GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS FOR EM BANKM ENT D A M S

EXPLO RATIO N S G E O T EC H N IQ U E S POUR D IG U ES

A.L. LITTLE, B. Sc. (Eng.), F.I.C.E.

Soil Mechanics Consultant to Messrs. Binnie & Partners, London, England.

S Y N O P SIS C o n v e n tio n a l s ite in v e s tig a t io n m e t h o d s , in c lu d in g g e o p h y s ic a l m e t h o d s , a r e in a d eq u a te f o r

e m b a n k m e n t d a m s . T h e p a p e r d is c u s s e s t h e ir s h o r t c o m in g s and r e c o m m e n d s that g e o t e c h n ic a l in v e s tig a t io n s
f o r e m b a n k m e n t d a m s be d iv id e d in to th r e e p a r t s : P r e lim in a r y , D e s ig n and C o n s t r u c t io n . T h e e m p h a s is in
e a c h s ta g e is on d if f e r e n t a s p e c t s but the in v e s tig a t io n ca n n ot b e c o n s i d e r e d a s c o m p le t e d u n til c o n s t r u c t io n
is a l s o f in is h e d . G e o lo g ic a l in v e s t ig a t io n s c o n s titu te an im p o r t a n t p a r t o f the w h o le .

IN T R O D U C T IO N

E m b a n k m e n t d a m s a r e the la r g e s t and m o s t e x p e n s ­
iv e s t r u c t u r e s b u ilt b y m a n . M a n g la d a m , c o m p l e t ­
e d in 1967, co n ta in s 83 M c u . y d s . o f f i l l and c o s t
£ M 3 5 ; T a r b e la d a m , n ow u n d e r c o n s t r u c t io n w ill
co n ta in 175 M c u . y d s . and is e s tim a te d to c o s t
£ M 8 5 . U tm o s t e c o n o m y o f d e s ig n and c o n s t r u c t io n
a r e e s s e n t ia l w h ils t , a t the s a m e tim e , s in c e
fa ilu r e h as s u ch f a r r e a c h in g e f f e c t s , s a fe t y is o f
o v e r r i d i n g im p o r t a n c e . C o n s e q u e n tly , the c l o s e s t
in v e s tig a t io n is r e q u ir e d o f d e t a ils o f g e o lo g y and
o th e r s ite f e a t u r e s w h ich m ig h t, in a l e s s e r
s tr u c t u r e b e o f lit tle im p o r t a n c e . E x p e r ie n c e h as
show n that the c o n v e n t io n a l s ite in v e s tig a t io n in v o lv ­
in g b o r in g and "u n d is t u r b e d " s a m p lin g is in a d eq u a te
f o r e m b a n k m e n t d a m s . T h is p a p e r c o n s i d e r s s o m e
o f the s h o r t c o m in g s o f p a s t in v e s t ig a t io n s and
m a k e s s u g g e s tio n s f o r an id e a l a r r a n g e m e n t .
P U R P O S E O F S IT E IN V E S T IG A T IO N
F o r a n y s t r u c t u r e , the p u r p o s e o f the s ite in v e s t ­
ig a t io n is to p r o v id e in fo r m a t io n on the g e o lo g y and
e n g in e e r in g p r o p e r t i e s o f the g rou n d f o r d e s ig n and
c o n s t r u c t io n . So f a r a s e m b a n k m e n t d a m s a r e
a ff e c t e d , th e s e a r e g e o lo g i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f
s tr a t a , s tre n g th , c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and c o n s o lid a t io n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p e r m e a b ilit y , u se a s c o n s t r u c t io n
m a t e r ia l. It is n e c e s s a r y to in v e s tig a t e the s tre n g th
and p e r m e a b ilit y o f the fo u n d a tio n s in f a i r l y s o p h is ­
t ic a te d t e r m s e n ta ilin g a d e t a ile d c o n s id e r a t io n o f
the e f f e c t o f s t r a t ifi c a t io n and o f l o c a l g e o lo g i c a l
v a r ia t io n and to e v a lu a te the q u a lity and q u a n tity o f
a v a ila b le f i l l m a t e r i a l s . T h e in v e s tig a t io n sh ou ld
a ls o be o r ie n ta t e d to d i s c l o s e h a z a r d s lik e ly d u rin g
c o n s t r u c t io n s u c h a s in s t a b ilit y o f t e m p o r a r y
e x c a v a t io n s .
C o n s id e r a t io n s o f r e s e r v o i r w a te r t ig h tn e s s a r e
c o n fin e d to the d a m s i t e .
S T A G E S O F S IT E IN V E S T IG A T IO N
Id e a lly , an in v e s tig a t io n c o n s i s t s o f th re e s t a g e s :
I P r e lim in a r y . T h e g e n e r a l fe a t u r e s o f the
s ite a r e e s t a b lis h e d ; e x is t in g g e o lo g i c a l
in fo r m a tio n is c o l l e c t e d and , a s f a r a s
p o s s i b l e , c h e c k e d on s it e . P r o b a b le b o r r o w
a r e a s and o t h e r m a t e r ia ls s o u r c e s a r e
lo c a t e d . A t th is s ta g e a lim it e d n u m b e r o f
b o r e h o l e s / d r i l l h o l e s m a y be s u ffic ie n t ,
s u p p le m e n te d b y a fe w t e s t p its in b o r r o w
a r e a s . S o m e la b o r a t o r y t e s t s w ill be
r e q u ir e d on f i l l m a t e r ia ls and p o s s ib ly on
fo u n d a tio n s a m p le s a s w e ll.
G e o p h y s ic a l m e th o d s o f in v e s tig a t io n ( e . g .
s e i s m i c r e f r a c t io n s tu d ie s to d e t e r m in e
d ep th s to b e d r o c k ) a r e s o m e t im e s a d v o c a t e d
f o r th is s t a g e . P e r h a p s the a u t h o r 's e x p e r ­
ie n c e h as b e e n u n fortu n a te but ou t o f e ig h t
g e o p h y s ic a l s u r v e y s at d a m s it e s o f w h ic h he
h as k n o w le d g e , o n ly th r e e h av e b e e n s u c c e s s ­
fu l o r p a r t ia lly s u c c e s s f u l . It is h is o p in io n
that g e o p h y s ic a l s u r v e y s d o n ot a t p r e s e n t
g iv e in fo r m a t io n in s u f f ic ie n t d e t a il to be
u s e fu l f o r th is ty p e o f in v e s t ig a t io n .
A t the en d o f the P r e lim in a r y s ta g e it is
c o m m o n to p r o d u c e a f e a s ib ili t y r e p o r t on
the w h o le p r o je c t .
II D e s ig n . F o r th is s ta g e m u ch m o r e in fo r m *
a tio n w ill b e r e q u ir e d on fou n d a tio n c o n d it io n s
and on b e h a v io u r and a v a ila b le q u a n titie s o f
f i l l m a t e r ia ls . P it s w ill b e n e c e s s a r y in the
fo u n d a tio n o f the d a m w ith b lo c k s a m p le s . A n
in te n s iv e g e o l o g i c a l in v e s tig a t io n o f the d a m
s ite a r e a w ill be n e c e s s a r y t o g e t h e r w ith
f a i r l y d e t a ile d c o n s id e r a t io n o f the r e g io n a l

301
 LITTLE and STRUCT
g e o lo g y . M o r e la b o r a t o r y te s te w ill be
r e q u ir e d on f i l l m a t e r ia ls and a c a r e f u l a s s ­
e s s m e n t o f the q u a n titie s a v a ila b le . D e p e n d ­
in g on the n a tu re o f the d e p o s it , m o r e
m a t e r ia l sh ou ld be " p r o v e d " than is r e q u ir e d
f o r the d a m .
Ill C o n s t r u c t io n . In the a u t h o r 's e x p e r ie n c e , no
e m b a n k m e n t d a m h as b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d w ith ou t
c h a n g e s , s o m e t im e s r a d ic a l c h a n g e s , in the
d e s ig n . T h e s e c h a n g e s a r e u s u a lly due e it h e r
to in s u f fic ie n c y o f b o r r o w m a t e r ia l o f the kind
e x p e c te d o r w e a k n e s s e s in the fo u n d a tio n u n ­
d i s c l o s e d b y the p r e v io u s in v e s t ig a t io n s . He
b e lie v e s that this is the c o m m o n e x p e r ie n c e
in d a m b u ild in g and that c o n s t r u c t io n u s u a lly
e x p o s e s s h o r t c o m in g s in d e s ig n . O c c a s io n a lly
the s h o r t c o m in g s a r e f i r s t show n b y a m o r e o r
l e s s s e r io u s fa ilu r e d u rin g c o n s t r u c t io n ;
u s u a lly the d e s i g n e r s a r e m o r e fo rtu n a te and
the d if f ic u l t ie s a r e d e t e c te d in tim e to m a k e
a d ju s t m e n t s .
P R E L IM IN A R Y IN V E S T IG A T IO N S
In 1913, b o r e h o l e s w e r e sunk a t the s ite o f the
S ile n t V a lle y D a m in N o r t h e r n I r e la n d . C o n s t r u c t ­
io n w a s d e la y e d and it w a s n ot u n til 1923, a ft e r the
f i r s t W o r ld W a r, that w o r k s ta r t e d . T h e C o n t r a c t o r
had tr o u b le in e x c a v a t in g the c u t - o f f tr e n c h and b y
1926 w a s in su ch d if f ic u l t ie s that fu r t h e r i n v e s t i g ­
a tio n s w e r e m a d e in c lu d in g th r e e 16 ft. d ia m e te r
s h a fts sunk in c o m p r e s s e d a i r and fu r t h e r b o r in g s ;
th e s e s h o w e d that b e d r o c k w a s a t a m a x im u m depth
o f 196 f t . o r th r e e t im e s d e e p e r than had b e e n p r e ­
v io u s ly b e lie v e d . A l l the e a r ly b o r e h o le s had
s tr u c k g ra n ite b o u ld e r s in the d e e p e r p a r ts o f the
b u r ie d g la c ia l ch a n n e l and th e s e b o u ld e r s had b een
m ista k e n f o r b e d r o c k . It w a s n ot u n til b o r in g s
w e r e taken at le a s t 20 ft . in to the g ra n ite that the
tru e p o s it io n o f the b e d r o c k w a s e s t a b lis h e d . A n ew
c o n t r a c t w a s n e g o tia te d and the c u t - o f f tr e n c h e x c a ­
v a tio n c o m p le t e d w ith c a s t ir o n s e g m e n ts
( M c lld o w ie , 1 9 3 5 ). A s o m e h w a t s im il a r m is ta k e
w a s m a d e in the in itia l s ta g e s o f the in v e s tig a t io n
f o r the R i v e r N eath b r id g e in South W a le s w h e r e
P en n a n t sa n d sto n e b o u ld e r s w e r e m is ta k e n f o r
P en n a n t s a n d sto n e ( C a r b o n if e r o u s ) b e d r o c k .
F o r tu n a te ly , at th is s ite fu r t h e r in v e s tig a t io n w as
m a d e b e fo r e c o n s t r u c t io n s ta r t e d ; it w a s fou n d that
the r o c k w a s g e n e r a lly d e e p e r , a t on e p o in t o v e r 60ft.
d e e p e r , than had b e e n a s s u m e d f r o m p r o b in g s w h ich
had b e e n s to p p e d b y b o u ld e r s . In the la t e r i n v e s t ig ­
a tio n , the b e d r o c k w a s " p r o v e d " b y d r illin g in to it
f o r 25 ft. w ith a d ia m o n d d r i l l (H a rd in g , 1 9 4 9 ).
T h e s e a r e e x t r e m e e x a m p le s but it m a y b e d if f ic u lt
to d e c id e on c u t - o f f d e p th s f r o m b o r e h o le o r d r i l l ­
h o le e v id e n c e a lo n e ; the g e o lo g i c a l e v id e n c e sh ou ld
a lw a y s be c o n s i d e r e d a s w e ll. A t the s ite o f the
A y e r Ita m d a m , P e n a n g , the b e d r o c k w a s g r a n ite ;
o v e r ly in g it w a s in situ w e a th e r e d g ra n ite ( " l a t e r i t e " ) .
T r o p i c a l w e a th e r in g p r o d u c e s c o r e b o u ld e r s w h ich
302
ca n be up to 30 f t . d ia m e t e r d e p e n d in g on the o r ig in a l
jo i n t s p a c in g in the p a r e n t r o c k . A t A y e r Ita m , s o m e
o f th e s e b o u ld e r s had b een le a c h e d ou t o f the o v e r ­
b u r d e n and had r o lle d dow n the v a lle y s id e s to the
s t r e a m b e d . T h e la r g e s t b o u ld e r w a s 25 f t . d ia m e t ­
e r and had a t r e e g r o w in g on i t . T o a llo w f o r the
p o s s i b i l i t y o f m e e t in g su ch b o u ld e r s d u rin g d r illin g ,
it w a s d e c id e d to c o n s i d e r h a rd r o c k a s s ta r t in g at
a p oin t in the d r illh o le a t w h ich th e r e w a s a n o ta b le
im p r o v e m e n t in c o r e r e c o v e r y . T h e d r illh o le w a s
then co n tin u e d f o r a fu r t h e r 30 ft. f r o m that p o in t.
If it d id n ot e m e r g e a g a in in to s o ft m a t e r ia l then it
w a s c o n s i d e r e d a s p e n e tr a t in g b e d r o c k . T h is
a p p r o a c h w a s fou n d to be c o m p le t e ly s u c c e s s f u l . A
d e e p c u t - o f f w a s d e s ig n e d and c o n s t r u c t e d w ith ou t
p a r t ic u la r d if f ic u l t y . It m a y be n o te d h e r e that
e x a m p le s o f the u n s u c c e s s f u l a p p lic a t io n o f g e o ­
p h y s ic a l m e th o d s w e r e in s i m i l a r g ra n ite c o u n t r y on
the m a in la n d o f M a la y a . T h e d e p th s to b e d r o c k
d e d u c e d f r o m s e i s m i c s u r v e y s w e r e q u ite u n r e la te d
to d ep th s fou n d s u b s e q u e n tly f r o m b o r e h o le s and p it s .
D E SIG N S T A G E
A t th is s ta g e , it w ill be n e c e s s a r y to g a th e r s u f f i c ­
ie n t in fo r m a t io n to e n a b le te n ta tiv e c r o s s s e c t i o n s o f
d a m s to be a n a ly s e d and to p r o v e that s u ffic ie n t
q u a n titie s a r e a v a ila b le o f e a c h kin d o f f i l l m a t e r ia l
r e q u ir e d .
L im it s on e x p e n d itu r e u s u a lly r e q u ir e th is s ta g e o f
the in v e s tig a t io n to be la r g e ly in t e r m s o f b o r e h o le s
s u p p le m e n te d b y p it s . In s o m e c a s e s , a fe w in s itu
te s t s m a y be p o s s i b l e . F o r e x a m p le , if the p r o p o s e d
f i l l m a t e r ia l is r e l a t i v e l y u n tr ie d , it m a y b e a d v i s ­
a b le to b u ild a low t e s t b an k o f it to e s t a b lis h its
p e r fo r m a n c e w hen c o m p a c t e d . E x c e p t io n a lly , su ch
t r ia l banks a r e p r o v id e d w ith p ie z o m e t e r s and o th e r
in s t r u m e n ts to m o n it o r th e ir p e r fo r m a n c e (L it t le and
V a il, 1961) but, m o r e u s u a lly , the f i l l is p la c e d and,
a ft e r c o m p a c t io n , s a m p le s a r e taken f o r la b o r a t o r y
tests.
D u r in g the in v e s tig a t io n s ta g e s o f the B ria n n e d a m
( C a r ly le , 1 9 6 8), s o m e d o u b ts w e r e e x p r e s s e d a b ou t
u s in g the c le a v e d m u d s to n e , w h ich w hen e x c a v a t e d
a p p e a r e d in the f o r m o f p la ty fr a g m e n t s a b o u t ^ in ch
th ic k and 6 to 12 in c h e s d ia m e t e r . A n in s p e c t io n o f
s e v e r a l G e r m a n d a m s in the R h u r v a lle y s h o w e d that
r a th e r i n f e r i o r m a t e r ia l to th is had b e e n s o m e t im e s
u s e d f o r f i l l . A s a r e s u lt , it w a s c o n s i d e r e d that the
m u d s to n e c o u ld p r o b a b ly be u s e d and a t r ia l bank
w a s c o n s t r u c t e d a t B ria n n e w h ich s h o w e d n ot o n ly
th at the m a t e r ia l c o u ld be s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p a c t e d
b u t th at, a ft e r c o m p a c t io n , its p e r m e a b ilit y r e m a i n ­
ed e x t r e m e ly h ig h . S u b se q u e n t la b o r a t o r y t e s t s in a
la r g e d ia m e t e r t r ia x ia l m a ch in e s h o w e d that it had
an a d e q u a te s h e a r s tr e n g t h . T h e d a m is n ow u n d er
c o n s t r u c t io n .
T h e s tre n g th o f s t if f ( o v e r c o n s o l id a t e d ) f i s s u r e d c la y
fo u n d a tio n s h as a lw a y s b e e n a s u b je c t o f c o n t r o v e r s y ,
d o u b ts b e in g e x p r e s s e d b y s o m e e n g in e e r s a b o u t the
 GEOTECHNICAL INV ESTIGATIONS
e f f e c t o f the f i s s u r e s on s tr e n g t h . I n v e s tig a t io n s by
S k e m p to n and La R o c h e lle a t B r a d w e ll had show n
that the a p p a r e n t s tr e n g t h ( c u ) o f the L on d on c la y
c a lc u la t e d f r o m la r g e s c a le s lo p e f a i lu r e s w a s o n ly
55% o f that m e a s u r e d on in ta c t lu m p s . T h e p r o b le m
b e c a m e u r g e n t d u rin g in v e s t ig a t io n s f o r a p r o p o s e d
d a m a t M a ld o n , E s s e x . A c c o r d i n g l y , la r g e s c a le
(2 f t . s q u a r e ) in s itu s h e a r b o x te s t s w e r e d o n e .
T h e s e c o n fir m e d the r e d u c t io n o f s tre n g th p r e v i o u s ­
ly o b s e r v e d a t B r a d w e ll w h ich w a s c o n s i d e r e d to be
du e to the e f f e c t o f f i s s u r e s and a l s o to th e e f f e c t s
o f a n is o t r o p y and ra te o f t e s t in g ( B is h o p and L it tle ,
1 9 6 7 ). A lth o u g h th is p a r t ic u la r d a m w a s n ot c o n ­
s t r u c t e d , the r e s u lt s w e r e im p o r t a n t and a s im il a r
r e d u c t io n f a c t o r h as b e e n u s e d f o r a n o th e r d a m n ow
u n d e r c o n s t r u c t io n on o v e r c o n s o lid a t e d c l a y fo u n d ­
a tio n s in th e so u th o f E n g la n d .
S e e p a g e b e n e a th d a m s h as c a u s e d m a n y c a t a s t r o p h ic
f a i l u r e s . H in d e r lid e r in 1933 g a ve a lis t o f 293
f a i l u r e s o f d a m s o f a ll t y p e s , 52 o f w h ich (18% )
w e r e a tt r ib u t e d to p ip in g th ro u g h the fo u n d a tio n s .
It is o n ly n e c e s s a r y to r e c a l l the S t. F r a n c i s d a m
and, m o r e r e c e n t ly , the B a ld w in H ills d i s a s t e r s to
r e a l i s e the im p o r t a n c e o f a p r o p e r a p p r e c ia t io n o f
s e e p a g e p o t e n t ia lit ie s .
T h e s e e p a g e p a tte rn is p r o fo u n d ly a ffe c t e d b y g e o l ­
o g i c a l c o n d it io n s in the fo u n d a tio n s and th e s e sh ou ld
b e v e r y c a r e f u l l y in v e s t ig a t e d , ^and c o n s i d e r e d in
the d e s ig n ( T e r z a g h i, 1 9 2 9 ). A lth o u g h te s t s m a y be
o f s o m e h e lp , th e y w ill, in g e n e r a l, g iv e o v e r a ll
v a lu e s o f p e r m e a b ilit y r a th e r than l o c a l v a r ia t io n s
and a ll a v a ila b le e v id e n c e sh ou ld be c a r e f u l l y e x a m ­
in e d f o r e v id e n c e o f s t r a t ifi c a t io n , f i s s u r e s and
le n s e s o f p e r m e a b le o r im p e r m e a b le m a t e r ia l
w h ic h m a y a f f e c t the p r o b le m .
R a p id la t e r a l c h a n g e s s h o u ld be a s s u m e d a s a
m a t te r o f c o u r s e in a llu v iu m and in f r e s h w a te r
b e d r o c k d e p o s i t s - m a r in e d e p o s it s m a y sh ow le s s
v a r ia t io n .
A t E l B o s q u e d a m in M e x ic o , s e e p a g e s o f m o r e than
on e th o u sa n d c u b ic m e t r e s p e r s e c o n d d e v e lo p e d at
the le f t a b u tm e n t on f i r s t f illin g o f the r e s e r v o i r and
e v e n tu a lly c a u s e d a m a jo r la n d s lid e 1 k m . d o w n ­
s t r e a m . S e e p a g e s w e r e o b s e r v e d a s m u ch a s 1 2 k m .
a w a y ; the d a m i t s e l f w a s in d a n g e r . E v e n tu a lly the
s e e p a g e s w e r e c o n t r o lle d b y the in je c t io n o f m o r e
than 1 1 0 ,0 0 0 c u b ic m e t r e s o f c l a y - c e m e n t g ro u t
( M o o s e r , 1 9 6 4 ). A r a th e r le s s s p e c t a c u la r le a k a g e
( a l s o th ro u g h the le ft a b u tm e n t) had d e v e lo p e d at
D ok a n d a m in I r a q . D u r in g c o n s t r u c t io n , la r g e
q u a n titie s o f c e m e n t w e r e in je c t e d to f o r m w h a t w a s
then the w o r l d 's la r g e s t g r o u t c u r ta in . H o w e v e r ,
c o n s i d e r a b l e le a k a g e to o k p la c e a t on e en d o f th is
c u r t a in . It w a s n o t u n til a g e o l o g i c a l a p p r a is a l had
sh ow n that tw o fa u lts w e r e in v o lv e d that r e m e d ia l
m e a s u r e s u s in g a b e n to n ite , d i e s e l o i l , c o tto n f lo c k
g r o u t w e r e s u c c e s s f u l ( C la r k , 1 9 6 3 ).
T h e s e tw o e x a m p le s s e r v e to e m p h a s iz e the
303
im p o r t a n c e o f th o ro u g h g e o lo g i c a l e x a m in a tio n and
a p p r a is a l o f the a b u tm e n ts and fou n d a tion o f d a m
s it e s f r o m the s e e p a g e p oin t o f v ie w . S o m e b o r in g s
o r d r illin g s sh ou ld be put dow n to e s t im a t e lik e ly
w a te r l o s s e s ; f o r th is p u r p o s e th ey w ill n e e d to be
w a te r t e s t e d . T h e c r u d e s t w a y is to p o u r w a te r
dow n th em but this ca n be r e g a r d e d a s no m o r e than
a q u a lita tiv e t e s t . L u g e o n , L e fr a n c o r pu m p in g
t e s t s sh ou ld be d on e at s e v e r a l d if f e r e n t le v e ls in
c o n ju n c t io n w ith c a r e f u l v is u a l r e c o n n a is s a n c e .
S e e p a g e m a y be c o n t r o lle d by c u t - o f f s o r , w h e r e
th e s e a r e to o e x p e n s iv e o r w a te r lo s s is not
im p o r t a n t , s u ita b le d o w n s tr e a m d r a in a g e m e a s u r e s
ca n be in s t a lle d . T h e in v e s tig a t io n s h ou ld be
s u f f ic ie n t ly b r o a d to p r o v id e u s e fu l in fo r m a tio n
w h ic h e v e r type o f c o n t r o l is u s e d .
O ne o f the c o m m o n e s t m is t a k e s at the d e s ig n sta ge
o f in v e s tig a t io n is to o v e r e s t im a t e the a m o u n t o f
f i l l m a t e r ia l a v a ila b le f o r b u ild in g the d a m . A t
Sh ek P ik , in H ong K on g , the p r e s e n c e o f r ib s and
p in n a c le s o f m o r e o r le s s u n w e a th e re d r o c k c o v e r e d
b y the w e a th e r e d r o c k m a n tle g r e a t ly r e d u c e d the
a m o u n t o f d e c o m p o s e d r o c k a v a ila b le . T h is s e e m s
to be an in h e r e n t d if f ic u lt y in a r e a s o f t r o p ic a l type
w e a th e r in g . A fu r t h e r d e f ic ie n c y at Shek P ik w a s
o f f r e e d r a in in g m a t e r ia l f o r the u p s tr e a m s h e ll.
A llu v iu m , pla n n ed to be u s e d in the o r ig in a l d e s ig n ,
w a s fou n d to have s u f f e r e d f a i r l y in te n s iv e w e a t h e r ­
in g . A lth o u g h it m ig h t h av e b een p o s s ib le by c o n ­
s tr u c t in g s u ita b le d r a in a g e m e a s u r e s in the
a llu v iu m b o r r o w a r e a to have w on the m a t e r ia l in a
c o n d it io n s u ita b le f o r u s e a s f i l l , it w a s ju d g e d e x ­
p e d ie n t to ch a n g e the c r o s s s e c t io n d e s ig n f a i r ly
d r a s t i c a l l y and su b s titu te sand f o r the a llu v iu m .
Sand on the s e a b ed n e a r the d a m s ite p r o v e d to be
v e r y thin and lim it e d in a r e a , c o n s e q u e n t ly , sand
had to be b ro u g h t in b y s e a f r o m a n o th e r u n d e r -s e a
s ite a b o u t 20 m i le s a w a y ( C a r ly le , 1 9 6 5).
B a s e d on the e a r ly s ta g e s o f in v e s tig a t io n f o r the
San L u is d a m ( C a lifo r n ia ) , a d e s ig n in c o r p o r a t in g
28 M c u . y d s . o f g r a v e l w a s p r o d u c e d . L a t e r in v e s t ­
ig a tio n s h o w e d that the a m ou n t a v a ila b le d id n ot
e x c e e d 8 M c u . y d s . and to be on the s a fe s id e the
d e s ig n e r s cu t the a m o u n t in the d a m to 4 M c u .y d s .
T h e r e m a in d e r o f the g r a v e l w a s r e p la c e d b y r o c k -
fillf (B ix b y , 1 9 6 6).
H ard r o c k m a y b e r e q u ir e d f o r r ip ra p o r f o r c r u s h ­
in g f o r d r a in a g e m a t e r i a l s . W h e re r o c k is not
a v a ila b le a t r e a s o n a b le c o s t , a lt e r n a t iv e s su ch a s
c e m e n t o r a s p h a ltic c o n c r e t e o r ev e n s o i l c e m e n t
m a y b e u s e d f o r s lo p e p r o t e c t io n . So f a r , a r t i f i c i a l
m a t e r ia ls have n ot b e e n u s e d f o r d r a in a g e m a t e r ia ls
s o th at e it h e r n a tu r a l o r c r u s h e d g r a v e l have to be
fo u n d .
C O N S T R U C T IO N S T A G E
It is p e r h a p s in the c o n s t r u c t io n s ta g e that the d e fe c t s
o f p r e v io u s in v e s t ig a t io n s a r e m o s t g la r in g ly r e v e a l ­
 LITTLE and STRUCT
e d . A s d e e p e x c a v a t io n s a r e m a d e f o r c u t - o f f and
o th e r p u r p o s e s , the g r e a t e r o r l e s s d e p a r tu r e o f
the r e a l it y f r o m that a s s u m e d in d e s ig n is r e v e a le d
to the a s to n is h e d e y e s o f the d e s i g n e r . T h e c o n d it ­
io n s a t S ile n t V a lle y h av e a lr e a d y b een d is c u s s e d
and th is is an e x p e r i e n c e w h ich on a l e s s e r s c a le
m u s t h ave b een r e p e a t e d on c o u n t le s s o c c a s i o n s .
T h e r e is le s s and le s s e x c u s e f o r th is k in d o f e r r o r
a s te c h n iq u e s o f in v e s tig a t io n im p r o v e but a t o th e r
t im e s , c o n d it io n s m a y be u n d e te cte d b e c a u s e th ey
a r e w ith ou t p r e c e d e n t o r t h e ir in flu e n c e u pon the
d e s ig n is n ot a p p r e c ia t e d .
T h e fo u n d a tio n s o f the W illia m G ir lin g d a m at
C h in g fo r d , N o rth L o n d o n , c o n ta in e d a la y e r o f w ea k
a llu v ia l s o i l . T h is s tr a t u m w a s n o t r e m o v e d
b e c a u s e its e f f e c t on the s ta b ilit y o f the e m b a n k m e n t
w a s n ot a p p r e c ia t e d . T h e d e s ig n e r s p r o b a b ly took
the v ie w that the la y e r w o u ld c o n s o lid a t e r a p id ly a s
it w a s s o th in . A d a m o f v e r y s im il a r d e s ig n had
b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p le t e d m a n y y e a r s b e fo r e on
an im m e d ia t e ly a d ja c e n t s it e . U n fo rtu n a te ly , the
W il lia m G ir lin g d a m w a s b u ilt w ith pla n t m o d e r n at
that tim e and w h ich p la c e d the f i l l at a m u c h h ig h e r
ra te than that a t w h ich the p r e v io u s d a m had b een
c o n s t r u c t e d . W hen c o n s t r u c t io n had r e a c h e d a b ou t
t w o - t h ir d s o f it s d e s ig n h e ig h t, the n ew d a m f a i le d .
S u b se q u e n tly in v e s tig a t io n and a n a ly s is s h o w e d that
the fa i lu r e had taken p la c e on a s u r f a c e w h ich ,
b e c a u s e o f the v e r y s t r o n g i n f lu e n c e o f the s o ft
la y e r , d e p a r te d r a d i c a l ly f r o m the h ith e r to a lm o s t
u n iv e r s a lly a s s u m e d c i r c u l a r a r c t r a c e . A n a n a ly ­
s is m a d e a ft e r the fa ilu r e c o n fir m e d that w ith the
d e s ig n and c o n s t r u c t io n m e th o d s u s e d , f a ilu r e w a s
in e v ita b le (C o o lin g and C o ld e r , 1 9 4 2). T h is w a s
p r o b a b ly the f i r s t o c c a s i o n on w h ic h s o i l m e c h a n ic s
te c h n iq u e had b e e n a p p lie d to a n o n - c i r c u l a r t r a c e ,
a lth o u g h C o llin a c e n t u r y p r e v io u s ly had p r o p o s e d
c y c l o i d a l t r a c e s to r e p r e s e n t ru p tu re s u r f a c e s
(C o llin , 1 846).
F o llo w in g the in te n s iv e in v e s tig a t io n s f o r M a n gla
d a m , the d e s ig n to o k a c c o u n t , w h e r e a p p r o p r ia t e , o f
the v e r y s tr o n g s t r a t ific a t io n in the fo u n d a tio n s .
A f t e r c o n s t r u c t io n s ta r t e d , s h e a r z o n e s w e r e d i s ­
c o v e r e d in the b e d r o c k . T h e s e s h e a r z o n e s w e r e in
the c la y s tra ta p a r a lle l to the b e d d in g , sa n d w ich e d
b e tw e e n la y e r s o f s a n d sto n e and w e r e a p p a r e n t ly
c a u s e d b y b e d d in g pla n e s lip d u rin g t e c t o n ic d is t u r b ­
a n c e s o f the b e d s lo n g a ft e r t h e ir o r ig i n a l d e p o s it io n .
A lo n g s h e a r z o n e s the s tre n g th o f the c la y had b een
g r e a t ly r e d u c e d and a p p r o x im a t e d to the r e s id u a l
c o n d it io n . T h is d i s c o v e r y n e c e s s it a t e d a r a d ic a l
r e d e s ig n o f a ll the e a r th w o r k s on the p r o j e c t and
c e r t a in th er m e a s u r e s ( e . g . s t e e l lin in g to the
tu n n els and a d d itio n a l d r a in a g e ) a s w e l l . (B in n ie ,
C la r k and S k e m p to n , 1967; B in n ie e t a l, 1 9 6 7 ). T h e
s h e a r z o n e s w e r e n ot d e t e c t e d in a n y o f the b o r e h o le s
o r p its in the p r e c o n s t r u c t io n in v e s t ig a t io n s . T h e y
w e r e f i r s t fou n d in e x p lo r a t o r y a d its on the J a ri
s e c t io n o f the w o r k but a m o s t in te n s iv e s e a r c h b y
s ite p e r s o n n e l f a m ili a r w ith t h e ir a p p e a r a n c e w a s
n e e d e d b e fo r e th e y w e r e fou n d on o th e r p a r t s o f the
304
p r o j e c t . T h e Su kian s e c t io n w a s p a r t ic u la r ly
d if f ic u l t and s h e a r z o n e s h e r e w e r e n ot o b s e r v e d
u n til the c o r e tr e n c h e x c a v a t io n w a s w e ll u n d er w a y ,
e v e n th ou gh c o n s i d e r a b le le n g th s o f e x p lo r a t o r y
tr e n c h had b e e n e x c a v a t e d and a s e a r c h m a d e
e x p r e s s ly fo r sh ea r z o n e s.
T h e g e o lo g y a t M a n g la w a s d e c e p t iv e ly s im p le .
A lth o u g h th e r e w a s a m o n o c lin a l fo ld s o m e w ay
d o w n s tr e a m f r o m the d a m s it e , and s te e p ly d ip p in g
b e d s a t J a r i, a t M a n g la i t s e l f the b e d s had a u n i­
f o r m g e n tle d ip o f a b o u t 1 0 ° . It w a s n ot u n til the
g e o lo g y w a s in v e s tig a t e d on a r e g io n a l s c a le that
the e f f e c t o f the t e c t o n ic f o r c e s w h ic h had p r o d u c e d
the s h e a r z o n e s b e c a m e e v id e n t .
It w a s fo r tu n a te th at the d i s c o v e r y o f the s h e a r zon es
w a s c o n t e m p o r a r y w ith P r o f e s s o r S k e m p t o n 's i n ­
v e s t ig a t io n s in to r e s id u a l s tr e n g th and its in v lu e n c e
on the s ta b ilit y o f s lo p e s (S k em p ton , 1964) o t h e r w is e
t h e ir e n g in e e r in g s ig n ific a n c e m ig h t have taken a
lo n g tim e to e s t a b lis h . It c e r t a in ly w ou ld n ot have
b een a p p r e c ia t e d d u rin g the e a r ly in v e s t ig a t io n s at
a tim e w h en , f o r e x a m p le , C a n a d ia n e n g in e e r s
w e r e s t ill p u z z le d b y the d is c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n
la b o r a t o r y v a lu e s o f p a r a m e t e r s a nd th o s e d e d u c e d
f r o m fu ll s c a le f a i lu r e s at Sou th S a sk a tch ew a n
(G a r d in e r ) d a m . In o r d e r to ob ta in the rig h t
a n s w e r s f r o m r e s e a r c h o r in v e s t ig a t io n s it is
n e c e s s a r y to a s k the rig h t q u e s t io n s ; q u e s tio n s
ca n n o t be a s k e d a b ou t p h en om en a w h o s e e x is t e n c e
is u n s u s p e c te d .
S in c e the d i s c o v e r y at M a n g la , it h as b e c o m e
a p p a re n t that s h e a r z o n e s have b e e n r e s p o n s ib le
f o r d if f ic u l t ie s a t o th e r d a m s it e s , n o ta b ly
R o s e i r e s , Sudan; S ou th S a s k a tch e w a n , C anada and
W a c o , U . S . A . ( L it t le , 1 9 6 8 ). T h e fa ilu r e o f
W h e e le r L o c k , U . S . A . , w a s a ls o due to an " u n ­
s u s p e c te d thin c la y s e a m " 1 /1 6 to 3 /8 in ch th ick
n e a r the b o tt o m o f a hand o f s h a le ; it is a p p a re n t
f r o m th is d e s c r i p t i o n that th is w a s a ls o a s h e a r
zo n e w h ich "w e n t u n d e te c te d d u rin g e x t e n s iv e b e d ­
r o c k in v e s tig a t io n s in I9 6 0 . . . and f o r th re e
m on th s a ft e r the f a i l u r e " ( E . N - R . , 1 9 6 2).
T h is e v id e n c e s h o w s that s h e a r z o n e s o f th is type
a r e v ir t u a lly im p o s s ib le to d e t e c t in co n v e n tio n a l
s ite in v e s tig a t io n b o r e h o l e s . It is im p r a c t ic a b le
to e x a m in e e v e r y in c h o f c o r e so c l o s e l y a s to be
a b le to s a y c o n fid e n t ly that th e r e a r e n o s h e a r
z o n e s and, in a n y c a s e , the d r i l l e r a ll to o often
f a i l s to r e c o v e r a n y c o r e a t a ll in the v it a l s e c t i o n .
A s h as b e e n ju s t ly o b s e r v e d : the tw o p e r c e n t o f
c o r e w h ich is n ot r e c o v e r e d is fr e q u e n tly m o r e
im p o r t a n t than the n in e t y -e ig h t p e r c e n t w h ich i s .
T h e o n ly c e r t a in w a y o f fin d in g s h e a r z o n e s is in
the c o n s t r u c t io n e x c a v a t io n s ; e v e n c a r e f u l e x a m ­
in a tion o f t r ia l p it s fr e q u e n t ly f a i ls to d i s c l o s e
th e m . On a r e c e n t e a r th d a m jo b in U . K . , the
c o n d it io n s w e r e rig h t f o r te c to n ic s h e a r z o n e s but
a lth ou g h th e ir p r e s e n c e w a s s u s p e c t e d , it w a s n ot
p o s s ib le to fin d th e m u n til the c o n t r a c t o r had m a d e
 GEOTECHNICAL INV ESTIGATIONS
s u f f ic ie n t e x c a v a t io n s rou n d the s it e . T h e d iffic u lt y
o f fin d in g th e m is n o t s o s u r p r is in g w h en it is
r e m e m b e r e d th at, a s in the c a s e o f W h e e le r L o c k ,
the o ffe n d in g l a y e r m a y b e o n ly a fe w m i llim e t r e s
th ic k and th is ta k e s s o m e fin d in g on the a v e r a g e
c i v i l e n g in e e r in g s it e .
It is c l e a r that e x is t in g te c h n iq u e s n e e d d e v e lo p m e n t
to m a k e p o s s ib le the d e t e c t io n o f s u ch c o n d it io n s
b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t io n b e g in s .
C O N C L U SIO N S
G e o t e c h n ic a l in v e s t ig a t io n s f o r e m b a n k m e n t d a m s
a r e id e a ll y d iv id e d in to th r e e p a r t s .
P a r t I, P r e l im i n a r y , e s t a b lis h e s the f e a s i b i l i t y o f
the s ite f r o m a g e o l o g i c a l and s o i l m e c h a n ic s v i e w ­
p o in t. It in v e s t ig a t e s g e o lo g y , s tr e n g th , c o m p r e s s ­
ib ilit y and w a t e r t ig h t n e s s o f fo u n d a tio n s and a b u t­
m e n ts and a v a ila b ilit y o f f i l l m a t e r i a l s . E x p e r ie n c e
h as sh ow n that g e o p h y s ic a l in v e s t ig a t io n s a lo n e a r e
n o t s u f f ic ie n t ly r e li a b le to be u s e d in th is s t a g e .
P a r t II, D e s ig n s ta g e , p r o d u c e s data f o r d e s ig n on
s t a b ilit y , s e e p a g e and q u a n tity and q u a lity o f c o n ­
s t r u c t io n m a t e r ia ls .
P a r t III, C o n s t r u c t io n s t a g e . T h e d e s i g n e r s '
a s s u m p tio n s a r e te s t e d at le a s t in p a r t a n d , d e p e n d ­
in g on th e ir c o r r e c t n e s s o r o t h e r w is e , a r e a s s e s s ­
m e n t o f the d e s ig n is r e q u ir e d . It is n o t, h o w e v e r ,
u n til the la s t lo a d o f f i l l is p la c e d and c o m p a c t e d
that the p r o c e s s o f d e s ig n ca n b e s a id to be c o m p l e t ­
e d ; s o m e t im e s n ot e v e n th en .
A t a l l s t a g e s , g e o l o g i c a l in v e s t ig a t io n s s h ou ld p la y
th e ir fu ll p a r t but the e n g i n e e r /d e s i g n e r sh ou ld
r e m a in in c o n t r o l o f the o v e r a l l p r o g r a m m e .
ACKNOW LEDGEMENT
T h e a'uthor is g r a t e fu l to the P a r t n e r s o f M e s s r s .
B in n ie h P a r t n e r s f o r p e r m is s io n to u se s o m e
in fo r m a t io n p u b lis h e d in th is p a p e r .
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