FLUVIAL MORPHOLOGY
Fluvial morphology definition: It derives from fluvious (river) and morphology (study of
structure).
Newson and Sear (1998) define fluvial geomorphology as- the science that seeks to investigate
the complexity of behaviour of river channels at a range of scales from cross sections to
catchments; it also seeks to investigate the range of processes and responses over a very long
timescale but usually within the most recent climatic cycle.
Graf (1988) defined- Geomorphology is the study of Earth surface forms and processes; fluvial
phenomena those related to running water.
Kruska and Lamarra (1973) defined as- Fluvial geomorphology has as its object of study not
only individual channels but also the entire drainage system.
migration on a flood plain represents a constant threat to property and structures located in or
near the channel. Various human-caused and natural disturbances introduce additional instability
to which rivers and streams adjust. Human-caused disturbances include reservoirs,
channelization, in-channel sand and gravel extraction, and urbanization. A common natural
disturbance is a flood. Possible geomorphic responses of a channel to disturbances include
channel-bed degradation (erosion), channel-bed aggradation (deposition of material), channel
widening, and channel straightening. These adjustments represent the channel’s attempt to
establish a new approximate equilibrium condition.
i. Straight channel pattern: Straight channels are seldom straight for long distance and
there is usually an implication of the effect of initially steep slopes on homogenous rocks
(Leopold et al. 1964).
ii. Braided channel pattern: Braided channel is the one that has developed in several
channels that successfully meet and re-divided (Leopold et al., 1964). Braided river consist
of two or more channel divided by bars or islands, lead one channel being dominated
(David, 1984). For example, Yamuna River.
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iii. Meandering channel pattern: A bend or curve in the course of river is called a meanders.
River will bend by any kind of obstacles such as hard rock or pebble. Larger river has larger
meanders and vice versa.
3. Meandering channel:
i. River winds from side to side.
ii. River flows over loose silt and clay.
iii. The banks are fairly stable.
iv. The river starts to wind due to irregularities in the channel.
v. Lateral shifting takes place.
vi. Fastest flow speeds occur on the outer bank resulting in erosion
vii. Slowest flow occurs on the inner bank slope resulting in deposition
Identification of Yamuna River Pattern: Yamuna is the sub-basin of the Ganga river system. It
is the largest tributary of the River Ganga. Considering its characteristics, it can be concluded that
it falls under the ‘braided channel pattern’ of stream channel pattern classification. The following
characteristics can be comprehended for the identification.
Identification Characteristics:
According to Sharma and Kansal (2013), The Yamuna river is dissected at 5 barrages
during its course i.e. at Dak Patthar (near Uttaranchal); at Hathnikund (near Haryana); at
Wazirabad (near Delhi), at Okhla (near Delhi); and at Mathura (near Uttarpradesh). It has
other barrages and small rocky formation too.
Apart from that, in Bangladesh, the Yamuna River has several barrages and islands at
Manikganj, Tangail, Jamalpur etc.
This is basic feature of a braided channel according to Leopold et al. (1964).
There are several sub-flow of Yamuna such as- Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken, Hindan, Rind,
Senger, Varuna etc. Having sub-flow is a feature of braided river channel according to
David (1984).
According to Chaudhary (2016), there is sedimentation and TOC (total carbonic organ) in
the Yamuna river that influences the river depth to become shallower. It’s also a feature of
braided river channel.
From the above characteristics mentioned by different authors, it can be concluded that the
Yamuna River is a braided river channel.
ii. Tista river has carved out ravines and gorges in Sikkim meandering;
consequently it is surrounded by rocky band formed near ravines and
meanderings; which is a feature of straight channel.
iii. Due to the existence of gorges (canyon) it has steep slopes at some points; it
is also an important feature of straight channel.
From the above characteristics mentioned by different authors, it can be concluded that the Tista
River is a straight river channel.
Drainage Pattern: According to the University of Wisconsin, A drainage basin is any area of
land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or
other body of water. Drainage patterns are configuration of drainage basin formed by the streams,
rivers and lakes in a particular drainage basin. They are governed by the topography of the land
whether a particular region is dominated by hard or soft rocks and gradient of land.
Channel Process: A river has the potential both to scour material from its bed and banks and to
transport material which has been brought into the reach from upstream and accumulate them at
some points as well; altogether these processes are called channel process. A river has 3 types of
channel processes; transportation, erosion, deposition.
Types of erosional feature: River can erode by mechanical and chemical process. Erosional work
of a river consist of various activities. Those are-
Picking up the load
Transportation of the load
Along the river bed
In solution (within the river)
In suspension (above the river)
Gradation
Pebble grounding
Mechanical
Vertical (down cutting)
Lateral (side cutting)
Chemical
Some other features:
Abrasion (rubbing of materials)
Hydraulic Action (due to hydraulic energy)
Corrosion (acidified dissolving of particles)
Attrition (reduction of material size)
Erosional Landform: Valleys, canyon, gorge, waterfall, rapid, v shape/u shape valley etc.
Consequences of River Bank Erosion in Bangladesh:
Impacts of River Bank Erosion:
Social Impact (Homelessness, Migration, Identity Crisis)
Economic Impact (Loss of Productive Land, Loss of Employment, Risk of Poverty)
Other Impact (Health Damage, Criminal Activities, Building Collapse)
River Bank Erosion Losses in Bangladesh:
It is estimated that about 5% of the total FLOODPLAIN of Bangladesh is directly affected
by erosion.
Bank erosion is taking place in about 94 upazilas of the country.
At present, bank erosion and FLOOD hazards in nearly 100 upazilas have become almost
a regular feature. Of these, 35 are severely affected.
Building sloping down due to river bank erosion.
Vulnerable Rivers: According to Banglapedia, The following rivers are vulnerable for bank
erosion.
• Jamuna
• Ganga
• Padma
• Brahmaputra
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FLOOD
Definition of flood: A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. The
European Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally
covered by water. According to Oxford dictionary of geography, flood occurs when peak discharge
exceeds channel capacity.
Types of Flood:
1. Flash flood (a sudden local flood, typically due to heavy rain.)
2. Monsoon flood (due to monsoon wind and raining)
3. Tidal flood in coastal region (temporary inundation of low-lying area during exceptionally
high tide events, such as at full and new moons)
4. Storm surge flood in coastal area (a rising of the sea as a result of wind and atmospheric
pressure changes associated with a storm)
5. Urban flood (the inundation of land or property in a built environment, particularly in
more densely populated areas, caused by rainfall overwhelming the capacity of drainage
systems)
6. Manmade flood (frozen pipes, damaged sewerage system etc.)
Causes of flood:
1. Climatic Cause
i. Rapid action of depression
ii. High rainfall intensity
iii. Excess runoff in drainage basin due to heavy rainfall
iv. Excess flow in river due to ice melting
2. Geomorphological Cause
i. Simultaneous runoff in main rivers
ii. Slope
iii. Low land
iv. Drainage pattern
v. Relief
3. Geological Cause
i. Earthquake
ii. Low gradient of river
iii. Point bars development in river channel
iv. Delta formation on estuary
4. Marine (Oceanic) Cause
i. Sea level change
ii. Storm surge
iii. Tidal surge
iv. Cyclonic effect
v. Tsunami backwater effect
5. Manmade Cause
i. Deforestation
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Consequences of flood:
1. Primary effect
i. Death and injury of people
ii. Damage and destruction of infrastructure
iii. Loss of livestock, damage of crops, fisheries and irrigation project
iv. Damage of vegetation coverage
2. Secondary effect
i. Homelessness
ii. Hunger
iii. Waterborne diseases
iv. Infectious diseases
Benefit of flood:
1. Carry nutrient for soil
2. Increase soil fertility
3. Organism relocation and improved ecology
4. Provide necessary infiltration to water table
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SEDIMENT LOAD
Sediment load: Sediment load means the sediment carried by the river, ice or sea (Phillip, 2003).
Load may be in solution, suspension or along the river bed.
Classification of load:
1. Dissolved load: Carried in the solution of river rather than the river bed. Proportion varies
according to the chemical properties of the rock.
2. Solid debris load: Debris is the fragmented materials from the rock or inorganic materials.
They are carried within the river through rolling, bouncing and sliding.
1. Suspended solid:
Transported at some distance from the bed (R.J. Russell, 2003).
Carried by both laminar and turbulate flow.
200 tons/mile in a year in earth’s surface.
2. Bed Solid:
Particle transported close to the bed (R.J. Russell, 2003).
The coarser the particles are, the more energy flow required.
Delta: According to Oxford dictionary of geography, delta us a low lying area found at the mouth
of a river and formed of deposits of alluvium/silt.
Role of sedimentation in delta formation: When a river reaches a lake or the sea the water slows
down and loses the power to carry sediment Larry. The sediment is dropped at the mouth of the
river. Some rivers drop so much sediment that waves and tides can't carry it all away. It builds up
in layers forming a delta. Some deltas are so large that people can live on them. The Nile delta is
a very important farming area in Egypt.
According to Syvitski et al. (1988), there are four processes of sedimentation that influences the
delta formation procedures. E.g.-
(1) Bed load dumping at the river mouth, the main transition point for hydraulic conditions.
(2) Sedimentation under the seaward flowing river plume that carries the suspended load.
(3) Sediment bypassing processes, such as turbidity currents, that are a result of delta-foreset
failure.
(4) Diffusion processes, such as tides, waves, creep, and small slides, that work to smear
sediment downslope.
Delta formation Process:
1. Progressing forward advancing process
2. Aggradation and degradation process
3. Transgressing process
HYDRAULIC GEOMETRY
Hydraulic geometry: An expression introduced by Leopold and Maddock (1953) to describe
the hydraulic characteristics of stream channel. Mean velocity, mean depth and mean width of
flowing water are considered to be the function of discharge at given time and space.
There are equations related hydraulic geometry.
According to Oxford dictionary of geography, hydraulic geometry is the study of
interrelationship exhibited along the course of a river.
Here,
v=mean velocity
v= kQm d=mean depth
d= cQf Q=discharge
w= aQb w=mean width
a/m/c/f/b=numerical coefficient
• Local planners should consider recharge areas when making land use planning decisions that
could reduce recharge or pose a risk to groundwater quality.
• Irrigation water price should be determined as a rule on volumetric basis in order to meet equity,
efficiency and economic principles
• Modern water management technology like alternate wetting and drying (AWD), water saving
technology, climate change adaptive technology would bear no value without carrying out
irrigation volumetrically
• National Sustainable Development Strategies by the government is a good effort to achieve
sustainability in all developmental activities
• Awareness campaign and advocacy on sustainable water management concepts
4. Changes in Wetland areas during the dry period: 300 sq. km area decreased.
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HYDROGRAPH
Hydrograph: Hydrograph is defined in Oxford dictionary of geography as- a graph of discharge,
or a level of water in a river throughout a period of time.
In hydrograph, x axis is used for plotting the time while y axis for discharge, runoff, infiltration or
precipitation.
Example:
Time (days) Flow(m3) Time (days) Flow(m3)
14 411 20 100
15 358 21 83
16 250 22 70
17 192 23 58
18 151 24 49
19 122 25 41
Hydrograph
450
400
350
Flow (cubic meter)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time (days)
Application/use of hydrograph:
According to J.R. Reddy, there are following applications of hydrograph.
1. Development of flood hydrograph (for storm design, for hydraulic structure)
2. Watershed simulation model
3. Flood forecasting and flood warning
4. Flood flow records and rainfall records
Apart from that, it is used for measuring runoff and other discharges and showing their
relationships with time.
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REYNOLDS NUMBER
The Reynolds Number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and consequently
quantifies the relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow conditions. In a word,
a dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to indicate whether fluid flow past a body or in a
duct is steady (laminar) or turbulent. It’s given by Reynolds in 1883.
Factors of Reynolds number: According to Oxford dictionary of geography, there are 4 factors
to determine whether the flow of a channel within a channel is turbulent or laminar. These are-
1. Density of water
2. Velocity of water
3. Viscosity of water
4. Hydraulic radius of the channel
𝑉𝑅
Re = Here,
𝜇
Re= Reynolds number
V= Velocity of liquid
R= Hydraulic radius
µ= Viscosity of liquid
Use of Reynolds number:
1. For dynamic analysis of fluid
2. For determining whether a flow is laminar or turbulent.
3. High Reynolds number indicate turbulent, which indicates the instability and chaos.
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FROUDE NUMBER
The Froude Number is a dimensionless term to describe the flow condition of a stream.
According to Oxford dictionary of geography it is the ratio of viscosity and celerity; where celerity
is a product of gravity and mean depth of flow. Given by Froude in 1861.
Factors of Froude number:
1. Viscosity
2. Celerity
3. Gravity
4. Depth
Equation of Froude number: The equation is described by Oxford dictionary as follows-
𝑣
𝐹𝑟 = Here,
√(𝑔𝑑)
Fr= Froude number, with a value of less than 1
v= viscosity of fluid
g= gravity
d= mean depth of the fluid