r e a t S i r Thomas B u l l f o r d ' s , a s c e n e w h i c h i s s i m i l a r l y presented

in pictorial terms:

The r u e f u l a s p e c t o f t h e l i e u t e n a n t i n h i s s h i r t , w i t h a q u i l t e d
n i g h t - c a p f a s t e n e d u n d e r h i s c h i n , and h i s l o n g l a n k l i m b s and
p o s t e r i o r s e x p o s e d t o t h e w i n d , made a v e r y p i c t u r e s q u e a p p e a r a n c e ,
when i l l u m i n e d b y t h e l i n k s and t o r c h e s w h i c h t h e s e r v a n t s h e l d up
to l i g h t him i n h i s descent. ( p . 351)

The a c t i o n and lighting o f t h i s m o c k - b a r o q u e d r a m a i s made

e v e n more e m p h a t i c a l l y p i c t o r i a l when S i r Thomas e x p r e s s e s his delight

at the success of h i s prank:

0, c h e r o b a ! - — 0 , w h a t a s u b j e c t ! — 0 , w h a t , c a r i c a t u r a ! — 0 , f o r a
Rosa, a Rembrandt, a S c h a l k e n ! — Z o o k s , I ' l l g i v e a hundred guineas
to have i t p a i n t e d ! — w h a t a f i n e descent from the c r o s s , or ascent
t o t h e g a l l o w s ! w h a t l i g h t s and s h a d o w s ! — w h a t a g r o u p e b e l o w ! —
what e x p r e s s i o n a b o v e ! — w h a t an a s p e c t ! — d i d you mind t h e a s p e c t ?
( p . 351)

S i r Thomas may d i s p l a y a q u e s t i o n a b l e s e n s e o f humour b u t his

feeling f o r the picturesque i s soundly rooted i n the t r a d i t i o n of

eighteenth-century poetic pictorialism. His speech, l i k e Jeremy's

 101

descriptions, though devoted t o a comic scene and s u b j e c t , uses t h e

same l a n g u a g e , a d o p t s t h e same a p p r o a c h , a n d d e p e n d s o n t h e same f r a m e

o f r e f e r e n c e ' as does n e o - c l a s s i c a l p o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m and i t s c r i t i c i s m .

Speech and d e s c r i p t i o n s thus e x e m p l i f y o n e means w h e r e b y t h e p i c t o r i a l -

ism o f n e o - c l a s s i c a l verse appear i n t h e prose f i c t i o n of the period.

The n o v e l , however, a l s o r e f l e c t s a picturesque v i s i o n n o t so

much c e n t r e d on t h e h e r o i c , m y t h o l o g i c a l , or h i s t o r i c a l subjects, of the

great artists o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e arid b a r o q u e p e r i o d s as upon t h e n a t u r a l

landscape. T h u s we s e e S m o l l e t t p r e s e n t i n g Matthew Bramble as an

articulate critic o f l a n d s c a p e p a i n t i n g and o f s c e n e r y . At Bath,

writing o f Mr. T — , a " g e n t l e m a n who p a i n t s l a n d s c a p e s f o r h i s amuse-,

ment," Bramble f o r c e f u l l y displays the f i r s t of these c r i t i c a l interests:

T h i s y o u n g g e n t l e m a n o f B a t h i s t h e b e s t l a n d s c a p e p a i n t e r now
l i v i n g : I was s t r u c k w i t h h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n s u c h a m a n n e r , a s I
h a d n e v e r been by p a i n t i n g b e f o r e . H i s t r e e s n o t o n l y have a r i c h -
n e s s o f f o l i a g e and warmth o f c o l o u r i n g , w h i c h d e l i g h t s t h e v i e w ;
but a l s o a c e r t a i n m a g n i f i c e n c e i n t h e d i s p o s i t i o n and s p i r i t i n
the e x p r e s s i o n , which I cannot d e s c r i b e . H i s management o f t h e
c h i a r o o s c u r o , o r l i g h t and shadow, e s p e c i a l l y gleams o f s u n s h i n e ,
i s a l t o g e t h e r w o n d e r f u l , b o t h i n t h e c o n t r i v a n c y and e x e c u t i o n ;
and h e i s s o h a p p y i n h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d m a r k i n g h i s d i s t a n c e s
a t s e a , by a p r o g r e s s i v e s e r i e s o f s h i p s , v e s s e l s , c a p e s , and
p r o m o n t o r i e s , t h a t I could, n o t h e l p t h i n k i n g , I had a d i s t a n t view
of t h i r t y l e a g u e s upon t h e b a c k - g r o u n d o f t h e p i c t u r e . I f t h e r e
i s a n y t a s t e f o r i n g e n u i t y l e f t i n a d e g e n e r a t e ,agej f a s t . s i n k i n g
i n t o b a r b a r i s m , . t h i s a r t i s t , I a p p r e h e n d , w i l l make a c a p i t a l
f i g u r e , as s o o n as h i s w o r k s a r e known. ( p p . 85-86)

This appreciation of painted l a n d s c a p e and t h e q u a l i f i e d assump-

tion t h a t a good l a n d s c a p e a r t i s t can achieve fame c o m p l e m e n t B r a m b l e ' s

attitude towards r e a l landscape i t s e l f . When h e l e a d s h i s party through

the S c o t t i s h Highlands h i s f e e l i n g s f o r the countryside and t h e

 102-

d e s c r i p t i v e p r a i s e s he l a v i s h e s upon i t suggest the G i l p i n i a n tourist

i n search of the p i c t u r e s q u e . F o r though Bramble does not c o n s c i o u s l y

analyze views and p r o s p e c t s as s u b j e c t s more o r l e s s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r

t h e c a n v a s , he n o n e t h e l e s s d e l i g h t s - i n t h e p i c t o r i a l v a r i e t y o f their

b e a u t i f u l , sublime, or romantic q u a l i t i e s . For example, speaking of

h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r L o c h Lomond, h e says t h a t i t i s

a p r e f e r e n c e which i s c e r t a i n l y owing t o the v e r d a n t i s l a n d s t h a t

seem t o f l o a t u p o n i t s s u r f a c e , a f f o r d i n g t h e , m o s t i n c h a n t i n g
objects of repose to the e x c u r s i v e view. Nor a r e t h e banks d e s t i -
t u t e of b e a u t i e s which even p a r t a k e of the s u b l i m e . On t h i s s i d e
t h e y d i s p l a y a s w e e t v a r i e t y o f w o o d l a n d , c o r n f i e l d , and p a s t u r e ,
w i t h s e v e r a l a g r e e a b l e v i l l a s e m e r g i n g as i t were o u t o f t h e l a k e ,
t i l l , a t some d i s t a n c e , t h e p r o s p e c t t e r m i n a t e s , i n h u g e m o u n t a i n s
covered w i t h heath, which b e i n g i n the bloom, a f f o r d s a very r i c h
c o v e r i n g of p u r p l e . Every t h i n g here i s r o m a n t i c beyond i m a g i n a -
tion. T h i s country i s j u s t l y s t i l e d the A r c a d i a of S c o t l a n d ,
( p . 289)

T h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n of domestic and n a t u r a l l a n d s c a p e , o f the

romantic prospect over the l a k e which terminates l i k e a p i c t u r e i n the

empurpled mountains,.corresponds to the s p i r i t o f B r a m b l e ' s poem t o

the Leven, the stream f l o w i n g out of Loch Lomond:.

D e v o l v i n g from thy parent l a k e ,

A c h a r m i n g maze t h y w a t e r s make,
By b o w ' r s o f b i r c h , and g r o v e s o f p i n e ,
And h e d g e s f l o w ' r ' d w i t h e g l a n t i n e .
( 1 1 . 1 7 - 2 0 ; p. 291)

If t h i s poem "has no o t h e r m e r i t , " s a y s B r a m b l e , who might have been,

s p e a k i n g a s w e l l o f h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f L o c h Lomond and other Scottish

scenes, " i t i s a t l e a s t p i c t u r e s q u e and accurately descriptive" (p.

289). The p l e a s u r e w h i c h he takes i n h i s "agreeable landscape taken

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from n a t u r e " ( p . 290) i s e x a c t l y t h a t d i s p l a y e d b y l a t e r picturesque

poets and p a i n t e r s .

Humphry C l i n k e r , t h e n , r e f l e c t s the c o n t i n u i n g awareness of t h e

h e r o i c , m y t h o l o g i c a l , and h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t s o f R e n a i s s a n c e and b a r o q u e

p a i n t i n g i n t h e p e r i o d w h i c h gave r i s e to the picturesque landscape

movement. I t f u r t h e r i m p l i e s the p r e s t i g e of contemporary "history"

p a i n t i n g , a genre which not only portrayed episodes i n the l i v e s of

n a t i o n a l heroes b u t a l s o t h e "borrowed a t t i t u d e s " of contemporary f i g u r e s

who w e r e f r e q u e n t l y d e p i c t e d i n h e r o i c , m y t h i c , or. h i s t o r i c a l g u i s e and

posture. Humphry C l i n k e r , R a p h a e l e s q u e i n C l e r k e n w e l l , o r L i s m a h a g o

making h i s baroque "descent from the c r o s s " e x e m p l i f y , a l b e i t i n comic

t e r m s , n o t o n l y t h e p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e o f C o n t i n e n t a l R e n a i s s a n c e and

baroque a r t b u t a l s o t h e "borrowed a t t i t u d e s " of t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

English "history." T h i s comic use of t h e p i c t o r i a l models s e r v i n g neo-

c l a s s i c a l poetry c o n t r a s t s w i t h the s e r i o u s treatment accorded the

landscape picturesque and p e r h a p s c o n s t i t u t e s an i n d i r e c t comment on t h e

familiarity o f t h e one a n d t h e r e l a t i v e n o v e l t y o f t h e o t h e r i n the

1770's. I n any e v e n t Bramble's knowledge o f l a n d s c a p e painting, his

tour through the Highlands, and h i s l a n d s c a p e d e s c r i p t i o n s and " p i c t u r -

e s q u e " poem a r e n o t i n t e n d e d to serve t h e p u r p o s e s o f comedy. Presented

s e r i o u s l y , they r e f l e c t the i n c r e a s i n g importance of E n g l i s h landscape

art, the growing a p p r e c i a t i o n of both w i l d and c i v i l i z e d scenery, and

the p r a c t i c e of t o u r i n g the countryside i n order to capture i t s pictur-

esque b e a u t i e s i n prose, verse, watercolour, or p a i n t i n g .

B r a m b l e ' s l o v e o f n a t u r a l v i e w s and p r o s p e c t s , h i s d e l i g h t i n
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w o o d l a n d , , f i e l d , p a s t u r e , l a k e , m o u n t a i n , as w e l l as a r c h i t e c t u r e i n a

natural setting i n t r o d u c e s the s u b j e c t of the eighteenth-century

"return to nature." The q u e s t i o n of t h i s "return," referred to earlier

in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Thomson, r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r e m p h a s i s and clarifica-

tion. A d i s c u s s i o n o f i t w i l l n o t o n l y p l a c e t h e p o e t r y and pictorial-

i s m o f P o p e and Thomson i n p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e but also establish the

necessary context f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l g a r d e n and the

p i c t u r e s q u e movement.

The p o e t i c t a s t e f o r landscape f o s t e r e d by the great Renaissance

and baroque a r t i s t s and v i g o r o u s l y d e v e l o p e d by seventeenth-century

landscape p a i n t e r s i n England and on t h e C o n t i n e n t was discussed i n

the preceding chapter. T h i s t a s t e was p o w e r f u l l y a s s i s t e d by another

i n f l u e n c e fundamental to the renewal of eighteenth-century interest in

n a t u r e , one w h i c h was p h i l o s o p h i c a l r a t h e r than a r t i s t i c . I t stemmed

from c e r t a i n c o n c l u s i o n s reached by A u g u s t a n d e i s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s i n

the l a t e seventeenth and e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . ' Headed by

Shaftesbury these p h i l o s o p h e r s , b u i l d i n g on the foundations e s t a b l i s h e d

by C a m b r i d g e P l a t o n i s m and utilizing t h e k n o w l e d g e expounded by t h e new .

s c i e n c e , e s t a b l i s h e d the i d e a of n a t u r e as a u n i f i e d , h a r m o n i o u s , and

b e a u t i f u l w h o l e , as a u n i v e r s a l s y s t e m w h o s e phenomena, p r o c e s s e s , and

l a w s c o u l d o n l y be understood i n r e l a t i o n to the system comprehending

t h e m and comprised o f them. This great cosmic o r d e r , though r e g u l a t e d

p e r f e c t l y b y n a t u r a l l a w , was c o n s i d e r e d ' t o be of d i v i n e o r i g i n and,

as t h e h a n d i w o r k o f t h e C r e a t o r , a r e l i a b l e r e c o r d and source of revela-

t i o n of the c h a r a c t e r , purposes, and b e n e f i c e n c e o f God. The Bible of

 105
D e i s m , o f t h e R e l i g i o n o f N a t u r e , was t h e Book o f Nature.

The n o t i o n o f n a t u r e as s u f f i c i e n t in itself to manifest God's

p o w e r and goodness c o n f l i c t e d w i t h the " s u p e r n a t u r a l " r e v e l a t i o n of

orthodox C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f , w i t h t h e p r e s u m e d n e e d and w o r t h of the

" r e v e a l e d " Word o f God. Deist heresy approximated the degree of i t s

abandonment o f " s u p e r n a t u r a l " r e v e l a t i o n i n f a v o u r o f " n a t u r a l . " To

S h a f t e s b u r y , as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e f r o m The Moralists,

the worship of n a t u r e " r e p l a c e s , t h e n e c e s s i t y o f f o r m a l c r e e d and is

invested with a significance involving t h e supreme m o r a l and spiritual

2
n e e d s o f man. To f o l l o w N a t u r e was literally to f o l l o w God":

Ye f i e l d s and w o o d s , my r e f u g e f r o m t h e t o i l s o m e w o r l d o f b u s i n e s s ,
r e c e i v e me i n y o u r q u i e t s a n c t u a r i e s , and f a v o u r my r e t r e a t and
thoughtful solitude. Ye v e r d a n t p l a i n s , how g l a d l y I s a l u t e y e !
H a i l a l l y e b l i s s f u l m a n s i o n s ! known s e a t s ! d e l i g h t f u l p r o s p e c t s !
m a j e s t i c b e a u t i e s o f t h i s e a r t h , and a l l y e r u r a l p o w e r s and
graces. . . . 0 g l o r i o u s n a t u r e ! s u p r e m e l y f a i r and s o v e r e i g n l y
g o o d ! a l l - l o v i n g and a l l - l o v e l y , a l l - d i y i n e ! w h o l e l o o k s a r e s o
b e c o m i n g and o f s u c h i n f i n i t e g r a c e ; w h o s e s t u d y b r i n g s s u c h w i s d o m ,
and w h o s e c o n t e m p l a t i o n s u c h d e l i g h t . . . . 0 m i g h t y N a t u r e !
w i s e s u b s t i t u t e o f P r o v i d e n c e ! impowered c r e a t r e s s ! 3

O b v i o u s l y d i v i n e n a t u r e , t h e v i s i b l e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f God's

grandeur and p e r f e c t i o n , and a p o w e r f u l f o r c e f o r good i n i t s c o n s t a n t

a p p e a l t o man's i n t e l l e c t , , s p i r i t , and m o r a l faculties, could not

embody e r r o r o r e x h i b i t f l a w s . Hence S h a f t e s b u r y ' s important pioneer

p r a i s e of what had h i t h e r t o been regarded as i m p e r f e c t i o n s o r blemishes

i n the c r e a t i o n : those w i l d , h a r s h , i r r e g u l a r aspects of n a t u r e such as

t h e f r o z e n N o r t h , m o u n t a i n s , d e s e r t s , and the s e v e r i t i e s of c l i m a t e or

season. H e n c e , t o o , h i s e q u a l l y n o v e l and s i g n i f i c a n t defence of the

ugly, repellent, and u s e l e s s i n n a t u r e : s e r p e n t s , i n s e c t s , and a l l the

 106

lower animals regarded as n u i s a n c e s or pests. For Shaftesbury a l l

p h y s i c a l phenomena, i n o r g a n i c and organic; every form of l i f e , high or

l o w ; . a l l n a t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f whatever, k i n d had t h e i r necessary place

and f u n c t i o n w i t h i n God's g r e a t scheme and w e r e , a s h i s creations,

beautiful. Nothing i n n a t u r e was i n a p p r o p r i a t e or e n t i r e l y useless and

unattractive.

Shaftesbury and t h e movement he represented exerted a profound

e f f e c t u p o n e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y thought.' By m a k i n g t h e d i v i n e o r d e r of

nature the b a s i s of a p h i l o s o p h i c a l system embracing theology, ethics,

and a e s t h e t i c s , by r o o t i n g w i t h i n i t t h e t r u e , t h e g o o d , and the beau-

tiful, Augustan r a t i o n a l i s m g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d the a d o r a t i o n of nature.

Thanks t o i t s i n f l u e n c e " a l l forms of n a t u r e . . . were g i v e n a more

4

honorable p l a c e i n European thought."

In p a r t i c u l a r , d e i s t i c speculation influenced neo-classical

poetry. I t c a n be s a i d of the Augustan p h i l o s o p h e r s t h a t " i t was

through poetical imitators.of these that E n g l i s h poetry acquired the

v a r i o u s forms of defense and p r a i s e o f t h e i r r e g u l a r and grand aspects

o f n a t u r e " and likewise "the a p o t h e o s i s of n a t u r e i n general.""' A few

examples w i l l illustrate the importance of the d e i s t i c influence, i n

n e o - c l a s s i c a l verse..

M a r k A k e n s i d e , who "undertook to v e r s i f y almost the e n t i r e .

corpus of Shaftesbury's speculation," saw n a t u r e as r e v e l a t o r y o f God

i n h i s Pleasures of Imagination:

T h u s t h e men
Whom N a t u r e ' s w o r k s c a n c h a r m , w i t h God h i m s e l f
H o l d c o n v e r s e ; grow f a m i l i a r , day by day,
 107

W i t h h i s c o n c e p t i o n s , a c t upon h i s p l a n ; . ^
And f o r m t o h i s , t h e r e l i s h o f t h e i r s o u l s .

P o p e ' s E s s a y on Man, a,poem " i n l a r g e p a r t p u r e Shaftesbury

g

filtered through Bolingbroke," presents t h e phenomena o f n a t u r e in

pantheistic t e r m s , as e m b o d y i n g t h e Creator:

A l l a r e b u t p a r t s o f one s t u p e n d o u s w h o l e ,
Whose b o d y , N a t u r e i s , and God t h e s o u l ;
T h a t , c h a n g ' d t h r o ' a l l , a n d . y e t i n a l l t h e same,
G r e a t i n t h e e a r t h , as i n . t h ' a e t h e r e a l f r a m e ,
Warms i n t h e sun', r e f r e s h e s i n t h e b r e e z e ,
G l o w s i n t h e s t a r s , and b l o s s o m s i n t h e t r e e s ,
L i v e s t h r o ' a l l l i f e , extends thro' a l l extent,
Spreads u n d i v i d e d , operates unspent.
( I I , 267-274)

And finally., " i f any poet ever moralized h i s song and made a l l
9

things subservient to 'Divine Philosophy,' i t was Thomson." This

passage from " S p r i n g , " almost i d e n t i f y i n g the Creator w i t h His work, i s

typical:

I n s p i r i n g God! who, b o u n d l e s s s p i r i t a l l
And u n r e m i t t i n g e n e r g y , p e r v a d e s ,
A d j u s t s , s u s t a i n s , and a g i t a t e s t h e w h o l e .
He c e a s e l e s s w o r k s a l o n e , and y e t a l o n e
Seems n o t t o w o r k ; w i t h s u c h p e r f e c t i o n f r a m e d
I s t h i s c o m p l e x , s t u p e n d o u s scheme o f t h i n g s .
B u t , t h o u g h c o n c e a l e d , t o e v e r y p u r e r eye.
The i n f o r m i n g A u t h o r i n h i s w o r k s a p p e a r s .
(11. 853-860)

Shaftesbury's novel a t t i t u d e towards mountains i s a l s o reflected

i n Thomson.• M o u n t a i n g r a n d e u r , f o r . e x a m p l e , often appears.in The

S e a s o n s , as when i n "Summer"

The d r i p p i n g r o c k , t h e m o u n t a i n ' s m i s t y t o p
S w e l l on t h e s i g h t and b r i g h t e n w i t h t h e dawn.
(11. 54-55)
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Thomson a l s o p r e s e n t s m o u n t a i n s o l i t u d e and t h e r e m o t e n e s s o f l o n e l y

places i n S h a f t e s b u r i a n terms, as s a c r e d to the'highest and most w o r t h y

thoughts a n d f e e l i n g s o f man.. T h u s i n "Summer" h e s p e a k s o f s i l e n t ,

m e l a n c h o l y p l a c e s as "haunts o f m e d i t a t i o n " ( 1 . 522) where he feels

"a s a c r e d t e r r o r , a severe delight" ( 1 . 541). I n these obscure haunts

he can imagine hearing a v o i c e " t h a n human m o r e " :

Be n o t o f u s a f r a i d ,
P o o r k i n d r e d man! t h y f e l l o w - c r e a t u r e s , we
F r o m t h e same P a r e n t - P o w e r o u r b e i n g s d r e w ,
The same o u r L o r d a n d l a w s a n d g r e a t p u r s u i t .
Once some o f u s , l i k e t h e e , t h r o u g h s t o r m y l i f e
T o i l e d t e m p e s t - b e a t e n ere,we c o u l d a t t a i n
T h i s h o l y c a l m , t h i s harmony o f m i n d ,
Where p u r i t y a n d p e a c e i n m i n g l e c h a r m s .
Then f e a r n o t u s ; b u t w i t h r e s p o n s i v e s o n g ,
Amid t h e s e dim r e c e s s e s , u n d i s t u r b e d
By n o i s y f o l l y a n d d i s c o r d a n t v i c e ,
Of N a t u r e s i n g w i t h u s , a n d N a t u r e ' s God.
(11. 544-555)

These p a s s a g e s f r o m The Seasons i n d i c a t e t h e S h a f t e s b u r i a n

i n f l u e n c e e v e r y w h e r e t o b e f o u n d i n Thomson's p o e t r y , a n d s u p p o r t t h e

s t a t e m e n t t h a t " t h e u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h e two w r i t e r s a r e

i d e n t i c a l , each endeavouring t o i n t e r p r e t t h e 'harmonious whole'

recorded i n t h e Book o f N a t u r e . T o g e t h e r with the quotations from

A k e n s i d e and Pope t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e p o e t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n and d i f f u s i o n

of S h a f t e s b u r i a n thought, a p o p u l a r i z a t i o n which powerfully, strengthened

the eighteenth-century appreciation of nature discussed e a r l i e r i n

terms o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f R e n a i s s a n c e and b a r o q u e a r t and t h e seventeenth-

century landscape painters;

Clearly i t was n o t s i m p l y the i n f l u e n c e of Claude, S a l v a t o r , and

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the Poussins that brought about t h e renewed e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y interest

i n n a t u r e and l a n d s c a p e reflected i n neo-classical verse. The e x t e n t

to which these p a i n t e r s d i d i n . f a c t i n f l u e n c e the landscape d e s c r i p -

t i o n s o f P o p e a n d Thomson was p o i n t e d o u t i n t h e p r e c e d i n g chapter.

F o r example, w i t h r e s p e c t t o Pope, S a l v a t o r i a n and C l a u d i a n suggestions

were seen r e s p e c t i v e l y i n t h e gloomy scene i n " E l o i s a t o A b e l a r d " domi-

nated by t h e f i g u r e of M e l a n c h o l y and i n t h e l a n d s c a p e d e p i c t e d by

these l i n e s from "The T e m p l e o f Fame":

Here s a i l i n g Ships d e l i g h t the wandr'ing Eyes;

T h e r e Trees., a n d i n t ' e r m i n g l ' d T e m p l e s r i s e :
Now a c l e a r Sun t h e s h i n i n g S c e n e d i s p l a y s ,
The t r a n s i e n t l a n d s c a p e now i n C l o u d s d e c a y s .
(11. 15-20)

Such S a l v a t o r i a n and C l a u d i a n s u g g e s t i o n s i n Pope's l a n d s c a p e s a r e

r e l a t i v e l y unimportant by comparison with the p i c t o r i a l and s c u l p t u r -

esque images from a n c i e n t , R e n a i s s a n c e , and b a r o q u e a r t t h a t shaped

his pictorialism i n general.

The same i s t r u e o f T h o m s o n , a l t h o u g h h e r e the question of the

i n f l u e n c e o f C l a u d e , , S a l v a t o r , and t h e P o u s s i n s i s more d i f f i c u l t t o

deal with. T h e s e p a i n t e r s h a v e b e e n s e e n a s t h e m o d e l s f o r Thomson's

ideal l a n d s c a p e s w h i l e t h e a l l e g o r i c a l and m y t h o l o g i c a l p a i n t e r s o f

the high Renaissance and b a r o q u e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ^ who g a v e h i m h i s

i d e a l landscape form, have been o v e r l o o k e d . Furthermore, the p i c t o r i a l

i n f l u e n c e o f C l a u d e , , S a l v a t o r , a n d t h e P o u s s i n s o n Thomson's s c e n e s o f '

r e a l o r a c t u a l landscape has u s u a l l y been overemphasized. X i

The g e n e r a l sense i n which Claude, S a l v a t o r , and t h e P o u s s i n s

 110

I n f l u e n c e d Thomson's i d e a l l a n d s c a p e was earlier i m p l i e d when i t was

shown t h a t t h e C l a u d i a n l a n d s c a p e e v o k e d by the above-quoted lines from

"The T e m p l e o f Fame," b y scenes n o s t a l g i c a l l y associated with antique

grandeur and suffused w i t h p a s t o r a l s e r e n i t y , i s the k i n d of general-

i z e d , h e r o i c , or i d e a l i z e d l a n d s c a p e w h i c h was characteristic, despite

i t s v a r i e t y o f f o r m s , o f h i g h R e n a i s s a n c e and b a r o q u e painting.. Such

l a n d s c a p e j w h i c h i n c l u d e d much o f t h e w o r k o f C l a u d e , S a l v a t o r , and the

P o u s s i n s , was, we saw, u s u a l l y concerned not s o l e l y or p r i m a r i l y with

the a c t u a l p h y s i c a l forms o f n a t u r e b u t w i t h n a t u r e as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n

of h e r o i c , p a s t o r a l , . o r o t h e r i d e a l s ; And, a s we a l s o saw, i t was the

v i s u a l i z e d n a t u r a l p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , Thomson's b a s i c f o r m a l e l e m e n t in

r e n d e r i n g h i s s c e n e , t h a t became h i s c h i e f means o f r a i s i n g natural

form t o the i d e a l form modelled i n the work of s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

l a n d s c a p e p a i n t e r s s u c h a s G u i d o R e n i ; A n n i b a l e C a r r a c c i , and Nicolas

P o u s s i n , t h e c h i e f means w h e r e b y h e a t t a i n e d h i s d e v e l o p e d a n d charac-

teristic landscape form. The i d e a l i z e d landscapes of Claude, Salvator,

and t h e P o u s s i n s , as p a r t o f t h e g e n e r a l s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y tradition

c o n d i t i o n i n g Thomson's l i t e r a r y l a n d s c a p e , c o n t r i b u t e d o n l y as s u c h to

t h e i d e a l f o r m o f h i s m a t u r e and fully contrived landscape scene.

Examples i l l u s t r a t i n g this i n c i d e n t a l i n f l u e n c e w i l l be cited i n later

d i s c u s s i o n .-

That the i n f l u e n c e of seventeenth-century a l l e g o r i c a l painting

has b e e n , o v e r l o o k e d and Thomson's i d e a l l a n d s c a p e made s y n o n y m o u s w i t h

C l a u d i a n o r S a l v a t o r i a n p r o s p e c t s can be i l l u s t r a t e d by the treatment

accorded h i s p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n i n "Summer" o f t h e d a w n i n g d a y as a
 Ill

powerful king approaching the earth i n boundless majesty:

B u t y o n d e r comes t h e p o w e r f u l k i n g o f d a y
Rejoicing i n the east. The l e s s e n i n g c l o u d , :

The k i n d l i n g a z u r e , and t h e m o u n t a i n ' s brow

Illumed w i t h f l u i d g o l d , h i s near approach
Betoken glad. L o ! now,.apparent a l l ,
A s l a n t t h e d e w - b r i g h t e a r t h and c o l o u r e d a i r , .
He l o o k s i n b o u n d l e s s m a j e s t y a b r o a d ,
And s h e d s t h e s h i n i n g d a y , t h a t b u r n i s h e d p l a y s
On r o c k s , a n d h i l l s , arid t o w e r s , a n d w a n d e r i n g s t r e a m s .
(11. 81-90)

This r o y a l progress, so l i k e t h a t o f t h e sun seen as t h e g r e a t

"Parent of Seasons" i n the l a s t chapter and e q u a l l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f such

i
seventeenth-century mythological progresses as G u i d o ' s and G u e r c i r i o ' s

Aurora frescoes or Poussin's K i n g d o m o f F l o r a , becomes i n t r a d i t i o n a l

t e r m s a mere C l a u d i a n s u n r i s e , a scene " i n s t i n c t w i t h i lriposo d i

12

Claudio." Such a v i e w , t y p i c a l l y overlooking t h e f u n c t i o n o f Thom-

sonian n a t u r a l p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , ignores the role of the p e r s o n i f i e d

sun i n o r g a n i z i n g the elements of the scene, i t s r o l e i n rendering i t

pictorial after t h e manner o f I t a l i a n m y t h o l o g i c a l p a i n t i n g . Thomson's

ideal landscape i s reduced t o picturesque approximation of Claude.

The i n f l u e n c e o f C l a u d e , S a l v a t o r , and t h e P o u s s i n s i s also

emphasized w i t h r e s p e c t t o Thomson's r e a l o r a c t u a l l a n d s c a p e d e s c r i p -

tions. The p r o s p e c t from Hagley Park depicted i n " S p r i n g , " f o r example,

has been presented as a . c l a s s i c a l i n s t a n c e of I t a l i a n landscape i n

eighteenth-century England, a prospect revealing "real Claudiari

13
distances :

Mean t i m e y o u g a i n t h e h e i g h t , f r o m w h o s e f a i r b r o w
T h e b u r s t i n g p r o s p e c t s p r e a d s immense a r o u n d ;
 112

And, s n a t c h e d o ' e r h i l l and d a l e , and wood, and l a w n ,

And v e r d a n t f i e l d , a n d d a r k e n i n g h e a t h b e t w e e n ,
And v i l l a g e s embosomed s o f t i n t r e e s , -
And s p i r y t o w n s b y s u r g i n g c o l u m n s m a r k e d
Of h o u s e h o l d s m o k e , y o u r e y e d i s c u r s i v e r o a m s — .
W i d e - s t r e t c h i n g f r o m t h e H a l l i n whose k i n d haunt •
The h o s p i t a b l e g e n i u s l i n g e r s s t i l l ,
To w h e r e t h e b r o k e n l a n d s c a p e , b y d e g r e e s
A s c e n d i n g , roughens i n t o r i g i d h i l l s
O'er w h i c h t h e C a m b r i a n m o u n t a i n s , l i k e f a r c l o u d s
That s k i r t the b l u e h o r i z o n , dusky rise..
(11. 950-962)

The d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s s c e n e r y , however, i s topographical,

t h a t i s , "as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from i d e a l , " a " r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of actual

s c e n e r y and o f s p e c i f i c p l a c e s — u s u a l l y named" i n w h i c h "the a r t i s t i n -

14

t e n d s t h e s p e c t a t o r t o r e c o g n i z e t h e p l a c e he d e p i c t s . ' 1
The prospect

from Hagley Park i s a s p e c i f i c E n g l i s h scene n a t u r a l l y d i v i d e d into

f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e d i s t a n c e , and b a c k g r o u n d which r e f l e c t s , as a p r o s -

pect of f i e l d , v i l l a g e , h i l l , and m o u n t a i n , some o f t h e t h e m e s earlier

mentioned i n connection with seventeenth-century landscape painting i n

E n g l a n d a n d on t h e C o n t i n e n t . The dusky Cambrian background also

recalls Shaftesbury's p i o n e e r p r a i s e of mountains.

T h i s p r o s p e c t , t h e n , i s n o t an i d e a l l y composed Italianate

scene a f t e r t h e manner o f C l a u d e . In fact the I t a l i a n l a n d s c a p e so be-

l o v e d o f C l a u d e , S a l v a t o r , . a n d t h e i r E n g l i s h a d m i r e r s was a disappoint-

ment t o Thomson d u r i n g h i s t r a v e l s in Italy. What e n c h a n t e d Thomson

t h e r e w a s . n o t s o much t h e c o u n t r y s i d e b u t t h e a n c i e n t s t a t u e s a n d the

p a i n t i n g s o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e and b a r o q u e masters w h i c h shaped h i s

pictorial vision. The p a i n t i n g s of I t a l i a n l a n d s c a p e by these great

R e n a i s s a n c e and b a r o q u e a r t i s t s were themselves "'vastly Superiour to

 113

the p a i n t i n g of a l l o t h e r N a t i o n s ' not c h i e f l y because the painters

lived amid C l a u d i a n and S a l v a t o r i a n n a t u r a l scenery" but "because they

were c o n s t a n t l y exposed to the r e m a i n s o f G r e e c e , and Rome." ^ 1

D e s p i t e a l l t h i s , however, i t would not be true to say that

Thomson n e v e r d e p i c t e d Claudian or Salvatorian scenes. The scenic

elements i n the f o l l o w i n g passage from L i b e r t y , f o r example, recall

not only the w i l d , f i e r c e d e s o l a t i o n of S a l v a t o r i a n p r e c i p i c e s , torrents.,

s t o r m s , and blasted t r e e s but a l s o the soft; diffused light, the peace-

f u l a t m o s p h e r e , and the s e r e n e and tranquil spirit of Claude's •

pastoralism:

There g a i l y broke the s u n - i l l u m i n e d cloud;

The l e s s e n i n g p r o s p e c t , and t h e m o u n t a i n b l u e
Vanished i n a i r ; the p r e c i p i c e frowned d i r e ; .
W h i t e down t h e r o c k t h e r u s h i n g t o r r e n t d a s h e d ;
The s u n s h o n e t r e m b l i n g o ' e r t h e d i s t a n t m a i n ;
The t e m p e s t f o a m e d immense; t h e d r i v i n g s t o r m
Saddened t h e . s k i e s , and, f r o m t h e d o u b l i n g gloom,
On t h e s c a t h e d oak t h e r a g g e d l i g h t n i n g f e l l ;
I n c l o s i n g s h a d e s , and w h e r e t h e c u r r e n t s t r a y s ,
W i t h p e a c e and l o v e and i n n o c e n c e a r o u n d ,
Piped the lone shepherd to h i s feeding f l o c k .
(II, 352-362)

The l a n d s c a p e o f The Castle of Indolence, too, is strongly

reminiscent o f C l a u d e and Salvator. Here are "sleep-soothing groves,

and quiet lawns between," where g e n t l e streams " b i c k e r " through a

"sunny g l a d e " (I, iii) i n which

J o i n e d t o the p r a t t l e of the p u r l i n g r i l l s .
Were h e a r d t h e l o w i n g h e r d s a l o n g t h e v a l e ,
Arid f l o c k s l o u d - b l e a t i n g f r o m t h e d i s t a n t h i l l s ,
And v a c a n t s h e p h e r d s p i p i n g i n t h e d a l e .
(I, iv)
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This peaceful s e t t i n g i s made e v e n more C l a u d i a n by the fact that here

I n d o l e n c e " c l o s e - h i d h i s c a s t l e mid embowering t r e e s " (I, vii). How-

ever, towering above the s i d e s o f t h i s p a s t o r a l v a l l e y and sharply

o p p o s e d t o i t s mood o f s e r e n e t r a n q u i l l i t y , a "sable, silent,.solemn

forest stood," a S a l v a t o r i a n "wood o f b l a c k e n i n g pines," which,,"waving

t o and, f r o , " " s e n t f o r t h a s l e e p y horror through the blood" (I, v).

And when the. K n i g h t o f A r t s and Industry l a t e r w a v e s h i s wand we are

given scenes of w i l d d e s o l a t i o n f i l l e d w i t h ruin, "gloomy'flood," and

" t r e e s by l i g h t n i n g scathed" (II, lxviii);.

T h e s e e x a m p l e s show t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f C l a u d e and Salvator

is not t o be denied altogether i n Thomson's v e r s e . , Despite t h i s , how-

ever, and despite the i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n made by these painters to

the landscape garden, the picturesque i n neo-classical verse, as the

foregoing d i s c u s s i o n o f Thomson's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o C l a u d e and Salvator .

has tried t o show, c a n n o t be' l i m i t e d t o C l a u d i a n and Salvatorian

prospects. To do so i s to d i s t o r t the p i c t o r i a l i s m o f P o p e and Thomson,

to confuse the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o e t i c p i c t o r i a l i s m and the p i c t u r -

esque of the n a t u r a l garden,.and t o o b s c u r e the o r i g i n s of the renewed

eighteenth-century appreciation of nature.

If i t i s accepted, f o r example, t h a t "the e f f e c t on poetry of

the picturesque point o f v i e w i s t o be traced i n the gradual approxima-

t i o n of d e s c r i b e d l a n d s c a p e to.' t h e landscape painted by Claude and

S a l v a t o r R o s a , " and i f s u c h l a n d s c a p e i s found nowhere i n Pope and

e v e r y w h e r e i n Thomson, t h e n , i n o p p o s i t i o n to' a l l t h a t h a s been s a i d i n

the preceding chapter, Pope d i s p l a y s "little appreciation of picturesque

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landscape" b e c a u s e " f o r t h e most p a r t h i s l a n d s c a p e s a r e crowds o f

p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s , " b e c a u s e " t h e r e i s no a n a l o g y i n h i s landscapes to

16

those o f C l a u d e and S a l v a t o r . " Thomson, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , b e c o m e s

"par e x c e l l e n c e , t h e poet of p i c t o r i a l l a n d s c a p e , " whose e v e r y scene

is "correctly composed and f i l l e d i n with sufficient vividness to

enable the reader to visualize a p i c t u r e a f t e r t h e manner o f S a l v a t o r

and Claude."^ 7
He e m e r g e s a s t h e " f i r s t of t h e great landscape

designers i n poetry" of the century, the pioneer of the picturesque:

I t remained but t o d i r e c t the enthusiasm f o r a r t towards the

appreciation of nature. To g e t men .to l o o k a t r e a l l a n d s c a p e w i t h
a p a i n t e r ' s gusto. T h a t done and t h e p i c t u r e s q u e p o i n t o f v i e w
w o u l d b e d e l i v e r e d i n t o t h e l a n d . T h i s was t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f
James Thomson a n d J o h n D y e r , t h e P i c t u r e s q u e p o e t s . 1 8

S u c h a v i e w o f t h e p o e t r y a n d p i c t o r i a l i s m o f P o p e a n d Thomson entirely

overlooks the subject of the l a s t chapter: the r e l a t i o n s h i p of these

poets to the iconic t r a d i t i o n and t o t h e a r t o f h i g h - R e n a i s s a n c e Italy

and the baroque seventeenth century.

Furthermore, v i e w i n g Thomson a s " t h e . f i r s t i n a l i n e of

Claudian l a n d s c a p i s t s , important because of h i s a n t i c i p a t i o n of the

19

'picturesque' of l a t e r poets and g a r d e n e r s , " obscures the Shaftes-

b u r i a n c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e renewed e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y interest i n

nature. Thomson a n d D y e r may, i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w , see nature "as

a composed w h o l e , " b u t s i n c e " f o r Thomson t h e r e a l i t y o f n a t u r e was a

p i c t u r e , " t h i s becomes " a p i c t o r i a l , n o t a n o r g a n i c o r s p i r i t u a l

20

whole." And p r i m a c y i s g i v e n t o C l a u d e and S a l v a t o r r a t h e r than

S h a f t e s b u r y when t h e l a n d s c a p e s of these p a i n t e r s , "abundantly.

 116

multiplied i n p a i n t i n g a n d p r i n t , " a r e s e e n a s t h e "new element—the

picturesque—which helped to transform the distaste f o r mountains as

t h i n g s uncouth i n t o a f e a r f u l j o y a t t h e i r p r e c i p i c e s , c r a g s , and
21

hanging woods." T h u s , i n " e x p l a i n i n g c o m p l e x phenomena b y s i m p l e

causes" and making i t appear "as i f t h e p a i n t e r s were s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e

for this t a s t e i n n a t u r e , " t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w o f Thomson's relation

to the "return t o nature" ignores "the very powerful influence of

Shaftesbury i n molding eighteenth-century thought," failing to recognize

t h a t Thomson " w o u l d h a v e h a d a s y m p a t h y w i t h n a t u r e even i f he had

22

never heard of Claude L o r r a i n e or Poussin." Finally, i n doing a l l

this, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w o f Thomson a l s o n e c e s s a r i l y o b s c u r e s t h e

o r i g i n s of picturesque landscape vision i n the n a t u r a l garden. The

w h o l e c o m p l e x q u e s t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e new f e e l i n g f o r nature i n

the e i g h t e e n t h century i s w e l l summed up a s f o l l o w s :

I t a p p e a r s t h a t i t was t h e i n f l u e n c e o f S h a f t e s b u r y , Thomson,
A k e n s i d e , and h o s t o f minor p o e t i c a l f o l l o w e r s which, combined
w i t h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f F r e n c h a n d I t a l i a n l a n d s c a p e p a i n t e r s , made
n a t u r a l beauty v i s i b l e where i t ' h a d n o t been p e r c e i v e d b e f o r e .
A l l t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s coming f r o m p h i l o s o p h y , p o e t r y , and p a i n t i n g
i n t e r m i n g l e d , r e i n f o r c e d one a n o t h e r , and b r o u g h t about what t h e
text-books d e s c r i b e as t h e " r e t u r n t o n a t u r e . " Of t h i s " r e t u r n "
t h e l a n d s c a p e g a r d e n was m e r e l y one m a n i f e s t a t i o n . 2 3

The question of this " m a n i f e s t a t i o n " and t h e a s s o c i a t e d ques-

tion of picturesque taste w i l l t a k e up t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e c h a p t e r

and a t t h e same t i m e conclude this thesis. The h i s t o r y o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y n a t u r a l g a r d e n , however, i s a l a r g e and complex s u b j e c t , and

s i n c e t h e p i c t u r e s q u e t a s t e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t and m a n i f e s t e d variously

i n p a i n t i n g , a r c h i t e c t u r e , p o e t r y , t h e n o v e l , t r a v e l , and a e s t h e t i c
 117

s p e c u l a t i o n i s an e v e n l a r g e r and m o r e c o m p l e x s u b j e c t , , t h e treatment

accorded h e r e t o g a r d e n and p i c t u r e s q u e m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y be b r i e f and

selective. Accordingly, attention w i l l be focused b r i e f l y on o n l y two

aspects of these i n t e r r e l a t e d matters: the e a r l y o r i g i n s of the n a t u r a l

g a r d e n and t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n of t h e p i c t u r e s q u e t a s t e t h a t grew out of

it i n the theory of W i l l i a m G i l p i n . The first of t h e s e , involving

figures already discussed i n connection with poetic p i c t o r i a l i s m — P o p e ,

A d d i s o n , , a n d S h a f t e s b u r y — w i l l complement p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n n o t only

of t h a t s u b j e c t but the s u b j e c t of the " r e t u r n t o n a t u r e " as w e l l . The

second, which w i l l i n v o l v e f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f C l a u d e , . S a l v a t o r , and

the P o u s s i n s , has a l r e a d y been a n t i c i p a t e d i n . i m p o r t a n t ways by the

d e s c r i p t i o n at the beginning of the chapter of Matthew Bramble's t o u r ,

landscape d e s c r i p t i o n s , and picturesque poetry.

The E n g l i s h n a t u r a l garden arose from d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the

fixity of c l a s s i c d e s i g n , from a d e s i r e to f r e e the garden p l a n from

the symmetrical geometry of the p r e v a i l i n g , a x i a l l y - d e s i g n e d f o r m a l

24

garden. For England at the beginning of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and

for a l l E u r o p e , t h e a r c h e t y p a l f o r m a l g a r d e n was the vast architectural

landscape designed by Le N o t r e f o r L o u i s XIV at V e r s a i l l e s . Character-

istic of V e r s a i l l e s and the gardens patterned a f t e r i t were the

p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e h o u s e d e s i g n , and the development of p e r s p e c t i v e s

along the main a x i s , the use of water i n l o n g , s t r a i g h t , narrow canals

or i n f o u n t a i n s j e t t i n g v e r t i c a l streams,.the avenues f o r m i n g secondary

a x e s and c o n t r i b u t i n g a d d i t i o n a l v i s t a s , - and the symmetrical arrange-

ments of s t a t u e s , s h r u b b e r y , and elaborately foliated or "embroidered"

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parterres. I t was i n r e a c t i o n to t h i s k i n d of garden that English

p h i l o s o p h e r s , w r i t e r s , and w e a l t h y amateur l a n d s c a p i s t s c o n c e i v e d of

and developed the E n g l i s h n a t u r a l garden.

The first d e s c r i p t i o n o f an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e formal garden,

of a beauty o r i g i n a t i n g not i n u n i f o r m i t y and symmetry b u t in the

irregularity of a d e s i g n whose d i s p o s i t i o n of p a r t s is not immediately

evident, i s contained i n S i r W i l l i a m Temple's e s s a y Upon t h e Gardens of

Epicurus (1690). Typical i n his admiration of f o r m a l gardens, Temple,

in a s i g n i f i c a n t passage worth quoting at l e n g t h , nonetheless points

out t h a t , i n a d d i t i o n to the r e g u l a r designs of the "best forms of.

gardens,"

t h e r e may b e o t h e r f o r m s w h o l l y i r r e g u l a r , t h a t may, f o r o u g h t I
know, h a v e m o r e b e a u t y t h a n any o f t h e o t h e r s ; b u t t h e y must,owe
i t t o some e x t r a o r d i n a r y d i s p o s i t i o n s o f n a t u r e i n t h e s e a t , o r
some g r e a t r a c e o f f a n c y o r j u d g m e n t i n t h e c o n t r i v a n c e , w h i c h may
p r o d u c e many d i s a g r e e i n g p a r t s i n t o some f i g u r e , w h i c h s h a l l y e t
u p o n t h e w h o l e , be v e r y a g r e e a b l e . Something of t h i s I have seen
i n some p l a c e s , b u t h e a r d more o f i t f r o m o t h e r s , who h a v e l i v e d
much among t h e C h i n e s e ; a p e o p l e w h o s e way o f t h i n k i n g seems t o
l i e a s w i d e o f o u r s i n E u r o p e , as t h e i r c o u n t r y d o e s . Among u s ,
t h e b e a u t y . o f b u i l d i n g and p l a n t i n g i s p l a c e d c h i e f l y i n some
c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n s , s y m m e t r i e s , o r u n i f o r m i t i e s ; o u r w a l k and o u r
t r e e s r a n g e d s o , as t o a n s w e r one a n o t h e r , and a t e x a c t d i s t a n c e s .
The C h i n e s e s c o r n t h i s way o f p l a n t i n g , and s a y a b o y t h a t c a n
t e l l an h u n d r e d , may p l a n t w a l k s o f t r e e s i n s t r a i g h t l i n e s , and
o v e r a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r , and t o w h a t l e n g t h and e x t e n t h e p l e a s e s .
But t h e i r g r e a t e s t r e a c h of i m a g i n a t i o n , i s employed i n c o n t r i v i n g
f i g u r e s w h e r e t h e b e a u t y s h a l l be g r e a t , ..and s t r i k e t h e e y e , b u t
w i t h o u t any o r d e r o r d i s p o s i t i o n o f p a r t s , t h a t s h a l l b e commonly
o r e a s i l y o b s e r v e d . And t h o u g h we h a v e h a r d l y any n o t i o n o f t h i s
s o r t o f b e a u t y , y e t t h e y h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r w o r d t o e x p r e s s i t ; and
where t h e y f i n d i t h i t t h e i r eye a t f i r s t s i g h t , t h e y say t h e
Sharawaggi i s f i n e or i s admirable. And w h o e v e r o b s e r v e s t h e w o r k
u p o n t h e b e s t I n d i a n gowris, o r t h e p a i n t i n g u p o n t h e i r b e s t s c r e e n s
or p u r c e l l a n s , w i l l f i n d t h e i r b e a u t y i s a l l of t h i s k i n d ( t h a t i s )
without order.25
 119

Temple, " l i t t l e realizing t h a t he was l a y i n g down t h e principles

26

of the f u t u r e j a r d i n a n g l a i s , " felt that this i r r e g u l a r beauty was

beyond the grasp of h i s countrymen:

I s h o u l d h a r d l y a d v i s e any o f t h e s e a t t e m p t s i n t h e f i g u r e o f
g a r d e n s among u s ; t h e y a r e a d v e n t u r e s o f t o o h a r d a c h i e v e m e n t f o r
any common h a n d s ; and t h o u g h t h e r e may b e more h o n o u r i f t h e y
s u c c e e d w e l l , y e t t h e r e i s more d i s h o n o u r i f t h e y f a i l , and ' t i s
t w e n t y t o one. t h e y w i l l ; w h e r e a s i n r e g u l a r f i g u r e s , ' t i s , h a r d t o
make any g r e a t and r e m a r k a b l e f a u l t s . 2 7 '

S h a f t e s b u r y i n The M o r a l i s t s ( 1 7 0 9 ) made t h e f i r s t open declara-

t i o n of the s u p e r i o r i t y of w i l d , untrammeled n a t u r e over the u n i f o r m i t y

and symmetry o f t h e f o r m a l g a r d e n . H i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r the works of God

i n n a t u r e o v e r t h o s e o f man was stated unequivocally:

I s h a l l no l o n g e r r e s i s t t h e p a s s i o n g r o w i n g i n me f o r t h i n g s o f a
n a t u r a l k i n d , w h e r e n e i t h e r a r t n o r .the c o n c e i t o r c a p r i c e o f man
has s p o i l e d t h e i r g e n u i n e o r d e r by b r e a k i n g i n upon t h a t p r i m i t i v e
state. Even t h e rude r o c k s , t h e mossy c a v e r n s , t h e i r r e g u l a r un-
w r o u g h t g r o t t o s and b r o k e n f a l l s o f w a t e r s j w i t h a l l t h e h o r r i d
g r a c e s o f t h e w i l d e r n e s s i t s e l f , as r e p r e s e n t i n g N a t u r e more, w i l l
be t h e more e n g a g i n g , and a p p e a r w i t h a m a g n i f i c e n c e b e y o n d t h e
f o r m a l mockery of p r i n c e l y gardens.28

However, S h a f t e s b u r y ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e v i e w t h a t t h e formal-

g a r d e n was l e s s b e a u t i f u l t h e more i t d e p a r t e d from nature mainly

stemmed f r o m h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e j e c t i o n o f p r e v a i l i n g interpretations

of t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d , t h o s e r e p r e s e n t e d by L u c r e t i u s , f o r example, o r •

b y Thomas B u r n e t and h i s S a c r e d . T h e o r y o f t h e E a r t h ( 1 6 8 1 - 9 ) . Accord-

i n g , t o L u c r e t i u s two t h i r d s o f t h e w o r l d was " w i t h h e l d from mankind

by t o r r i d h e a t and p e r e n n i a l d e p o s i t s o f f r o s t " w h i l e m o s t o f t h e r e -

m a i n d e r was " g r e e d i l y s e i z e d b y m o u n t a i n s and the woodland haunts of

 120

w i l d b e a s t s , " by "crags and d e s o l a t e b o g s and the sea that holds far

asunder the shores of the l a n d s . " Such a w o r l d , "full of i m p e r f e c t i o n s , "

was proof t h a t " t h e u n i v e r s e was c e r t a i n l y not c r e a t e d f o r us by d i v i n e

29

power." Thomas B u r n e t a r g u e d t h a t the' " w h o l e E x t e r i o u r R e g i o n " of the

e a r t h i s a " b r o k e n and confus'd h e a p o f b o d i e s , p l a c ' d i n no order to

one another, n o r w i t h any correspondency or r e g u l a r i t y of p a r t s . " As

t h e "image o r p i c t u r e o f a g r e a t R u i n e " reflecting "the true aspect of

a World l y i n g i n i t s r u b b i s h , " the d i s o r d e r e d c o n d i t i o n of the p h y s i c a l

world c o n s t i t u t e d proof o f God's a n g e r a t " t h e d e g e n e r a c y o f m a n k i n d . "

The p r e s e n t , badly-damaged e a r t h r e s u l t e d f r o m God's d e s t r u c t i o n b y

Flood of "the f i r s t World," the o r i g i n a l order of c r e a t i o n p e r f e c t i n

its d e s i g n and harmony. ^ 3

In o p p o s i t i o n to these i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s Shaftesbury advanced the .

conception of n a t u r e earlier described: nature as a d i v i n e o r d e r , as

a spiritual revelation exalting the w i l d and i r r e g u l a r , and b r i n g i n g

d e l i g h t , w i s d o m , and a s e n s e o f awe and reverence t o man. This influen-

t i a l v i e w o f t h e u n i v e r s e and of o r i g i n a l , untouched n a t u r e "tended

inevitably to d i s c r e d i t the conscious m a n i p u l a t i o n of t r e e s , rocks,

and w a t e r i n t h e f o r m a l g a r d e n o f t h e p e r i o d . " Nature, i t seemed, "was

b e t t e r and m o r e b e a u t i f u l t h a n s h e h a d been thought to be, and need not

be t w i s t e d , t o r t u r e d , or ' m e t h o d i z e d ' b y man i n an e f f o r t to improve

31

or r e s t r a i n her." Shaftesburian influence'c o n t r i b u t e d to the " r e t u r n

to nature" not only i n n e o - c l a s s i c a l verse but i n the development of

t h e E n g l i s h n a t u r a l g a r d e n as well.

I t has a l r e a d y b e e n shown t h a t , l i k e Shaftesbury's philosophy,

 121

Addison's n a t u r a l i s m emphasized o r i g i n a l n a t u r e . I t d i d so n o t o n l y

by locating t h e g r e a t , t h e uncommon, a n d t h e b e a u t i f u l w i t h i n nature

as t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e p r i m a r y p l e a s u r e s o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n b u t a l s o by

comparing nature's v a r i e t y , grandeur, and v a s t n e s s t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y

insignificant "Touches and E m b e l l i s h m e n t s of A r t " :

I f we c o n s i d e r t h e W o r k s o f N a t u r e a n d A r t , a s t h e y a r e q u a l i f i e d
to e n t e r t a i n t h e Imagination,.we s h a l l f i n d t h e l a s t v e r y d e f e c t i v e ,
i n C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e f o r m e r ; f o r t h o u g h t h e y may s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r
a s B e a u t i f u l o r S t r a n g e , t h e y c a n h a v e n o t h i n g i n them o f t h e
V a s t n e s s and Immensity, w h i c h a f f o r d s o g r e a t an E n t e r t a i n m e n t t o
the Mind of the Beholder. The o n e may b e a s , P o l i t e a n d D e l i c a t e a s
t h e o t h e r , b u t c a n n e v e r shew h e r s e l f a s s o A u g u s t a n d M a g n i f i c e n t
i n t h e D e s i g n . - T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g more b o l d and m a s t e r l y i n t h e
rough c a r e l e s s S t r o k e s o f Nature,' t h a n i n t h e n i c e Touches and
Embellishments of Art.32

T h i s emphasis upon o r i g i n a l n a t u r e and t h e p r a i s e o f i t s rough

magnificence over , the " C u r i o s i t i e s o f A r t " (414) i n f l u e n t i a l l y rein-

forced the Shaftesburian r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of nature. S h a f t e s b u r y , how-

ever., was p r i m a r i l y interested i nwild, uninhabited nature.while

Addison, as h i s e s s a y s on g a r d e n i n g show, was a l o v e r o f d o m e s t i c

scenery, of the c i v i l i z e d , humanized landscape of the English country-

side.. H i s e l e v a t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l l y irregular over the a r t i f i c i a l i t y

of d e s i g n and a r t appears most., p r o m i n e n t l y i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f " t h e

s e v e r a l A c r e s a b o u t my H o u s e , w h i c h I call my G a r d e n , " a g a r d e n f a r

from formal i n i t s

C o n f u s i o n o f K i t c h i n and P a r t e r r e , O r c h a r d and F l o w e r G a r d e n , w h i c h
l i e s o m i x t and i n t e r w o v e n w i t h one a n o t h e r , t h a t i f a F o r e i g n e r
who h a d s e e n n o t h i n g o f o u r C o u n t r y s h o u l d b e c o n v e y e d i n t o my
Garden a t h i s f i r s t l a n d i n g , he would l o o k upon i t as a n a t u r a l
W i l d e r n e s s , and one o f t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d P a r t s o f o u r C o u n t r y . (477)
 122

In t h i s garden Addison takes " p a r t i c u l a r c a r e " to ensure that

a "little wandring Rill" s h o u l d r u n " i n t h e same M a n n e r as i t w o u l d do

in an open F i e l d , " that i t should pass " t h r o u g h Banks of V i o l e t s and

Primroses, Plats o f W i l l o w , o r o t h e r P l a n t s , t h a t seem t o b e o f i t s own

producing" (477). The w h o l e d e s c r i p t i o n r e v e a l s t h a t "my Compositions

in G a r d e n i n g a r e a l t o g e t h e r a f t e r t h e P i n d a r i c k M a n n e r , and run into

the b e a u t i f u l Wildness of Nature, w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g the n i c e r Elegancies

of A r t " (477).

Besides undermining the p r e s t i g e of the f o r m a l garden i n this

way, Addison also e x p l i c i t l y attacks i t s a r t i f i c i a l i t y . After obliquely

referring t o T e m p l e ' s " s h a r a w a g g i " a n d C h i n e s e g a r d e n e r s who "conceal

the a r t by w h i c h they d i r e c t t h e m s e l v e s , " he speaks of "our.British

g a r d e n e r s " who, i n s t e a d of "humouring Nature" l i k e the Chinese,

l o v e t o d e v i a t e f r o m i t as much a s p o s s i b l e . Our T r e e s r i s e i n
C o n e s , G l o b e s , and P y r a m i d s . We s e e t h e M a r k s o f t h e S c i s s a r s
u p o n e v e r y P l a n t , and B u s h . I do n o t know w h e t h e r I am s i n g u l a r i n
my O p i n i o n , b u t , , f o r my own p a r t , I w o u l d r a t h e r l o o k u p o n a T r e e
i n a l l i t s L u x u r i a n c y and D i f f u s i o n o f B o u g h s and B r a n c h e s , t h a n
when i t i s t h u s c u t and t r i m m e d i n t o a M a t h e m a t i c a l F i g u r e ; and
c a n n o t b u t f a n c y t h a t an O r c h a r d i n F l o w e r l o o k s i n f i n i t e l y more
d e l i g h t f u l t h a n a l l t h e l i t t l e L a b y r i n t h s of t h e most f i n i s h e d
Parterre. (414)

However, A d d i s o n ' s most i m p o r t a n t c r i t i c i s m of f o r m a l gardens

is p r o b a b l y h i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t one of the g r e a t primary p l e a s u r e s of

the i m a g i n a t i o n , t h e s e n s e o f a s t o n i s h m e n t and freedom evoked by

s p a c i o u s p r o s p e c t s , by u n c o n f i n e d v i e w s o f d i s t a n t h o r i z o n s , i s f r u s -

t r a t e d by such gardens:

The B e a u t i e s o f t h e m o s t s t a t e l y G a r d e n o r P a l a c e l i e i n a n a r r o w
C o m p a s s , t h e I m a g i n a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y r u n s them o v e r , and r e q u i r e s
 123

something e l s e to g r a t i f y h e r ; b u t , i n the wide F i e l d s of Nature,

t h e S i g h t w a n d e r s up a n d down w i t h o u t . C o n f i n e m e n t , a n d i s f e d w i t h
an i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y o f Images, w i t h o u t any c e r t a i n S t i n t o r
Number. ( 4 1 4 )

Hence t h e famous q u e s t i o n w h i c h i m p l i e s t h e i d e a o f t h e g a r d e n

as a l a n d s c a p e embracing t h e e n t i r e c o u n t r y s i d e or appearing t o do s o :

"Why may n o t a w h o l e E s t a t e b e t h r o w n i n t o a k i n d o f G a r d e n ? " (414).

This r e v o l u t i o n a r y thought departs from the conception e n t e r t a i n e d from

the e a r l i e s t times o f t h e garden as a s e p a r a t e , self-contained enclosure.

In p r a c t i c a l t e r m s t h e i d e a t h a t a man m i g h t t h u s "make a p r e t t y

Landskip.of h i s own P o s s e s s i o n s " (414) l e d t o t h e r e m o v a l o f w a l l s and

fences and t o t h e c o n c e a l m e n t o f . e s t a t e b o u n d a r i e s and l i m i t s which

gave gardens t h e . s p a c i o u s a p p e a r a n c e and a p p e a l of n a t u r a l landscapes.

33

Addison's idea represents "the start of E n g l i s h landscaping."

Finally, a s we saw i n a n e a r l i e r chapter, Addison's opinion

that nature could y i e l d secondary imaginative pleasure through accidental

resemblance t o a work o f a r t a n t i c i p a t e s t h e p i c t u r e s q u e of W i l l i a m

Gilpin. When we f i n d the " d e l i g h t f u l " works o f nature "still more

p l e a s a n t ; t h e more t h e y resemble those o f a r t , " when o u r p l e a s u r e a r i s e s

not only from the "Agreeableness of the Objects t o the Eye," b u t from

their " S i m i l i t u d e t o o t h e r . O b j e c t s " s o t h a t we c a n " r e p r e s e n t them t o

our M i n d s , e i t h e r as C o p i e s or Originals" ( 4 1 4 ) , t h e n we a r e b u t a s t e p

from the picturesque of G i l p i n , from c o n s i d e r i n g n a t u r a l scenes approp-

riate f o r p a i n t i n g b e c a u s e composed l i k e p i c t u r e s . We a r e a l s o c l o s e

to t h e a l l i e d n o t i o n t h a t n a t u r a l s c e n e s t h e m s e l v e s a c t u a l l y be composed

l i k e p i c t u r e s , s p e c i f i c a l l y t h a t t h e y be patterned after the landscape

 124

ideals of Claude, S a l v a t o r , a n d t h e P o u s s i n s , t h a t i s , made p i c t u r e s q u e .

Pope echoed and i n t e n s i f i e d A d d i s o n ' s c r i t i c i s m of formal

gardens. I n The G u a r d i a n ( 1 7 3 ) h e d e c l a r e s t h a t "we. seem t o make i t

our study t o recede from Nature" not only " i n the various tonsure of

g r e e n s i n t o t h e most r e g u l a r and f o r m a l s h a p e s " b u t "even i n m o n s t r o u s

attempts beyond t h e r e a c h of t h e a r t , " such a s "Adam a n d E v e i n yew;

Adam a l i t t l e s h a t t e r e d by. t h e f a l l of t h e t r e e of knowledge i n t h e

34

great storm: Eve and t h e s e r p e n t . v e r y flourishing." And i n E p i s t l e

IV o f t h e " M o r a l Essays," the Epistle t o B u r l i n g t o n , Pope satirically

attacks the enclosed "inverted Nature" and d u l l symmetry o f Timon's

huge f o r m a l garden:

On e v ' f y s i d e y o u l o o k , b e h o l d t h e W a l l !
No p l e a s i n g I n t r i c a c i e s i n t e r v e n e ,
No a r t f u l w i l d n e s s t o p e r p l e x t h e s c e n e ;
Grove nods a t g r o v e , . e a c h A l l e y h a s a b r o t h e r ,
And h a l f t h e . p l a t f o r m j u s t r e f l e c t s t h e o t h e r .
The s u f f ' r i n g , e y e i n v e r t e d N a t u r e s e e s ,
T r e e s c u t t o Statues,, S t a t u e s t h i c k as t r e e s , .
With here a F o u n t a i n , never t o be p l a y ' d ,
And t h e r e a Summer-house,; t h a t knows no s h a d e . ,
v

(11. 114-122)

Against the formality of this enclosed, uniform, regularized

n a t u r e , Pope recommends,.in terms a n t i c i p a t i n g the discovery of garden-

ing principles i n the landscape compositions o f C l a u d e , . S a l v a t o r , and

the Poussins, the n a t u r a l i s m of t h e v a r i e d , i r r e g u l a r , and s p a c i o u s

garden o f Addison. Since

He g a i n s a l l p o i n t s , , , w h o p l e a s i n g l y c o n f o u n d s j
S u r p r i z e s , v a r i e s , and c o n c e a l s t h e bounds,
(11. 55-56)
 125

the landscape gardener should always

Consult the Genius of the P l a c e i n a l l ;

That t e l l s the Waters or to r i s e , or f a l l ,
Or h e l p s t h ' a m b i t i o u s H i l l t h e . h e a v ' n t o s c a l e ,
Or s c o o p s i n c i r c l i n g t h e a t r e s t h e V a l e ,
C a l l s i n the Country, catches opening glades,
J o i n s w i l l i n g woods,,and v a r i e s shades f r o m . s h a d e s ,
Now b r e a k s o r now d i r e c t s t h ' i n t e n d i n g L i n e s ;
P a i n t s as y o u p l a n t , a n d , as y o u work,, d e s i g n s .
(11. 57-64)

Pope's garden a t Twickenham, a x i a l l y - d e s i g n e d , a n d " R o c o c o more

than anything e l s e " i n i t s "wiggly p a t h s , i t s m i n u t e mount, i t s c o c k l e

35
s h e l l s and minerals, and i t s e f f e c t ' s o f v a r i e t y on a small scale,"

d i d not accord w i t h h i s own r u l e s of n a t u r a l i s t i c design. Addison's

gardening, too,.at B i l t o n , was "rather of the h e r o i c s t y l e than the

36

Pindaric." But despite t h i s , and despite the further irony that

b o t h w r i t e r s were symbols of the "age of c l a s s i c a l authority i n its'

more b r i l l i a n t moments," i t was t h e y who were " c h i e f l y instrumental in

dislodging from i t s p o s i t i o n i n p u b l i c esteem the garden of axial

37

design, which impressively embodied the R e n a i s s a n c e i d e a l of order."

The r e v o l u t i o n i n g a r d e n i n g . t a s t e s and p r i n c i p l e s which they and

Shaftesbury.precipitated l e d to t h e , c r e a t i o n of the garden that "tries

seriously to look l i k e Nature Unadorned," the landscape garden that

"has d e c e i v e d us a l l a t some s t a g e i n t o b e l i e v i n g i t t o b e England's

38

n a t u r a l scenery."' And s i n c e t h i s g a r d e n c o n s t i t u t e s one aspect or

manifestation of the eighteenth-century " r e t u r n to nature," Pope and

A d d i s o n must be considered significant i n this respect as well.

The s t o r y of the a c t u a l e m e r g e n c e and development of the

 126

l a n d s c a p e garden i n England cannot be t o l d h e r e . Such complex and

h i g h l y d e t a i l e d matters as the r e a l i z a t i o n , a d a p t a t i o n , and v a r i a t i o n

of the i d e a s of A d d i s o n , Pope, and o t h e r s i n famous gardens like

S h e n s t o n e ' s Leasowes,. H a m i l t o n ' s P a i n ' s H i l l , S o u t h c o t e ' s Wooburn Farm,

Temple's Stowe, L y t t l e t o n ' s H a g l e y , L e i c e s t e r ' s Holkham, or H o a r e ' s

Stourhead; the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of l a n d s c a p e gardeners l i k e Switzer,

Bridgeman, K e n t , Brown, and Repton; the e n d l e s s d i s c u s s i o n conducted

by w r i t e r s , c r i t i c s , a e s t h e t i c i a n s , amateurs, and w e a l t h y men of

f a s h i o n on the p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e of landscape g a r d e n i n g ; and the

r e f l e c t i o n o f , a l l these matters i n the l i t e r a t u r e of the c e n t u r y are

beyond the scope of t h i s p a p e r , r e q u i r i n g as they do f u l l volumes to

themselves. Treatment of t h e s e s u b j e c t s , however, i s not n e c e s s a r y to

an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the q u e s t i o n whose b r i e f c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i l l end

t h i s p a p e r : . the p i c t u r e s q u e t a s t e f o r l a n d s c a p e engendered by the

n a t u r a l garden and f o r m a l i z e d a e s t h e t i c a l l y by-Gilpin.

We have seen t h a t the r e l a t i o n s between the s i s t e r , a r t s of

p o e t r y and p a i n t i n g a c h i e v e d a h i g h degree of i n t i m a c y i n the eighteenth

century. However, t h a t a n a l o g i e s between the a r t s were by no means

c o n f i n e d t o t h e s e two, t h a t f u r t h e r examples " c o u l d be m u l t i p l i e d almost

39

indefinitely," i s i n d i c a t e d by the p a r a l l e l s between the n o v e l and

the e n g r a v i n g , s t a g e - a c t i n g and p a i n t i n g , music and p o e t r y , architecture

and l a n d s c a p i n g , as w e l l as by the i m p o r t a n t a s s o c i a t i o n between p a i n t -

i n g and g a r d e n i n g w i t h w h i c h we are c o n c e r n e d . Of a l l t h e s e , the

a f f i n i t y between p a i n t i n g and g a r d e n i n g was of p a r t i c u l a r importance.

I t not o n l y h e l p e d make the l a n d s c a p e garden " t h e g r e a t E n g l i s h

 127

c o n t r i b u t i o n to the a r t of g a r d e n i n g , even to a r t i t s e l f , " to create

40

the "only a r t f o r m t o be perfected in Britain," but, i n doing so, i t

a l s o made p o s s i b l e and o r i g i n a t e d the picturesque taste for landscape

h e r a l d e d at the b e g i n n i n g of t h i s chapter i n the travels, descriptions,

and poetry of Smollett's Matthew Bramble. .

The a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n p a i n t i n g and gardening i s l i n k e d to

t h a t between p a i n t i n g and p o e t r y not only because both p a r a l l e l s

i n v o l v e p a i n t i n g and produce forms of p i c t o r i a l i s m but also because

e a c h s t e m s f r o m and typifies the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c eighteenth-century

d e f e r e n c e t o a u t h o r i t i e s , p r e c e d e n t s , and models that r e s u l t e d from

classical literary t r a i n i n g and habits of thought. Although such train-

ing and thinking principally affected literature, as i n the dependence

of p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y upon the sanctions of a n c i e n t , Renaissance, and

baroque art,- i t a l s o encouraged the v i e w of the g a r d e n e r as an artist

c o m p o s i n g l a n d s c a p e s a f t e r t h e manner of p a i n t e r s . Thus Pope said

that " a l l gardening i s landscape p a i n t i n g " ; Shenstone remarked " i n

p u r s u a n c e of our present taste' i n gardening" that " e v e r y good painter

of l a n d s c a p e seems t o me the most p r o p e r d e s i g n e r " ; and Richard Jago

maintained that "to plan the r u r a l s e a t " was to i m i t a t e "the well-

41

f o n n ' d p i c t u r e and correct design." As with the comparison between

p o e t r y and painting,.a host of f u r t h e r examples c o u l d be cited to

illustrate the contemporary o p i n i o n that gardening could "now join

itself" to poetry, m u s i c , and painting, that ; i t was not only "nearly

allied" to p a i n t i n g but also "far superior to i t " s i n c e i t involved

42
"creating a r e a l landscape, instead o f p a i n t i n g an imaginary one."
 128

Thus the d o c t r i n e of models, c o u p l e d w i t h the new knowledge and l o v e

of p a i n t i n g d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , l e d n a t u r a l l y to the gardener's reliance

upon t h e . c r i t e r i a f o r beauty i n l a n d s c a p e s u p p l i e d by s e v e n t e e n t h -

century landscape p a i n t e r s . When the c u l t i v a t e d man "was certain

t h a t a garden scheme made up of t e m p l e s , wooded h i l l s i d e s , and w i n d i n g

streams embodied the C l a u d i a n s p i r i t , " then " h i s t a s t e was vindicated,

43

his mind was a t rest,- and he took a p i n c h of snuff, complacently,."

The statement t h a t "the c r e a t i n g a r e a l l a n d s c a p e " i s more

difficult than " p a i n t i n g an i m a g i n a r y one" i s supported by o t h e r

o p i n i o n s u g g e s t i n g the a r t of g a r d e n i n g as no l e s s d i f f i c u l t t o master

than the a r t of p a i n t i n g . R i c h a r d Graves f e l t t h a t the p l a n n i n g of

the n a t u r a l garden r e q u i r e d m e n t a l a t t r i b u t e s as. g r e a t "as those which

we admire i n the d e s c r i p t i v e poems of Thomson or i n the n o b l e l a n d s c a p e s

of S a l v a t o r Rosa or the P o u s s i n s . " And another, w r i t e r .commented t h a t

" t h e r e i s a t l e a s t as much room f o r e x e r c i s i n g the g r e a t a r t s of d e s i g n

and c o m p o s i t i o n i n l a y i n g out a garden as i n e x e c u t i n g a good p a i n t i n g . "

Such, remarks c l e a r l y s i g n i f y t h a t the garden, d e s p i t e i t s abandonment

of the u n i f o r m i t y of R e n a i s s a n c e design,, c o u l d never d i s p l a y a n a t u r e

f r e e from human p l a n n i n g and c o n t r o l , c o u l d never r e a l l y be n a t u r a l .

Less obvious i n i t s d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n than the f o r m a l garden,

indeed a p p a r e n t l y a r t l e s s , t h e n a t u r a l garden was as-highly.-artificial

as a n y o t h e r a r t form. .

S e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l a n d s c a p e p a i n t i n g , though an i m p o r t a n t

s t i m u l u s arid i n s p i r a t i o n t o the p i c t u r e s q u e a r t i f i c i a l i t y of the

n a t u r a l garden, cannot be accounted the s o l e f a c t o r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

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its creation. The p s y c h o l o g i c a l need t o escape from the u b i q u i t o u s

u n i f o r m i t y of c l a s s i c d e s i g n , mentioned earlier as t h e c a u s e of the

disappearance o f r e g u l a r i t y and symmetry from t h e g a r d e n , continued to

reflect itself i n t h e v o g u e s f o r c h i n o i s e r i e and m e d i e v a l i s m , as well

a s i n f i e l d s h a v i n g n o t h i n g t o do w i t h p a i n t i n g o r g a r d e n i n g : rococo

in t h e d e c o r a t i v e a r t s and b l a n k v e r s e and the Spenserian stanza i n

poetry. These t e n d e n c i e s complement t h e development of t h e natural

garden and suggest t h a t t h e a n t i p a t h y r e g i s t e r e d b y Thomson i n L i b e r t y

for

t h o s e d i s g r a c e f u l p i l e s o f wood and s t o n e ;
T h o s e p a r k s and g a r d e n s , w h e r e , h i s h a u n t s b e t r i m m e d , .
And n a t u r e b y p r e s u m p t u o u s a r t o p p r e s s e d , .
The w o o d l a n d g e n i u s m o u r n s , . ( V , 1 6 3 - 1 6 6 )

and h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h o s e l e s s formal

s y l v a n scenes, where a r t alone p r e t e n d s

To d r e s s h e r m i s t r e s s and d i s c l o s e h e r c h a r m s ,
(V, 696-697)

are expressions of the f a c t t h a t " t h e f o r m u l a s o f c l a s s i c i s m had gone

t o s e e d " and t h a t "a r e j u v e n a t i n g c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e was a spiritual

need..

Nonetheless, s t i m u l a t i n g t h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l n e e d and stimu-

l a t e d by i t and b y o t h e r f o r c e s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e renewed interest

i n nature, a widespread and sympathetic interest in Italian landscape

developed i n the centuryj p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r Claude, S a l v a t o r , and the

P o u s s i n s , who w e r e deemed t o e p i t o m i z e t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f composition.

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and the criteria for beauty necessary and most appropriate to the land-

scape garden. In this sense the scenery of the.natural garden differs

from the literary landscape of Pope and Thomson,.which, as we saw, was

more importantly shaped by the mythological and allegorical landscapes

of the masters of the high Renaissance and baroque periods.

Reynolds said that Claude, "was convinced that taking nature as

he found i t seldom produced beauty," that his pictures were "a composi-

tion of the various draughts which he had previously made from various

beautiful scenes and prospects." His feeling that Claude's practice

46

led to the attainment of "perfect form" in landscape was shared by

landscape gardeners., who, accepting that original nature in i t s e l f

"seldom produced beauty," followed and adapted pictorial methods in

composing real landscape scenes, scenes whose foregrounds, middle, dis-

tances, backgrounds, disposition of objects, and effects of variety,

contrast, and light and shade were after the manner of landscape

painting, usually Claude's, Salvator's, and Poussin's.

If Shenstorie summed up this strategy in gardening by saying

that "objects should be less calculated to strike, the immediate eye,

than the judgment, or well-formed imagination, as in painting," Pope's

comment that gardeners "may distance things by darkening them, and by

narrowing . . . towards the end, in the same manner as they do in

47

painting," typifies tactical advice based upon this strategy. That

this strategy of landscape pictorialism was commonly identified with

Claude, Salvator, and Nicolas Poussin scarcely requires illustration.

Reflected in Richard Graves' earlier comment on the mental requirements

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of the landscape d e s i g n e r and i n dozens of s i m i l a r e x p r e s s i o n s , such

as the c r i t i c a l r e m a r k s made b y D a i n e s B a r r i n g t o n , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t ,

about Browns's p l a n s , i n w h i c h " I see r a t h e r t r a c e s of the gardens of

O l d Stowe t h a n o f P o u s s i n o r C l a u d e L o r r a i n e , " o r t h e recommendations

by S a m u e l Ward o f S a l v a t o r f o r " t e r r i b l e and noble n a t u r a l s i t u a t i o n s "

and P o u s s i n as "the best i n s t r u c t o r which a gardener of genius and

48

t a s t e can follow,", - t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b e t w e e n t h e s e p a i n t e r s and the

s t r a t e g y and t a c t i c s of landscape gardening became a c o m m o n p l a c e .

Because of t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n the p i c t u r e s q u e garden inevitably

came t o be r e g a r d e d as a n e m b o d i m e n t and r e f l e c t i o n of the pictorial

influences t h a t had shaped i t . I f p a i n t i n g had served as a m o d e l f o r

the gardener, h i s work i n t u r n s e r v e d as a p o t e n t i a l m o d e l f o r the

painter.. The " t r u e t e s t of p e r f e c t i o n i n a modern g a r d e n , " s a i d Daines

Barrington, " i s that a landscape p a i n t e r would choose i t f o r a composi-

49

tion." T h i s v i e w of the l a n d s c a p e garden i n terms o f . i t s picturesque-

ness, i t s f i t n e s s f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on c a n v a s , extended i t s e l f beyond

t h e g a r d e n when, i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e of t h e general

" r e t u r n t o n a t u r e , " i t came t o i n c l u d e t h e r u g g e d s c e n e r y of wild,

untouched nature. T h i s e x t e n s i o n of p i c t u r e s q u e v i s i o n from the garden

to a l l o f n a t u r e was l a r g e l y , the consequence of the v a r i o u s Tours and

Essays of the "venerable founder and master of the P i c t u r e s q u e School,""'

W i l l i a m G i l p i n , w h o s e e x a m p l e , a d v i c e , and theory brought,about the

vogue f o r p i c t u r e s q u e t r a v e l . F o l l o w i n g i n h i s f o o t s t e p s , the pictur-

esque t o u r i s t e x p l o r e d the c o u n t r y s i d e , p a r t i c u l a r l y the remote

m o u n t a i n and l a k e country of Wales, the North of England, and Scotland,

 132

in order t o d i s c o v e r , d e s c r i b e - , a n a l y z e , and reproduce the scenes that

accorded w i t h the - G i l p i n i a n formula of the p i c t u r e s q u e .

B r i e f ^ d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s f o r m u l a and a glance at i t s further-

e l a b o r a t i o n by S i r Uvedale P r i c e w i l l not o n l y sum up the picturesque

taste which climaxed i n t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e s e men but also logically

bring t h i s p a p e r t o an end.

G i l p i n ' s p i c t u r e s q u e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e c a n be conveniently

summarized by c o n s i d e r i n g i t s e a r l y e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e anonymous. 1748

p u b l i c a t i o n , A D i a l o g u e U p o n .the G a r d e n s o f t h e R i g h t H o n o u r a b l e the

L o r d V i s c o u n t Cobham, a t S t o w i n .Buckinghamshire-;. a v work a t t r i b u t e d to

51

G i l p i n and " e x p r e s s l y p i c t u r e s q u e i n i t s g e n e r a l p o i n t of view."

In t h i s w o r k two f r i e n d s , Polypthpn and C a l l o p h i l u s , d i s c u s s the famous

s h o w - p l a c e g a r d e n s of Stowe i n terms o f t h e s t a n d a r d s of painting.

They t a k e p l e a s u r e i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of the garden landscape, the

e x c e l l e n t d i s p o s i t i o n of i t s elements, the proper t e r m i n a t i o n s of i t s

views, and especially i t s fine variety of o b j e c t s . For them,

regularity and exactness contribute l i t t l e to beauty i n a garden. Thus

a r e g u l a r B u i l d i n g p e r h a p s g i v e s u s v e r y l i t t l e P l e a s u r e ; and y e t
a f i n e R o c k , . o r a r a g g e d R u i n , b e a u t i f u l l y s e t o f f w i t h L i g h t and
S h a d e , and g a r n i s h e d w i t h f l o u r i s h i n g b u s h e s , I v y , and d e a d
B r a n c h e s may a f f o r d u s a g r e a t d e a l . — Y o n o l d H e r m i t a g e g i v e s u s
t h i s S o r t o f P l e a s u r e : i t i s o f t h e r o m a n t i c k K i n d ; and s u c h
B e a u t i e s , where a probable Nature i s not exceeded, are g e n e r a l l y
pleasing.52

This passage s e t s f o r t h the n o t i o n of o b j e c t s , such as ruins,

having p i c t u r e s q u e v a l u e because of the p l e a s u r e they a f f o r d the eye.

They p l e a s e b e c a u s e t h e i r r o u g h n e s s , i n c o m p l e t e n e s s , and irregularity

 133

a r e more n e a r l y a l l i e d to nature t h a n i s smoothness, r e g u l a r i t y , and

exactness. The p i c t u r e s q u e n e s s of broken o u t l i n e s , roughness, irregu-

larity, and v a r i e d e f f e c t s p r o v i d e s p l e a s u r e " o f t h e r o m a n t i c k Kind."

The w o r d " p i c t u r e s q u e " i s u s e d when P o l y p t h o n agrees with h i s

companion t h a t such r u i n s make " a g r e a t A d d i t i o n t o t h e B e a u t y o f t h e .

Lake." " T h e r e i s , " he s a y s , " s o m e t h i n g so v a s t l y p i c t u r e s q u e and

pleasing to the Imagination i n such O b j e c t s , t h a t they a r e a g r e a t -

A d d i t i o n t o any L a n d s k i p " (p. 120).

The f r i e n d s d i s c u s s t h e g a r d e n as a s e r i e s o f p l e a s i n g p i c t u r e s .

P o l y p t h o n , . f o r example, i n response t o a p i c t u r e s q u e d e s c r i p t i o n by

Callophilus, says

I t h i n k t h i s other View n o t i n f e r i o r t o i t . That v a r i e t y of d i f -

f e r e n t Shades amongst t h e T r e e s ; t h e L a k e s p r e a d s o e l e g a n t l y
amongst them, and g l i t t e r i n g h e r e and t h e r e t h r o ' t h e B u s h e s , w i t h
t h e T e m p l e o f V e n u s a s a t e r m i n a t i o n t o t h e V i e w , make up a b e a u -
t i f u l Landskip. ( p . 122)

Such s c e n e s prompt h i s remembrance o f t h e p i c t u r e s q u e beauties

in t h e "rough Nature"of t h e North of England. I n t h i s part of the

c o u n t r y w h i c h "abounds" w i t h " e l e g a n t n a t u r a l V i e w s , " he had once spent

some time

i n hunting after b e a u t i f u l Objects. Sometimes I found m y s e l f

hemmed w i t h i n a n A m p h i t h e a t r e o f M o u n t a i n s , w h i c h w e r e v a r i o u s l y
o r n a m e n t e d , some w i t h s c a t t e r e d T r e e s , some w i t h t u f t e d Wood, some
w i t h g r a z i n g C a t t l e , a n d some w i t h s m o a k i n g C o t t a g e s . Here and
t h e r e a n e l e g a n t V i e w was o p e n e d i n t o t h e C o u n t r y . — A M i l e ' s
r i d i n g , . p e r h a p s , w o u l d h a v e c a r r i e d me t o t h e F o o t o f a s t e e p
P r e c i p i c e , down w h i c h t h u n d e r e d t h e W e i g h t o f some v a s t R i v e r ,
w h i c h was d a s h e d i n t o Foam a t t h e B o t t o m , b y t h e c r a g g y P o i n t s o f
s e v e r a l r i s i n g R o c k s : A deep Gloom o v e r s p r e a d t h e P r o s p e c t ,
o c c a s i o n e d b y t h e c l o s e Wood t h a t h u n g r o u n d i t o n e v e r y s i d e . —
 134

I c o u l d d e s c r i b e a V a r i e t y o f o t h e r V i e w s I met w i t h t h e r e , i f we
h e r e w a n t e d E n t e r t a i n m e n t i n t h e way o f L a n d s k i p . ( p p . 122-123)

Polypthon a d d s t h a t i f L o r d Cobham " h a d s u c h M a t e r i a l s t o w o r k

w i t h " he w o u l d d o u b t l e s s c o n s t r u c t " a n o b l e P i c t u r e " w i t h them i n h i s

garden (p. 123). H i s p r a i s e of the "rough" beauty of the North, like

Bramble's o f t h e S c o t t i s h H i g h l a n d s , . i s p r a i s e o f the p i c t u r e s q u e .

L i k e Bramble, Polypthon had spent h i s time "hunting a f t e r beautiful

O b j e c t s , " o r , as would be s a i d later, " i n search of the picturesque."

The whole account of h i s search f o r picturesque beauty i n the rugged,

irregular scenery o f t h e N o r t h , beauty t h a t c o u l d be viewed o r imagined

as " a n o b l e P i c t u r e , " g i v e s u s , a s e a r l y a s 1 7 4 8 , " t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f

53

the p i c t u r e s q u e p o i n t of view."

These e a r l y examples o f p i c t u r e s q u e d e s c r i p t i o n a r e s i g n i f i c a n t •

beyond t h e i r r e v e l a t i o n t h a t t h e a n a l y t i c a l and d e t a i l e d c r i t i c i s m of

real landscape from a d i s t i n c t i v e l y picturesque p o i n t of view "was

54

actually i n print, and i n f l u e n t i a l l y so-," b e f o r e 1750. Together

w i t h C a l l o p h i l u s ' h o p e t h a t S t o w e "may w o r k some R e f o r m a t i o n " i n other

gardens " l a i d o u t i n so f o r m a l , awkward, and w r e t c h e d a Manner" t h a t

they a r e "a s c a n d a l t o t h e v e r y Genius o f t h e N a t i o n " ( p . 1 2 6 ) , -they .

a l s o suggest that the middle o f t h e c e n t u r y marks t h e . s h i f t , f r o m

formalism to naturalism, the t r a n s i t i o n a l period i n which "the s t y l e

in landscape gardening,,arid i n general a p p r e c i a t i o n of landscape, began

t o depend p r i m a r i l y on r e a l n a t u r e , i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e e a r l i e r

i n s i s t e n c e upon obvious art."^ Finally, t h e use. o f t h e w o r d "pictur-

esque" i n t h e D i a l o g u e , like the reference i n Gilpin's 1752 L i f e of .

 135

56

Bernard Gilpin to a "very p i c t u r e s q u e d e s c r i p t i o n " of "wild country,"

is symptomatic of the changing-use of the word d u r i n g the century.

Without attempting to explore the f u l l r a n g e o f m e a n i n g s "which" makes

a h i s t o r y of the p i c t u r e s q u e — t h e term or c h a r a c t e r — d i f f i c u l t of

accomplishment,"^ 7
the i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h i s change i s w o r t h w h i l e since

it corresponds to the s h i f t i n emphasis from the p o e t i c pictorialism

which modelled itself on p a i n t i n g t o t h e s c e n i c p i c t o r i a l i s m which

took landscape as a m o d e l f o r p a i n t i n g . A few instances w i l l highlight

this c h a n g e i n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d " p i c t u r e s q u e " and i t s usage.

S t e e l e ' s use o f t h e w o r d i n h i s p l a y , The Tender Husband (1705),

probably marks i t s f i r s t appearance i n E n g l i s h . Act IV, Scene i , of

the p l a y presents Captain Clerimont, t h e l o v e r d i s g u i s e d as p a i n t e r ,

advising h i s beloved to pose f o r her p o r t r a i t as a pensive beauty i n a

p a s t o r a l scene. She disagrees:

N i e c e . " N o — s i n c e t h e r e i s r o o m f o r F a n c y i n a P i c t u r e , I wou'd
be d r a w n l i k e t h e Amazon T h a l e s t r i s , w i t h a S p e a r i n my H a n d , and
a n H e l m e t on a T a b l e b e f o r e m e — A t a d i s t a n c e b e h i n d l e t t h e r e be
a D w a r f , h o l d i n g by the B r i d l e a M i l k - w h i t e P a l f r e y , —

C a p t a i n . Madam, t h e T h o u g h t i s f u l l o f S p i r i t j and i f y o u
p l e a s e , t h e r e s h a l l be a C u p i d , s t e a l i n g away y o u r H e l m e t j t o show
t h a t Love shou'd have a P a r t i n a l l g a l l a n t A c t i o n s .

Niece. That Circumstance may be v e r y Picturesque.58

The meaning of " p i c t u r e s q u e " h e r e i s " s u i t a b l e f o r a picture"

or "proper for a painting." It recalls the "histories'' i n which the

s u b j e c t i s g i v e n a m y t h o l o g i c a l s t a n c e and s u r r o u n d e d by the parapher-

n a l i a o f nymphs, c u p i d s ^ and i n s i g n i a t y p i c a l of I t a l i a n Renaissance

and baroque a l l e g o r i c a l p a i n t i n g . T h i s i s t h e p i c t u r e s q u e we have

 136

s e e n i n t h e p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y o f P o p e and Thomson.

A t m i d - c e n t u r y , a s we have seen, G i l p i n ' s D i a l o g u e uses

" p i c t u r e s q u e " as a t e r m f o r a n a l y s i s and c r i t i c i s m of landscape beauty;

and twenty years l a t e r , a s we h a v e a l s o s e e n , S m o l l e t t ' s Humphry

C j i n k e r demonstrates the p o p u l a r use of the word: s e r i o u s i n i t s

G i l p i n i a n s e n s e and comic i n i t s poetic p i c t o r i a l sense.

Finally, a t t h e end of",the c e n t u r y , i n h i s Supplement t o

Johnson's E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y . ( 1 8 0 1 ) , G e o r g e M a s o n l i s t s no less than

s i x meanings f o r t h e term: what p l e a s e s t h e eye; r e m a r k a b l e for singu-

larity; s t r i k i n g the i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h the f o r c e of p a i n t i n g ; to be

e x p r e s s e d i n p a i n t i n g ; a f f o r d i n g a good s u b j e c t f o r a l a n d s c a p e ; proper
59
to take a landscape from. A l l these senses of " p i c t u r e s q u e " are

implied i n G i l p i n ' s D i a l o g u e ; " w i t h a l l these G i l p i n would have agreed."

In f a c t t h i s v a r i e t y of meanings r e f l e c t s t h e p o p u l a r i t y and success

of the word once G i l p i n "made i t a v a i l a b l e as an i n s t r u m e n t — a d m i t t e d l y

a pictorial i n s t r u m e n t — f o r the a n a l y s i s , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n , and finally

t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and r e c o r d i n g o f n a t u r a l s c e n e r y . T h e y also

underscore the s h i f t i n t h e g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n of' t h e t e r m since

S t e e l e ' s dayj the development of , i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h l a n d s c a p e .

The examples of p i c t u r e s q u e usage i n the D i a l o g u e , t h e n , are a

t r i p l e m i l e s t o n e I n the h i s t o r y of the p i c t u r e s q u e . They s i g n a l the.

t r a n s i t i o n from formalism to n a t u r a l i s m i n the landscape garden, mark

the b e g i n n i n g of the a n a l y s i s of n a t u r a l scenery from a c o n s c i o u s l y

p i c t u r e s q u e p o i n t o f v i e w , and h e r a l d the a s s o c i a t i o n of the pictur-

e s q u e — a s t e r m and concept—with real landscape.

 137

If the Dialogue r e v e a l s " t h e most i m p o r t a n t components of the

61

picturesque i n landscape already analyzed," G i l p i n ' s Three Essays:

on P i c t u r e s q u e B e a u t y , on P i c t u r e s q u e T r a v e l , a n d on Sketching Land-

scape, t o w h i c h i s a d d e d a Poem o n L a n d s c a p e P a i n t i n g ( 1 7 9 2 ) g i v e s us

his fully developed theory of the p i c t u r e s q u e . Basing h i s speculation

on B u r k e ' s o b j e c t i v e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the q u a l i t i e s of the sublime

( o b s c u r i t y , power, p r i v a t i o n , v a s t n e s s , i n f i n i t y , m a g n i f i c e n c e ) and

the b e a u t i f u l (smoothness, s o f t n e s s , s m a l l n e s s , g r a d u a l variation,

r e g u l a r i t y , d e l i c a c y ) i n the o b j e c t , G i l p i n attempted to define the

qualities of the p i c t u r e s q u e i n order t o s e t up a third category. The

principles o f h i s t h e o r y h a v e b e e n s u m m a r i z e d b y W i l l i a m D. Templeman,

one of h i s b e s t c r i t i c s , as follows:

1. P i c t u r e s q u e b e a u t y i s t h a t s p e c i e s o f b e a u t y w h i c h a p p e a l s t o
t h e e y e o f a p a i n t e r as s u i t e d . f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n a p i c t u r e .
2. P i c t u r e s q u e b e a u t y i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e q u a l i t y o f r o u g h n e s s .
3. R o u g h n e s s i s e s s e n t i a l t o p i c t u r e s q u e b e a u t y b e c a u s e when c e r -
t a i n elements (execution, composition, v a r i e t y , c o n t r a s t , e f f e c t
o f l i g h t and s h a d e , and c o l o r i n g ) a r e p r o p e r l y p l e a s i n g i n a p i c -
t u r e t h e y o f n e c e s s i t y make u s e o f r o u g h o b j e c t s . 6 2

Despite i t s opposing roughness t o smoothness i n o r d e r to differ-

e n t i a t e picturesque from b e a u t i f u l , G i l p i n ' s t h e o r y shows a b a s i c

c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n i t s " c o n f u s i n g and hybrid" expression, "picturesque

beauty," a phrase which s i g n a l i z e s h i s f a i l u r e " t o a n a l y z e and substan-

t i a t e a c l a i m f o r t h e P i c t u r e s q u e as a s u b s p e c i e s of the B e a u t i f u l or

63

as a d i s t i n c t category from the B e a u t i f u l . " Thus, although Gilpin

laid the foundations f o r t h e p i c t u r e s q u e , i t was left to others to

e s t a b l i s h i t s t h e o r y on m o r e c o n s i s t e n t p r i n c i p l e s t h a n h i s and to -
 138

g i v e i t more s a t i s f a c t o r y definition.,

C h i e f among t h e s e was S i r U v e d a l e P r i c e , "champion and t h e o r i s t

64

of the p i c t u r e s q u e , " who, t a k i n g up t h e p i c t u r e s q u e theory Gilpin

had left i n paradox, sought t o e s t a b l i s h the e s s e n t i a l nature of the

assemblage o f q u a l i t i e s that d i f f e r e n t i a t e d picturesque from beautiful

and a t t h e same t i m e to separate these q u a l i t i e s , ' as G i l p i n had n o t ,

from t h e s p e c i a l requirements of the painter's a r t . I n h i s E s s a y on

t h e P i c t u r e s q u e a s Compared w i t h t h e S u b l i m e a n d B e a u t i f u l ( 1 7 9 4 )

P r i c e , f o l l o w i n g Burke w i t h great f i d e l i t y , establishes picturesque .

q u a l i t i e s as o b j e c t i v e , i n h e r e n t i n t h e o b j e c t , and c o m p l e t e l y separate

from the q u a l i t i e s that please i n painting. The.discussion, i n h i s

E s s a y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n p i c t u r e s q u e a n d b e a u t i f u l , .of w h a t

it i s i n the nature o f p i c t u r e s q u e o b j e c t s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s them,

independent o f : a l l reference to p a i n t i n g , from b e a u t i f u l o b j e c t s , has

been s u c c i n c t l y r e p o r t e d as f o l l o w s :

B e a u t y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s m o o t h n e s s and' g r a d u a l v a r i a t i o n ,
q u a l i t i e s w h i c h n e c e s s a r i l y l i m i t t h e v a r i e t y and i n t r i c a c y e s s e n -
t i a l to the picturesque. Roughness and sudden v a r i a t i o n , j o i n e d
to i r r e g u l a r i t y , a r e t h e most e f f i c i e n t causes o f t h e p i c t u r e s q u e .
T h i s p r o p o s i t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a r i c h and v a r i o u s c a t a l o g o f
p i c t u r e s q u e o b j e c t s — G o t h i c c a t h e d r a l s and o l d m i l l s , g n a r l e d oaks
and s h a g g y g o a t s , d e c a y e d c a r t h o r s e s a n d w a n d e r i n g g y p s i e s , t h e
p a i n t i n g s o f Mola- and S a l v a t o r . B e a u t y a n d p i c t u r e s q u e a r e f u r t h e r
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t h a t symmetry, w h i c h accords w i t h b e a u t y w e l l
enough, i s a d v e r s e t o t h e p i c t u r e s q u e . And t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f t h e
two c h a r a c t e r s i s b r o u g h t u n d e r t h e a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s p e c u l i a r
t o P r i c e , f i n a l l y , b y t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t "one d e p e n d s o n i d e a s
of y o u t h and f r e s h n e s s , t h e o t h e r on t h o s e o f a g e , and even o f
decay." S t r i k i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s are given.of the gradual a l t e r a t i o n
of b e a u t y i n t o p i c t u r e s q u e n e s s as time o p e r a t e s upon a t e m p l e , a
t r e e , a man.65

T h e s e summary d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f
 139

Gilpin, the "venerable founder" o f t h e p i c t u r e s q u e , and of P r i c e , whose

w o r k s on t h e s u b j e c t " r e m a i n t h e p r i n c i p a l monument o f picturesque

66

doctrine," r e v e a l t h e e s s e n t i a l i d e a s and thinking that formalized

t h e p i c t u r e s q u e and j o i n e d i t to the sublime and t h e b e a u t i f u l as a

third a e s t h e t i c genre. In doing so they a l s o round out and bring to

an end t h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the p i c t u r e s q u e landscape movement. Succeed-

ing d e v e l o p m e n t s s u c h as. R i c h a r d P a y n e K n i g h t ' s arguments f o r the

subjectivity of sublime, b e a u t i f u l , and picturesque; his.associational

theory which l o c a t e d the source of the p i c t u r e s q u e i n idea-association

r a t h e r than i n objective qualities inherent i n the o b j e c t ; the satire

p r o v o k e d by. t h e p i c t u r e s q u e v o g u e i n w o r k s l i k e W i l l i a m Combe's T o u r

o f Dr.. S y n t a x , i n Search, of the P i c t u r e s q u e ( 1 8 1 2 ) and the novels of

P e a c o c k and Austen; and the g e n e r a l i n f l u e n c e of the p i c t u r e s q u e in

p o e t r y , t h e n o v e l , a r c h i t e c t u r e , and other a r t s c a n n o t be t a k e n up in

t h i s paper. L i k e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e a c t u a l e m e r g e n c e and development'

of the landscape garden, these matters r e q u i r e much more s p a c e t h a n is

here available.

D i s c u s s i o n of the l a n d s c a p e picturesque completes the earlier

c e n t r a l d i s c u s s i o n of e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y poetic.pictorialism; i t s

t e r m i n a t i o n w i t h G i l p i n and P r i c e therefore concludes t h e p a p e r as a

whole. S i n c e t h e r e i s no need t o r e c a p i t u l a t e the h i s t o r y of ut

p i c t u r a p o e s i s , to re-emphasize i t s importance to Augustan poetry,

e s p e c i a l l y P o p e ' s and Thomson's, o r t o r e d e f i n e i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to

t h e p i c t u r e s q u e movement; b e c a u s e , t o o , no revelations, special emphases,

or i n t e r p r e t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s have been r e s e r v e d for final application to

 140

either or both p i c t o r i a l i s m s , to t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s to the "return to

n a t u r e , " t o one a n o t h e r , o r t o t h e means w h e r e b y i n p o e t r y a n d g a r d e n

each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y sought t o transcend nature without deserting

or v i o l a t i n g h e r , t h i s t h e s i s i s done w i t h i t s t a s k . I t can conclude

by stating t h e hope t h a t i t s . attempt t o do j u s t i c e to the theory,

p r a c t i c e , and'value's o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p i c t o r i a l p o e t r y and l a n d -

s c a p e h a s shown t h a t t h e i r importance, r e l e v a n c e , and v i t a l i t y can

still be f e l t today whenever E n g l i s h c o u n t r y s i d e , l i t e r a r y ; painted,

or r e a l , i s encountered o r a book o f n e o - c l a s s i c a l p o e t r y opened.

 141

FOOTNOTES

Pp. 173-174 o f t h e e d i t i o n b y R o b e r t Gorham D a v i s (New Y o r k :

H o l t , R i n e h a r t , and W i n s t o n , 1 9 6 6 ) . A l l page r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h e n o v e l
are t o t h i s e d i t i o n .
2
C e c i l A. M o o r e , "The R e t u r n t o N a t u r e i n E n g l i s h P o e t r y o f
the E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y , " Backgrounds o f E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e 1700-1760
( M i n n e a p o l i s : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ) , p. 70. Moore's
a c c o u n t o f S h a f t e s b u r y and D e i s m i s f o l l o w e d h e r e .
3
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Men., M a n n e r s , O p i n i o n s , T i m e s , e t c . , e d .
J o h n M. R o b e r t s o n ( L o n d o n : R i c h a r d s , 1 9 0 0 ) , I I , 9 7 - 9 8 .
4

Moore, Backgrounds o f E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , p. 76.

5
lbid., p. 59.-

6
I b i d . , p. 8,4.
7
I I I , 6 2 9 - 6 3 3 , The- P o e t i c a l W o r k s o f M a r k A k e n s i d e , e d . G e o r g e
G i l f i l l a n ( E d i n b u r g h : B a l l a n t y n e , 1 8 5 7 ) , p. 6 4 . Succeeding c i t a t i o n s
f r o m P o p e and T h o m s o n , u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , a r e t a k e n r e s p e c t i v e l y
f r o m The Poems o f A l e x a n d e r Pope,, e d . J o h n B u t t ( L o n d o n : M e t h u e n , 1 9 6 5 ) ,
a n d James Thomson: P o e t i c a l W o r k s , e d . J . L o g i e R o b e r t s o n ( L o n d o n :
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965).
\ 8
J. M. R o b e r t s o n , c i t e d b y M o o r e , p. 84.
9

M o o r e , p. 92.

^Ibid., p. 83.
1 X
T h e o v e r e m p h a s i z e d i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e p a i n t e r s was e s t a b -
l i s h e d a s a t r a d i t i o n l a r g e l y b y C h r i s t o p h e r H u s s e y (The P i c t u r e s q u e :
S t u d i e s i n a P o i n t o f V i e w , L o n d o n : P u t n a m , 1927) a n d E l i z a b e t h
Manwaring ( I t a l i a n Landscape i n E i g h t e e n t h Century. E n g l a n d : A Study
C h i e f l y o f t h e I n f l u e n c e o f C l a u d e L o r r a i n a n d S a l v a t o r R o s a on E n g l i s h
T a s t e 1700-1800, L o n d o n : Cass,. 1 9 6 5 ) , t h e c r i t i c s r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e
p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r a s m o s t p r o m i n e n t i n v i e w i n g Thomson's p o e t r y a s
cause r a t h e r than e f f e c t .
12
Manwaring, I t a l i a n Landscape i n E i g h t e e n t h Century England,
p . 1 0 2 ; H u s s e y ; The P i c t u r e s q u e , p . 4 1 .
13
M a n w a r i n g , p. 1 0 4 .
 142

14
H e n r y V. S. Ogden a n d M a r g a r e t S. O g d e n , . E n g l i s h T a s t e i n L a n d -
s c a p e i n t h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y (Ann A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n
P r e s s , 1955) , p. 5 7 .

"*"^Jean H a g s t r u m , The S i s t e r A r t s : The T r a d i t i o n o f L i t e r a r y

P i c t o r i a l i s m and E n g l i s h P d e t r y f r o m D r y d e n t o G r a y ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r -
s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 2 4 5 .

16
Hussey, pp. 19, 30.

•^Manwaring, p. 1 0 1 ; H u s s e y , p. 18.

18
Manwaring, p. 9 6 ; H u s s e y , p. 31.
19
Hagstrum, The S i s t e r A r t s , p. 243.

Hussey, p. 18.

2
^Manwaring, p. 4.

22
B. S p r a g u e A l l e n , T i d e s i n E n g l i s h T a s t e ( 1 6 1 9 - 1 8 0 0 ) : A B a c k -
g r o u n d f o r t h e S t u d y o f L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k : Rowman and L i t t l e f i e l d ,
1969), I I , 147-148.
2 3
I b i d . , p. 148.
24
M a t e r i a l on t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e n a t u r a l g a r d e n comes l a r g e l y
f r o m B. S p r a g u e A l l e n ( T i d e s i n E n g l i s h T a s t e , I I , 1 1 5 - 1 4 8 ) a n d N i k o l a u s
P e v s n e r ("The G e n e s i s o f t h e P i c t u r e s q u e , " The A r c h i t e c t u r a l R e v i e w ,
X C V I , November 1944,139-146).
25
C i t e d b y P e v s n e r , p. 1 4 0 .
26
A r t h u r 0. L o v e j o y , "The C h i n e s e O r i g i n o f a R o m a n t i c i s m , "
E s s a y s i n t h e H i s t o r y o f I d e a s (New Y o r k : P u t n a m , 1 9 6 0 ) , p. 1 1 1 .
27
C i t e d by P e v s n e r , p. 140.
28
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e d . J o h n M. R o b e r t s o n , I I , 125.
29
L u c r e t i u s : On t h e N a t u r e o f t h e U n i v e r s e , t r a n s . R o n a l d
L a t h a m ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n , 1 9 6 0 ) , p. 177.
30
C i t e d b y B a s i l W i l l e y , The E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y B a c k g r o u n d :
S t u d i e s on t h e I d e a o f N a t u r e i n t h e T h o u g h t o f t h e P e r i o d . ( B o s t o n :
B e a c o n , 1 9 6 1 ) , p. 29. "
31
A l l e n , T i d e s i n E n g l i s h T a s t e , I I , 123.
 143

32
S p e c t a t o r 414. Q u o t a t i o n s f r o m A d d i s o n , a r e f r o m A d d i s o n and
S t e e l e and Others,: The S p e c t a t o r , e d . G r e g o r y S m i t h , E v e r y m a n ' s L i b r a r y
(London: Dent, 1967).

33 •
P e v s n e r , "The G e n e s i s o f t h e P i c t u r e s q u e , " Architectural
R e v i e w , X C V I (November 1 9 4 4 ) , p . 142..

3 4
Ed. R. Lynam ( L o n d o n : 1 8 2 6 ) , I I , 291-292.-

35

P e v s n e r , p. 144.

"^Manwaring, p. 125.

3 7
Allen, I I , 125.
3
^ P e v s n e r , p. 146.

39
H a g s t r u m , p. 1 3 3 ; s e e a l s o C i c e l y D a v i e s , "Ut P i c t u r a P o e s i s , "
MLR, X X X . ( 1 9 3 5 ) , p. 159.
40
P e t e r C o a t s , G r e a t Gardens of B r i t a i n (London: Hamlyn, 1970),
p. 11.
41
T h e s e e x a m p l e s come f r o m M a n w a r i n g , p p . 1 2 7 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 8 .
42
The o p i n i o n o f W i l l i a m Combe i n 1 7 8 4 , c i t e d b y . A l a n D u g a l d
M c K i l l o p , E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e . f r o m D r y d e n t o B u r n s (New Y o r k : A p p l e t o n -
C e n t u r y - C f o f t s , 1 9 4 8 ) , p. 2 5 0 .
4 3
Allen, I I , 147.

44
Ibid., p. 144.
4 5
Ibid., p. 145.

46
D i s c o u r s e TV, D i s c o u r s e s o n A r t , e d . R o b e r t R. Wark (San
M a r i n o , C a l i f o r n i a : H u n t i n g d o n L i b r a r y , 1959), pp. 69-70.
47
. .Cited i n Manwaring, pp. 135, 127.

48
_ C i t e d i b i d . , p. 153.
49
Ibid.
" ^ C i t e d f r o m t h e M o n t h l y R e v i e w . ( 1 7 5 9 ) b y W i l l i a m D. T e m p l e m a n ,
The L i f e and Work, o f W i l l i a m G i l p i n (1724^-1804) : M a s t e r o f t h e P i c t u r -
e s q u e and V i c a r , o f B o l d r e , I l l i n o i s S t u d i e s i n L a n g u a g e and L i t e r a t u r e ,
X X I V , N o s . 3 and 4 ( U r b a n a : The U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1 9 3 9 ) ,
p. 225. Templeman's b o o k i s a m a i n s o u r c e f o r w h a t f o l l o w s on G i l p i n . '
 144

"^Templeman, L i f e a n d Work o f . G i l p i n , p . 1 2 8 .

52
C i t e d i n Templeman, p. 120. Further Dialogue citations paren-
thetically r e f e r to the

5 3
I b i d . , p. 123.
5 4 , .,
p. 130.
T
Ibid.,

5 5
Ibid., p. 126.

Ibid., p. 129.
5 7
T 7 H- Hippie,
Walter
esque i n E i g h t e e n t h - C e n t u r y B r i t i s h A e s t h e t i c Theory (Carbondale:
S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 7 ) , p. 188.

58
Quoted i n Templeman, p. 114.
59
Cited i n C a r l Paul B a r b i e r , W i l l i a m G i l p i n : H i s Drawings,
Teachings, and Theory o f t h e P i c t u r e s q u e ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1 9 6 3 ) ,
p. 9 8 . "
6 0
Ibid., pp. 98-99.

61
P a u l F r a n k l , The G o t h i c : L i t e r a r y S o u r c e s and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
Through E i g h t C e n t u r i e s ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1960),
p. 4 3 3 .
6 2
Life, p. 1 4 0 .

63
Barbier,. W i l l i a m G i l p i n , p. 98.
64
H i p p i e , The B e a u t i f u l , t h e S u b l i m e , and t h e P i c t u r e s q u e ,
p. 202.

6 5
Ibid., p . 210.

6 6
Ibid., p. 202.
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