Pabst FEMAfilterManual

FEMA Filter Manual - an Overview
Water flowing in eroded slot of 1.0 mm preformed hole is

specimen bottom has nearly full applied not eroded
pressure
Workshop No. 19
Feb. 22-23, 2012
Emmitsburg, MD
Thin skin at filter face has voids choked

with eroded debris.
Water seeping in voids just below choked filter

face is approximately at atmospheric pressure
US Army Corps of Engineers

BUILDING STRONG®
Filters for Embankment Dams -
Best Practices for Design and
Construction
 NDSP sponsored development of the
document
 Joint agency effort
2 BUILDING STRONG®
Primary Authors
 David Hammer, USACE (retired)
 Danny McCook, NRCS (retired)
 Mark Pabst, USACE and Reclamation
 Jim Talbot, NRCS (retired)
 Noah Vroman, USACE
3 BUILDING STRONG®
Chapters
1. Purpose and Theory of Filters
2. Types of Filters and Applications
3. Additional Applications
4. Laboratory Testing
5. Filter Design Procedure
6. Other Design Considerations
7. Construction
4 BUILDING STRONG®
Nomenclature
Narrowly graded = Uniformly graded = Poorly graded
Broadly graded = Widely graded = Well graded
5 BUILDING STRONG®
Nomenclature
OLD (Sherard)
d = base soil particle diameter
D = filter particle diameter
NEW
DxxY
D85B, D15F, D15E, etc.
6 BUILDING STRONG®
Nomenclature
NEW
DxxY
D85B, D15F, D15E, etc.
This was done to help in two stage filter

design where the filter of one stage is the
base of the other.
7 BUILDING STRONG®
Nomenclature
OLD
―Filter‖ and ―Drain‖
Historically used interchangeably as nouns and
verbs.
NEW
Filter = first stage
Drain = second stage
8 BUILDING STRONG®
Chapters
7. Construction
9 BUILDING STRONG®
1. Purpose and Theory
 50% of dam failures are related to

seepage.
 Filters prevent particle movement (piping).
 Filters are protective elements.
 Cost, constructability, and reliability go
hand-in-hand in providing an economically
safe structure.
10 BUILDING STRONG®
Chapters
7. Construction
2. Types of Filters & Applications
 New Dams
 Existing Dams
Slope protection
Chimney filter
Blanket filter
Toe drain
New Dam
Existing Dam
Existing Dam
Slope protection
H
Stability berm
> H2
Chimney filter
Embankment Dam Design Elements (zones)

Impervious
core
Transition zone Chimney drain
Riprap and bedding Chimney filter
Downstream shell
Impervious Upstream
blanket shell Seepage stability berm
Cutoff
trench
Blanket Drainage ditch
Cutoff wall Toe Relief well
Trench drain Drain
filter trench
Appurtenant Structures
 Conduit Filter Diaphragms
 Filters Adjacent to Concrete Structures
Cutoff collars should NOT be used
Embankment/Concrete Dam Interface <new>
Filter protection of spillway chute walls
Blankets (lower 1st stage)
Blankets (middle 2nd stage)
Blankets (upper 1st stage)
Toe Drains – vertical trench
Toe Drains – trapezoidal trench
Toe Drains – 1 stage vs. 2 stage
Existing toe drains <new>
Existing toe drains
Existing toe drains
Existing toe drains
Existing toe drains
Recommendations – 1/2
 New dams – Conduit filter diaphragms are
required regardless of height, site conditions, or
hazard classification.
 Full filter protection is recommended for all
significant to high hazard dams.
 Cost should not be the basis for eliminating filter
protection in small dams.
 When modifying existing dams, filter protection
is only added for identified deficiencies.
Recommendations - 2/2
 Collection of seepage on pervious foundations
should not be underestimated.
 Existing dams with large amounts of seepage
can be made worse by adding a filter that blocks
flow in more pervious foundation layers.
 Relief wells clog with time, resulting in
diminished effectiveness. Maintenance is
required.
Clay tile and metal pipes should not be used for drains.
Chapters
7. Construction
Abandonment of Old Drains and Grouting

 Abandoned old drains need to be addressed.
 As a minimum, plug the ends.
 When grouting, do not fracture the dam.
Adding Filter Protection to Existing Conduits
 Unacceptable methods of adding filter

under conduits.
 Removal and replacement of conduit
section for filter installation.
Location of Filter Around Conduit
Location of Filter Around Conduit
Minimum Dimensions for Filters Added to

Existing Conduits
 Differs from the FEMA Conduit Manual
Geotextiles in Embankment Dams
 Technical Evaluation of Geotextiles
Limitations of Geotextile Fabrics
Coarse
drainfill on
downstream
side of
geotextile
provides wide
spacing of
contact points
Soil Discharge Face on soil
discharge face
Geotextiles in Embankment Dams
 The supported face concept is introduced

 Historical use of geotextiles in earth dam
construction
Recommendations
 Due to issues with clogging, geotextiles should
only be used in noncritical areas of embankment
dams.
 Existing drains, when abandoned, must be
sealed to prevent the chance of any material
eroding into (them) . . .
Chapters
7. Construction
Two Parts to this Chapter
 Particle Retention
 Material Quality
Particle Retention
Quality
 Sample Size per ASTM
Maximum size of Minimum sample
aggregate Minimum sample size size
(mm) (kilograms) (pounds)
Fine aggregate
2.36 mm (No. 8 sieve) 10 22

4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve) 10 22
Coarse aggregate
9.5 mm (3/8 inch) 10 22
12.5 mm (1/2 inch) 15 33
19.0 mm (3/4 inch) 25 55
25.0 mm (1 inch) 50 110
37.5 mm (1.5 inches) 75 165
50 mm (2 inches) 100 220
Quality
 Soundness Test
 Test for Plasticity (PI)
 Sand Equivalent Test
 Petrographic Analysis
 Vaughan Test for Cohesion (Sand Castle Test)
 Compressive Strength Test
Quality
 Sand Equivalent Test
Sandheigth/Clayheight x 100 = SEV
SEV > 80
Quality
 Sand Castle
Test
Quality
 Modified Sand Castle Test

Dry (cure) at 120°F
Modified Sand Castle and SEV show

promise of detecting cementing not picked
up by the PI test.
Recommendations 1/2
 Plasticity of fines should always be measured
using ASTM D4318.
 When quality is suspect, self-healing potential
should be measured using Modified Sand Castle
and/or Compressive Strength Tests.
 Quality requirements for filters should be
specified using test results and not qualitative
statements.
Recommendations – 2/2
 Due to material quality issues, aggregate
obtained from concrete recycling operations
should never be used for filter or drain material
in embankment dams.
Reclamation has a Crack Box study underway -

stay tuned for more developments
Chapters
7. Construction
How do What are

you select the final
the base gradation
soil limits?
gradation?
Base Soil Selection
 Base Soil Variability
Core
Foundation
Base Soil Selection
 Geologic Interpretation
Gradation data shows there‘s no difference

between the layers.
Base Soil Selection
 Geologic Interpretation
Gradation data shows theirs is a difference

between the layers.
Base Soil Selection
 Undifferentiated
Units
―Alluvium‖
Base Soil Selection
 Undifferentiated
Units
Q: What is Alluvium?
A: Alluvium is material deposited by

creeks, rivers or other swiftly flowing water.
It is NOT sand and gravel.

Base Soil Selection
 Outliers and Sampling Errors
Outlier
Base Soil Selection
 Filter Barriers
Base Soil Selection
 Base Soil Selection Flowcharts
In Situ Soils
Earthfill
Regrading
 Mathematical ‗scalping‘ on the No. 4 sieve.

 Corrects for internal instability.
 Probably the single most common mistake in filter
design.
Regrading
 Incorrect
Regrading
 Correct
Regrading
Regrading
Step 2a No Step 4
- Base soil contains gravel. - Place the base soil in a category based on
the % passing No. 200 sieve in accordance with
Yes
the base soil category's table.
Step 2b
- Base soil contains less than 15% fines.
- Base soil is not gap graded. All
yes
- Base soil is not broadly graded (i.e.,
Cu not > 6 and Cz not between 1 and 3).
One or more are no
Step 3
- Prepare adjusted gradation curves by:
a. Obtain a correction factor by dividing 100
by % passing No. 4 sieve size.
b. Multiply the % passing each sieve size of the
base soil < No. 4 by the correction factor.
c. Plot the regraded curve.
d. Use regraded curve to find % passing No. 200.
Base Soil Categories
Percent finer than No. 200

sieve (0.075 mm) (after
Base soil regrading where
category applicable) Base soil description
1 > 85
Fine silts and clays
2 40 – 85
Sands, silts, clays, and silty sands
3 15 – 39
Silty and clayey sands and gravels
4 < 15
Sands and gravels
Note: mm = millimeter
Filtering Criteria
Base soil category Filtering – Maximum D15F

The maximum D15F should be ≤ 9 x D85B, but not less than 0.2 mm, unless
the soils are dispersive. Dispersive soils require a maximum D15F that is ≤
1
6.5 x D85B size, but not less than 0.2 mm.
The maximum D15F should be ≤ 0.7 mm unless soil is dispersive, in which

2 case the maximum D15F should be < 0.5 mm.
For nondispersive soils, the maximum D15F should be:

 40  A 
  4xD85 B  0.7mm * + 0.7mm*
 40  15
where:
3
A = Percent passing No. 200 sieve.
When 4 x D85B is less than 0.7 mm*, use 0.7 mm*
* - For dispersive soils, use 0.5 mm instead of 0.7 mm.

4 The maximum D15F should be ≤ 4 x D85B of base soil after regrading.
Filtering Criteria Control Points
Filter Gradation Limits
• Horizontal Method
• Vertical Method
Limit Fines Content and Oversize
Base soil category Maximum D100F Minimum D5F
ALL categories ≤ 2 inches 0.075 mm

(51 mm) (No. 200 sieve)
Limit Segregation
If D10F is: Then, maximum D90F is:

Base soil category (mm) (mm)
< 0.5 20
0.5 – 1.0 25
1.0 – 2.0 30
ALL categories 2.0 – 5.0 40
5.0 – 10 50
> 10 60
Determine the Gradation Band within the Control
Points
Four Examples
1. Particle Retention Filter

2. Drainage Filter
3. Transition Filter
4. C-33 Concrete Sand
Points
Particle
Retention
Filter
Points
Drainage
Filter
Points
Transition
Zone
Points
C-33,
concrete
sand
Chapters
7. Construction
Critical Gradient
Increasing
piping
potential
 More complicated
than i > 1.
Decreasing
piping
potential
Chimney Dimensions
Chimney Dimensions
Filter Thickness
Width – feet
Slope 16 9 6 5 3
1:1 11.7 6.6 4.4 3.6 2.2
2:1 7.5 4.2 2.8 2.3 1.4
3:1 5.1 2.9 1.9 1.6 1.0
4:1 3.8 2.2 1.4 1.2 0.7
Chimney Dimensions
Identifying & Investigating Material Availability
Vertical Face is
Required for
Examination
Sand
Gravel
Cobble
Trench
Boulders
Spoil pile
 Cost Comparison for Imported versus Onsite

Materials
 Lack of Suitable Clean Materials
 Production Plants for Filter Materials
 Commonly Available Filter Materials
Sieve size Percent passing, by weight
3/8-inch 100
No. 4 95-100
No. 8 80-100
No. 16 50-85
No. 30 25-60
No. 50 5-30
No. 100 0-10
No. 2001 0-22
1 Requirement beyond the ASTM C33 designation.
2 Two percent stockpile, 5 percent in-place.
 Commonly Available Filter Materials
Sieve size Blend 5791 No. 8 No. 89
2 inches — — —
1½ inches 100 — —
1 inch 90-100 — —
¾ inch 75-85 — —
½ inch — 100 100
3/8 inch 45-60 85-100 90-100
No. 4 20-35 10-30 20-55
No. 8 5-15 0-10 5-30
No. 16 0-5 0-5 0-10
No. 50 — — 0-5
1 This gradation is a blend, in equal parts, of gradation Nos. 5, 7, and 9. It is
not an ASTM standard aggregate.
Recommendations
 Inclined Chimneys should be > 5‘ wide.
 Vertical Chimneys should be > 3‘ wide.
 Blankets should be > 18‖ thick.
 When designing drainage elements on coarse
foundations, the best understanding of
foundation conditions will not be available until
after excavation.
Chapters
7. Construction
7. Construction
Construction of Inclined Chimneys
7. Construction
Construction of Inclined Chimneys
7. Construction
Construction of Vertical Chimneys
7. Construction
7. Construction
7. Construction
Manufacture and Storage

 Segregation
Front to Back
or
Belt Segregation

7. Construction
Manufacture and Storage

 Segregation
Roll Down
Segregation

7. Construction
Hauling and Dumping
Chimney
Crossing

7. Construction
Hauling and Dumping
Belly
Dump

7. Construction
Spreading
Blading

7. Construction
Spreading
Spreader
Box

7. Construction
Spreading
Double
Bin
Spreader
Box

7. Construction
Spreading
Dumping
into
Spreader
Box

7. Construction
Spreading
Towing
Spreader
Box

7. Construction
Spreading
Towing
Spreader
Box

7. Construction
Spreading
Truck
Mounted
Conveyor

7. Construction
Compaction Moisture Requirements

 Previously, recommended to water right in front
of the roller.
 This results in ‗bulking‘ which limits densification.
 Vibratory compaction overcomes ‗bulking‘.
 Moistened sand segregates less.
 Permeability and self healing are more important
than density.
7. Construction
Bulking

7. Construction
Compaction Specification
 Minimum 70% relative density.
 Per ASTM D4253 and D4254.

7. Construction
Field Compaction
 Vibratory Compactors.
 Compactor Operation.
 Compaction of Contacts with Adjacent Materials.

7. Construction
Field Compaction

7. Construction
Protecting Placed Fill

7. Construction
Protecting Placed Fill

7. Construction
Removing an Equipment Crossing

7. Construction
Geomembrane Protection at Equipment Crossing

7. Construction
Damage to Pipes
 Compaction by ‗bucket thumping‘.
 Wheel rolling.
 Haunches not backfilled.
 Equipment crossings without sufficient cover.

7. Construction
Field Testing - Density

 Sand cone test.
 Nuclear moisture-density meter.
 Frequency of testing.

7. Construction
Lab Testing - Density

 Relative Density.
 Vibratory Hammer.
 Proctor Maximum Density.

Narrow Toe Drain

Narrow Toe Drain
During refilling, cloudy discharge was seen coming

from the new drain.
Silt and sand appear in the sedimentation traps.
A forensic investigation was undertaken.

Narrow Toe Drain

Narrow Toe Drain
Missing Filter

Narrow Toe Drain
Fnd soil pipes

into gravel drain

Narrow Toe Drain
Fnd soil enters

pipe

Narrow Toe Drain
Trench is
Trench sides too deep
are too steep for this
Filter width
too
Drain too
narrow*
narrow*
* Too many zones for this width Trench width is

too narrow

Filter Design Standard Revisions
Reclamation – Release, Spring 2012.
NRCS – Release, Spring 2013.
USACE – No plans.

Some think the glass is half empty
others, half full.
Engineers wonder why the correct
size glass wasn’t used.
Questions? BUILDING STRONG®

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FEMA Filter Manual - an Overview

Water flowing in eroded slot of 1.0 mm preformed hole is

Feb. 22-23, 2012

Thin skin at filter face has voids choked

Water seeping in voids just below choked filter

US Army Corps of Engineers

Narrowly graded = Uniformly graded = Poorly graded

Broadly graded = Widely graded = Well graded

This was done to help in two stage filter

 50% of dam failures are related to

Embankment Dam Design Elements (zones)

Toe Drains – 1 stage vs. 2 stage

Abandonment of Old Drains and Grouting

Adding Filter Protection to Existing Conduits

 Unacceptable methods of adding filter

Location of Filter Around Conduit

Location of Filter Around Conduit

Minimum Dimensions for Filters Added to

Limitations of Geotextile Fabrics

Geotextiles in Embankment Dams

 The supported face concept is introduced

Two Parts to this Chapter

2.36 mm (No. 8 sieve) 10 22

 Sand Equivalent Test

Sandheigth/Clayheight x 100 = SEV

 Modified Sand Castle Test

Modified Sand Castle and SEV show

Reclamation has a Crack Box study underway -

How do What are

Gradation data shows there‘s no difference

Gradation data shows theirs is a difference

A: Alluvium is material deposited by

It is NOT sand and gravel.

 Mathematical ‗scalping‘ on the No. 4 sieve.

One or more are no

Percent finer than No. 200

Base soil category Filtering – Maximum D15F

The maximum D15F should be ≤ 0.7 mm unless soil is dispersive, in which

For nondispersive soils, the maximum D15F should be:

When 4 x D85B is less than 0.7 mm*, use 0.7 mm*

* - For dispersive soils, use 0.5 mm instead of 0.7 mm.

Filter Gradation Limits

Limit Fines Content and Oversize

Base soil category Maximum D100F Minimum D5F

ALL categories ≤ 2 inches 0.075 mm

If D10F is: Then, maximum D90F is:

1. Particle Retention Filter

 Cost Comparison for Imported versus Onsite

Construction of Inclined Chimneys

Construction of Inclined Chimneys

Construction of Vertical Chimneys

Construction of Vertical Chimneys

Construction of Vertical Chimneys

Manufacture and Storage

100 BUILDING STRONG®

Manufacture and Storage

101 BUILDING STRONG®

Hauling and Dumping

102 BUILDING STRONG®

Hauling and Dumping

103 BUILDING STRONG®

104 BUILDING STRONG®

105 BUILDING STRONG®

106 BUILDING STRONG®

When 4 x D85B is less than 0.7 mm, use 0.7 mm