Water quality

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A rosette sampler is used for collecting water samples in deep water, such as the Great
Lakes or oceans, for water quality testing.

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological

characteristics of water.[1] It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the
requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose.[2] It is
most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance,
generally achieved through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common
standards used to assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human
contact, and drinking water.

Contents
 1 Standards
 2 Categories
o 2.1 Human consumption
o 2.2 Industrial and domestic use
o 2.3 Environmental water quality
 3 Sampling and measurement
o 3.1 Sample collection
o 3.2 Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies
o 3.3 Chemical analysis
o 3.4 Real-time monitoring
o 3.5 Drinking water indicators
 o 3.6 Environmental indicators
 3.6.1 Physical indicators
 3.6.2 Chemical indicators
 3.6.3 Biological indicators
 4 Standards and reports
o 4.1 International
o 4.2 National specifications for ambient water and drinking water
 4.2.1 European Union
 4.2.2 India
 4.2.3 South Africa
 4.2.4 United Kingdom
 4.2.5 United States
 5 See also
 6 References
 7 External links

Standards
In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions
about how the water will be used.[3] In the case of natural water bodies, they also make
some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Natural water bodies will vary in
response to environmental conditions. Environmental scientists work to understand how
these systems function, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of
contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policymakers work to define legislation with
the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use.

The vast majority of surface water on the Earth is neither potable nor toxic. This remains
true when seawater in the oceans (which is too salty to drink) is not counted. Another
general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is
polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a
complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth. Industrial and commercial
activities (e.g. manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major cause of water
pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and
untreated sewage.

Categories
The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of
water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption,
industrial use, or in the environment.

Human consumption

Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses,

protozoa and bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical
contaminants from industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and
radioactive contaminants. Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as
well as human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as
a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water).

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits the amounts of certain
contaminants in tap water provided by US public water systems. The Safe Drinking
Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards:

 primary standards regulate substances that potentially affect human health;

 secondary standards prescribe aesthetic qualities, those that affect taste, odor, or
appearance.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations establish limits for
contaminants in bottled water that must provide the same protection for public health.
Drinking water, including bottled water, may reasonably be expected to contain at least
small amounts of some contaminants. The presence of these contaminants does not
necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk.

In urbanized areas around the world, water purification technology is used in municipal
water systems to remove contaminants from the source water (surface water or
groundwater) before it is distributed to homes, businesses, schools and other recipients.
Water drawn directly from a stream, lake, or aquifer and that has no treatment will be of
uncertain quality.

Industrial and domestic use

Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic
purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of ions of calcium (Ca2+)
and magnesium (Mg2+) which interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form
hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers.[4] Hard water may be
softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations.[5]
Hard water may be preferable to soft water for human consumption, since health
problems have been associated with excess sodium and with calcium and magnesium
deficiencies. Softening decreases nutrition and may increase cleaning effectiveness.[6]
Various industries' wastes and effluents can also pollute the water quality in receiving
bodies of water.[7]

Environmental water quality

Urban runoff discharging to coastal waters
See also: Environmental monitoring and Freshwater environmental quality parameters

Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water
bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water quality standards for surface waters vary
significantly due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human
uses. Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a
health hazard for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting,
boating, and industrial uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the
water for drinking or as a habitat. Modern water quality laws generally specify protection
of fisheries and recreational use and require, as a minimum, retention of current quality
standards.

Satirical cartoon by William Heath, showing a woman observing monsters in a drop of

London water (at the time of the Commission on the London Water Supply report, 1828)

There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre-industrial
conditions. Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of particular uses
of a water body. In some countries these designations allow for some water
contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the
designated uses. Given the landscape changes (e.g., land development, urbanization,
clearcutting in forested areas) in the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to
pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In these cases, environmental
scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy ecosystems and may
concentrate on the protection of populations of endangered species and protecting human
health.
Sampling and measurement
See also: water chemistry analysis, analytical chemistry, and water sampling stations

The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of

measurements of water quality indicators. The most accurate measurements of water
quality are made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings.
Measurements commonly made on-site and in direct contact with the water source in
question include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction
potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.

Sample collection

An automated sampling station installed along the East Branch Milwaukee River, New
Fane, Wisconsin. The cover of the 24-bottle autosampler (center) is partially raised,
showing the sample bottles inside. The autosampler was programmed to collect samples
at time intervals, or proportionate to flow over a specified period. The data logger (white
cabinet) recorded temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen levels.

More complex measurements are often made in a laboratory requiring a water sample to
be collected, preserved, transported, and analyzed at another location. The process of
water sampling introduces two significant problems:

 The first problem is the extent to which the sample may be representative of the
water source of interest. Many water sources vary with time and with location.
The measurement of interest may vary seasonally or from day to night or in
response to some activity of man or natural populations of aquatic plants and
animals.[8] The measurement of interest may vary with distances from the water
boundary with overlying atmosphere and underlying or confining soil. The
sampler must determine if a single time and location meets the needs of the
investigation, or if the water use of interest can be satisfactorily assessed by
averaged values with time and location, or if critical maxima and minima require
individual measurements over a range of times, locations or events. The sample
collection procedure must assure correct weighting of individual sampling times
and locations where averaging is appropriate.[9]:39–40 Where critical maximum or
minimum values exist, statistical methods must be applied to observed variation
to determine an adequate number of samples to assess probability of exceeding
those critical values.[10]
  The second problem occurs as the sample is removed from the water source and
begins to establish chemical equilibrium with its new surroundings – the sample
container. Sample containers must be made of materials with minimal reactivity
with substances to be measured; and pre-cleaning of sample containers is
important. The water sample may dissolve part of the sample container and any
residue on that container, or chemicals dissolved in the water sample may sorb
onto the sample container and remain there when the water is poured out for
analysis.[9]:4 Similar physical and chemical interactions may take place with any
pumps, piping, or intermediate devices used to transfer the water sample into the
sample container. Water collected from depths below the surface will normally be
held at the reduced pressure of the atmosphere; so gas dissolved in the water may
escape into unfilled space at the top of the container. Atmospheric gas present in
that air space may also dissolve into the water sample. Other chemical reaction
equilibria may change if the water sample changes temperature. Finely divided
solid particles formerly suspended by water turbulence may settle to the bottom of
the sample container, or a solid phase may form from biological growth or
chemical precipitation. Microorganisms within the water sample may
biochemically alter concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and organic
compounds. Changing carbon dioxide concentrations may alter pH and change
solubility of chemicals of interest. These problems are of special concern during
measurement of chemicals assumed to be significant at very low concentrations.[8]

Filtering a manually collected water sample (grab sample) for analysis

Sample preservation may partially resolve the second problem. A common procedure is
keeping samples cold to slow the rate of chemical reactions and phase change, and
analyzing the sample as soon as possible; but this merely minimizes the changes rather
than preventing them.[9]:43–45 A useful procedure for determining influence of sample
containers during delay between sample collection and analysis involves preparation for
two artificial samples in advance of the sampling event. One sample container is filled
with water known from previous analysis to contain no detectable amount of the
chemical of interest. This sample, called a "blank", is opened for exposure to the
atmosphere when the sample of interest is collected, then resealed and transported to the
laboratory with the sample for analysis to determine if sample holding procedures
introduced any measurable amount of the chemical of interest. The second artificial
sample is collected with the sample of interest, but then "spiked" with a measured
additional amount of the chemical of interest at the time of collection. The blank and
spiked samples are carried with the sample of interest and analyzed by the same methods
at the same times to determine any changes indicating gains or losses during the elapsed
time between collection and analysis.[11]

Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies

Inevitably after events such as earthquakes and tsunamis, there is an immediate response
by the aid agencies as relief operations get underway to try and restore basic
infrastructure and provide the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and
subsequent recovery.[12] Access to clean drinking water and adequate sanitation is a
priority at times like this. The threat of disease increases hugely due to the large numbers
of people living close together, often in squalid conditions, and without proper sanitation.
[13]

After a natural disaster, as far as water quality testing is concerned there are widespread
views on the best course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed. The
key basic water quality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency are
bacteriological indicators of fecal contamination, free chlorine residual, pH, turbidity and
possibly conductivity/total dissolved solids. There are a number of portable water test kits
on the market widely used by aid and relief agencies for carrying out such testing.[14][15]

After major natural disasters, a considerable length of time might pass before water
quality returns to pre-disaster levels. For example, following the 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami the Colombo-based International Water Management Institute (IWMI) monitored
the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking
water quality one and a half years after the event.[16] IWMI developed protocols for
cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by
the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.[17]

Chemical analysis

A gas chromatograph-
mass spectrometer measures pesticides and other organic pollutants

The simplest methods of chemical analysis are those measuring chemical elements
without respect to their form. Elemental analysis for oxygen, as an example, would
indicate a concentration of 890,000 milligrams per litre (mg/L) of water sample because
water is made of oxygen. The method selected to measure dissolved oxygen should
differentiate between diatomic oxygen and oxygen combined with other elements. The
comparative simplicity of elemental analysis has produced a large amount of sample data
and water quality criteria for elements sometimes identified as heavy metals. Water
analysis for heavy metals must consider soil particles suspended in the water sample.
These suspended soil particles may contain measurable amounts of metal. Although the
particles are not dissolved in the water, they may be consumed by people drinking the
water. Adding acid to a water sample to prevent loss of dissolved metals onto the sample
container may dissolve more metals from suspended soil particles. Filtration of soil
particles from the water sample before acid addition, however, may cause loss of
dissolved metals onto the filter.[18] The complexities of differentiating similar organic
molecules are even more challenging.

Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy is used to measure mercury and other heavy metals

Making these complex measurements can be expensive. Because direct measurements of

water quality can be expensive, ongoing monitoring programs are typically conducted by
government agencies. However, there are local volunteer programs and resources
available for some general assessment. Tools available to the general public include on-
site test kits, commonly used for home fish tanks, and biological assessment procedures.

Real-time monitoring

Although water quality is usually sampled and analyzed at laboratories, nowadays,

citizens demand real-time information about the water they are drinking. During the last
years, several companies are deploying worldwide real-time remote monitoring systems
for measuring water pH, turbidity or dissolved oxygen levels.[citation needed]

Drinking water indicators

An electrical conductivity meter is used to measure total dissolved solids

The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:

  Alkalinity
 Color of water
 pH
 Taste and odor (geosmin, 2-Methylisoborneol (MIB), etc.)
 Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese,
magnesium)
 Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli),
Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia; see Bacteriological water analysis
 Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)
 Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved organic
carbon (DOC)
 Radon
 Heavy metals
 Pharmaceuticals
 Hormone analogs

Environmental indicators

See also: Environmental indicator, Wastewater quality indicators, and Salinity

Physical indicators

 Water temperature  Total dissolved solids (TDS)

 Specific conductance or electrical  Odour of water
conductance (EC) or conductivity  Color of water
 Total suspended solids (TSS)
 Taste of water
 Transparency or turbidity

Chemical indicators

 pH  Heavy metals
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)  Nitrate
 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)  Orthophosphates
 Dissolved oxygen (DO)  Pesticides

 Total hardness (TH)  Surfactants

Biological indicators

See also: Biological integrity and Index of biological integrity

 Ephemeroptera  Escherichia coli (E. coli)
 Plecoptera
 Mollusca  Coliform bacteria

 Trichoptera
Biological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places, and one widely used
measure is the presence and abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera,
Plecoptera and Trichoptera (common names are, respectively, mayfly, stonefly and
caddisfly). EPT indexes will naturally vary from region to region, but generally, within a
region, the greater the number of taxa from these orders, the better the water quality.
Organisations in the United States, such as EPA offer guidance on developing a
monitoring program and identifying members of these and other aquatic insect orders.[19]
[20]

Individuals interested in monitoring water quality who cannot afford or manage lab scale
analysis can also use biological indicators to get a general reading of water quality. One
example is the IOWATER volunteer water monitoring program, which includes a benthic
macroinvertebrate indicator key.[21]

Bivalve molluscs are largely used as bioindicators to monitor the health of aquatic
environments in both fresh water and the marine environments. Their population status or
structure, physiology, behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or
compounds can indicate the state of contamination status of the ecosystem. They are
particularly useful since they are sessile so that they are representative of the environment
where they are sampled or placed. A typical project is the Mussel Watch Programme,[22]
but today they are used worldwide.

The Southern African Scoring System (SASS) method is a biological water quality
monitoring system based on the presence of benthic macroinvertebrates. The SASS
aquatic biomonitoring tool has been refined over the past 30 years and is now on the fifth
version (SASS5) which has been specifically modified in accordance with international
standards, namely the ISO/IEC 17025 protocol.[23] The SASS5 method is used by the
South African Department of Water Affairs as a standard method for River Health
Assessment, which feeds the national River Health Programme and the national Rivers
Database.

Standards and reports

Main article: Drinking water quality standards

International

 The World Health Organisation (WHO) has published guidelines for drinking-
water quality (GDWQ) in 2011.[24]
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published[when?]
regulation of water quality in the section of ICS 13.060,[25] ranging from water
sampling, drinking water, industrial class water, sewage, and examination of
water for chemical, physical or biological properties. ICS 91.140.60 covers the
standards of water supply systems.[26]

National specifications for ambient water and drinking water

European Union

Further information: Water supply and sanitation in the European Union

The water policy of the European Union is primarily codified in three directives:

 Directive on Urban Waste Water Treatment (91/271/EEC) of 21 May 1991

concerning discharges of municipal and some industrial wastewaters;
 The Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) of 3 November 1998 concerning
potable water quality;
 Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) of 23 October 2000 concerning water
resources management.

India

 Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Standards for Drinking Water.

South Africa

Further information: Water supply and sanitation in South Africa

Water quality guidelines for South Africa are grouped according to potential user types
(e.g. domestic, industrial) in the 1996 Water Quality Guidelines.[27] Drinking water quality
is subject to the South African National Standard (SANS) 241 Drinking Water
Specification.[28]

United Kingdom

In England and Wales acceptable levels for drinking water supply are listed in the "Water
Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000."[29]

United States

In the United States, Water Quality Standards are defined by state agencies for various
water bodies, guided by the desired uses for the water body (e.g., fish habitat, drinking
water supply, recreational use).[30] The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each governing
jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial
reports on the quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d) and
305(b) reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and
approved by, EPA.[31] These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction, typically
a state environmental agency. EPA recommends that each state submit a single
"Integrated Report" comprising its list of impaired waters and the status of all water
bodies in the state.[32] The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a
general report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles
of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition.[33] The CWA requires states to adopt
standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Should
evidence suggest or document that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet the water
quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on a list of impaired
waters. Once a state has placed a water body on this list, it must develop a management
plan establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for the pollutant(s) impairing
the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the
designated uses.[34]

Drinking water standards, which are applicable to public water systems, are issued by
EPA under the Safe Drinking Water Act.

See also
 Aquatic toxicology
 Stiff diagram, a graphical  Environment portal
representation of chemical analyses
 Water portal
 Stormwater

 Water testing  Book: Water Quality

 Ultrapure water
 Water management
 Water treatment

 Water quality modelling

References
1.

 Diersing, Nancy (2009). "Water Quality: Frequently Asked Questions." Florida

Brooks National Marine Sanctuary, Key West, FL.
  Johnson, D.L., S.H. Ambrose, T.J. Bassett, M.L. Bowen, D.E. Crummey, J.S.
Isaacson, D.N. Johnson, P. Lamb, M. Saul, and A.E. Winter-Nelson (1997). "Meanings of
environmental terms." Journal of Environmental Quality. 26: 581–589.
doi:10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600030002x
  "What are Water Quality Standards?". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). 2016-03-17.
  Babbitt, Harold E. & Doland, James J. Water Supply Engineering (1949) ASIN:
B000OORYE2; McGraw-Hill p.388
  Linsley, Ray K. & Franzini, Joseph B. Water-Resources Engineering (1972)
McGraw-Hill ISBN 0-07-037959-9 pp.454–456
  World Health Organization (2004). "Consensus of the Meeting: Nutrient minerals
in drinking-water and the potential health consequences of long-term consumption of
demineralized and remineralized and altered mineral content drinking-waters." Rolling
Revision of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality (draft). From November 11–
13, 2003 meeting in Rome, Italy at the WHO European Centre for Environment and
Health.
  Canencia, Oliva P; Dalugdug, Marlou D; Emano, Athena Marie; Mendoza,
Richard; Walag, Angelo Mark P. (2016-08-31). "Slaughter waste effluents and river
catchment watershed contamination in Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines".
ResearchGate. 9 (2). ISSN 2220-6663.
  Goldman, Charles R. & Horne, Alexander J. Limnology (1983) McGraw-Hill
ISBN 0-07-023651-8 chapter 6
  Franson, Mary Ann (1975). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater 14th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, American
Water Works Association & Water Pollution Control Federation. ISBN 0-87553-078-8
  "Chapter 8. Data Analysis". Handbook for Monitoring Industrial Wastewater
(Report). EPA. August 1973. EPA 625/6-73/002.
  United States Geological Survey (USGS), Denver, CO (2009). "Definitions of
Quality-Assurance Data." Prepared by USGS Branch of Quality Systems, Office of Water
Quality.
  Natural Disasters and Severe Weather. "Water Quality After a Tsunami". Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2017-04-27.
  Furusawa, Takuro; Maki, Norio; Suzuki, Shingo (2008-01-01). "Bacterial
contamination of drinking water and nutritional quality of diet in the areas of the western
Solomon Islands devastated by the April 2, 2007 earthquake⁄tsunami". Tropical Medicine
and Health. 36 (2): 65–74. doi:10.2149/tmh.2007-63.
  Hanaor, Dorian A. H.; Sorrell, Charles C. (2014). "Sand Supported Mixed-Phase
TiO2 Photocatalysts for Water Decontamination Applications". Advanced Engineering
Materials. 16 (2): 248–254. doi:10.1002/adem.201300259.
  Method 1680: Fecal Coliforms in Sewage Sludge (Biosolids) by Multiple-Tube
Fermentation using Lauryl Tryptose Broth (LTB) and EC Medium (Report). EPA. April
2010. EPA 821-R-10-003.
  International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka (2010). "Helping
restore the quality of drinking water after the tsunami." Success Stories. Issue 7.
doi:10.5337/2011.0030
  World Health Organization (2011). "WHO technical notes for emergencies."
Archived 12 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Water Engineering Development
Centre, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK.
  State of California Environmental Protection Agency Representative Sampling of
Ground Water for Hazardous Substances (1994) pp.23–24
  For an overview of the U.S. federal biomonitoring publications, see U.S. EPA,
"Whole Effluent Toxicity Methods."
  Methods for Measuring the Acute Toxicity of Effluents and Receiving Waters to
Freshwater and Marine Organisms (Report). EPA. October 2002. EPA-821-R-02-012.
  IOWATER (Iowa Department of Natural Resources). Iowa City, IA (2005).
"Benthic Macroinvertebrate Key."
  "Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment: Mussel Watch Contaminant
Monitoring". Ccma.nos.noaa.gov. 14 January 2014. Archived from the original on 7
September 2015. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
  Dickens CWS and Graham PM. 2002. The Southern Africa Scoring System
(SASS) version 5 rapid bioassessment for rivers “African Journal of Aquatic Science”,
27:1–10.
  "Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition". World Health
Organization. Retrieved 2 April 2013.
  International Organization for Standardization (ISO). "13.060: Water quality".
Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
  International Organization for Standardization (ISO). "91.140.60: Water supply
systems". Retrieved 2011-07-04.
  Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs, Pretoria (1996). "Water
quality guidelines for South Africa: First Edition 1996."
  Hodgson K, Manus L. A drinking water quality framework for South Africa. Water
SA. 2006;32(5):673–678 [1].
  National Archives, London, UK. "The Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations
2000." 2000 No. 3184. 2000-12-08.
  U.S. Clean Water Act, Section 303, 33 U.S.C. § 1313.
  U.S. Clean Water Act, Section 303(d), 33 U.S.C. § 1313; Section 305(b), 33
U.S.C. § 1315(b).
  "Program Overview: 303(d) Listing". Impaired Waters and TMDLs. EPA. 2016-10-
24.
  "National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress". Water Data and Tools.
EPA. 2016-08-18.
34.  More information about water quality in the United States is available
on EPA's "Surf Your Watershed" website.

External links
International organizations
 Drinking water quality guidelines – World Health Organization
 Global Water Quality online database – United Nations Global Environment
Monitoring System
 The National River Health Programme – South Africa

Europe
 Water policy in the European Union

United States
 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – Drinking water quality
and testing
 U.S. National Water Quality Monitoring Council (NWQMC) – Partnership of
federal and state agencies
 U.S. Geological Survey – National Water Quality Assessment Program
 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency – Water Data and Tools
 U.S. Dept. of Agriculture – information on water quality and agriculture
 American Water Resources Association – professional association
 E. Coli and Indiana Lakes and Streams – Purdue University
Other organizations
 [ NutrientNet], an online nutrient trading tool developed by the World Resources
Institute, designed to address nutrient-related water quality issues. See also the PA
NutrientNet website designed for Pennsylvania's nutrient trading program.
 eWater Cooperative Research Centre (eWater Ltd) – Australian Government
funded initiative supporting water management decision support tools
 MolluSCAN eye – CNRS and the University of Bordeaux, France. Online
biomonitoring of water quality by a 24/7 record of various bivalve molluscs'
behavior and physiology worldwide (biological rhythms, growth rate, spawning,
daily behavior)

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ests for Water Quality for Concrete

Construction and Recommended Limits
Home » Tests for Water Quality for Concrete Construction and Recommended Limits

There are various tests on water to check its quality for suitability of concrete
construction. These tests on water for concrete construction is discussed.

In civil engineering projects, large quantity of different materials are used and it is
necessary to test these materials according to certain set patterns within desirable
frequency of testing in order that the quality of final product is maintained.
Quality of water for construction use is determined in the laboratory. This test is done as
per clause 3.1.1 of IS 3025.

Following are the tests required for quality of water for Concrete construction
purpose:

1. pH value test

2. Limits of acidity test

3. Limits of alkalinity test

4. Percentage of solids

a) Chlorides

b) Suspended matter

c) Sulphates

d) Inorganic solids

e) Organic solids

Frequency of testing of water:

Water from each source shall be got tested before the commencement of work and
thereafter once in every three months till the completion of the work. Water from
municipal source need to be tested only once in six months. Number of tests for each
source shall be three.
Recommended Limits of construction water tests:

Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious quantities of
alkalies, acids, oils , salts, sugar, organic materials, vegetable growth or other substance
that may be deleterious to bricks, stone, concrete or steel. Potable water is generally
considered satisfactory for mixing.

The pH value of water shall not be less than the following concentrations represent the
maximum permissible values (of deleterious materials in water):

a) Limits of acidity: To neutralize 100ml sample of water, using phenolphthalein as an

indicator, it should not require more than 5ml of 0.02 normal NaOH. The details of test
shall be as given in IS 3025 (Para 22).

b) Limits of alkalinity: To neutralize 100ml sample of water, using mixed indicator, it

should not require more than 25ml of 0.02 normal H2SO4. The details of tests shall be as
given in IS 3025 (Para 23).

c) Percentage of solids: Maximum permissible limits of solids when tested in

accordance with IS 3025 shall be as under:

Types of solids Limits

Organic solids 200 mg/liter
Inorganic solids 3000 mg/liter
Sulphates 400 mg/liter
Chlorides 2000 mg/liter for concrete not
containing embedded steel, and
 500 mg/liter for reinforced
concrete work
Suspended matter 2000 mg/liter

The physical and chemical properties of ground water shall be tested along with soil
investigation and if the water is not found conforming to the requirements of IS 456 –
2000, the tender documents shall clearly specify that the contractor has to arrange good
quality water construction indicating the source.

(i) Water found satisfactory for mixing is also suitable for curing. However, water used
for curing shall not produce any objectionable stain or unsightly deposit on the surface.

(ii) Sea water shall not be used for mixing or curing.

(iii) Water from each source shall be tested before the commencement of the work and
thereafter once in every three months till the completion of the work. In case of ground
water, testing shall also be done for different point of drawdown. Water from each source
shall be got tested during the dry season before monsoon and again after monsoon.

Read More: Effect of Water Impurities on Concrete Strength, Durability and

Properties

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resence of impurities in water for concrete mix leads to decrease in structural properties
of concrete such as strength and durability to a large extent.

The effect of water impurities on properties of concrete can be expressed mainly in two
terms:

 In terms of the difference in the setting times of the Portland cement mixes that
consist of proposed mixing water when compared with the use of distilled water.
 In terms of the concrete strength that is compared with the control specimens that
is prepared with the distilled water.

Effect of Water Impurities on Concrete Strength and

Durability
A difference of compressive strength is measured on 28th day of curing. Up to 10% of the
controlled test is adequate to measure the quality of the mixing water.

As per IS:456-2000, a difference in the initial setting time by a value +/-30 minutes,
given that the initial setting time is not less than 30 minutes is prescribed.
Concrete is affected by the effluents that are expelled out from the sewerage works, sugar
and the fertilizer industry, paint, gas works, and textile industries.

Various tests have shown that the usage of water or structure that are constructed near to a
water body with the excessive amount of salts (dissolved salts) tend to decrease the
compressive strength of the concrete by an amount of 10 to 30 percent. This decrease is
the strength of concrete compared with that obtained by the concrete using distilled water.

The high content of chlorides in water tends to show surface efflorescence, dampness
persistently and makes the reinforcement steel prone to corrosion. This problem in
concrete structures due to water quality problems is more severe in the tropical regions,
mostly in that mix that is lean.

The table-1 shows the reduction of compressive strength of concrete structures by the
different salt content present in water.

Table-1: Effect of Different Salts in Water on Compressive Strength of

Concrete

Salt Content in Water (%) Reduction in Compressive Strength (%)

0.5S04 4
1.0 S04 10
5 NaCl 30
CO2 20

Water Impurities and their Effect on Concrete

Properties
The effect of various properties on the concrete properties are explained below:

Effect of Suspended Particles in Water on Concrete Properties

If the mixing water contains suspended particles in an amount up to 0.02 percent by

weight of total water used in concrete, it will not affect the concrete properties.

It is found that high content of suspended particles does not affect the strength of the
concrete, but affect other properties of the same.

The Indian code IS: 456-2000 prescribes an allowable limit of suspended particles in
water to be less than 2000mg/liter. Before the use of water in concrete, the muddy water
should undergo settlement in the basin.

Effect of Miscellaneous Inorganic Salts in Water on Properties of Concrete

The salt content in water adversely affect the strength of the concrete. The major salts
that can be present in water are salts of manganese, tin, lead, copper and zinc.

The presence of zinc chloride in water results in the retarding of concrete strength gain.
This is determined as an observation of no strength gain at the second or the third day of
concrete (when subjected to strength tests).

Another salt that brings destructive effect on concrete is the lead nitrate. Other salts like
sodium phosphate, sodium arsenate, sodium iodate and sodium borate result in the
reduction of the initial concrete strength to a very lower degree.

The sodium and potassium carbonates cause extremely large rapid setting in large
concentrations. This results in the reduction of concrete strength.

The presence of calcium chlorides accelerates the setting and hardening of the concrete.
But the presence of calcium chloride is restricted to 1.5 percent of the total weight of the
cement used in the mix.

Effect of Salts in Seawater on Properties of Concrete

The seawater comprises of 3.5 percent of the dissolved salts. The seawater chemical
composition is uniform throughout the world. Most of the chlorides are associated with
the sodium, where some are with potassium, while sulfate is associated with magnesium.

When considering approximate values, different ion content due to the presence of salts
can be specified as 51.3% of chlorides, magnesium in 3.6%, 7.2% of sulfates, 28.5% of
sodium, 1.3% of calcium and 1% of potassium. But the total amount of salt may vary
widely.

The ingress of any considered ion into concrete mass is directly proportional to the
seawater’s salinity. This is with respect to a given mass of seawater.

When the chemical effects are of more priority it is mentioned that of all, sulfate is the
most problematic. This is the reason for the development of sulfate resistant cement. The
concrete of very lower water/cement ratio facilitates this requirement of sulfate
resistance.

The salt content in sea water reduces the concrete strength by an amount of 10 to 20
percent. More than strength factor, the corrosion of the reinforcement is considered as the
adverse effect. The chlorides are the main cause of corrosion.

The risk of reinforcement corrosion is higher when it is exposed to air than when it is
submerged in water. Another effect of chlorides is the efflorescence.

It is advised to use cement with high C3A content, as the chloride ion will be intercepted
by the aluminate present. This is by the precipitation of calcium chloroaluminate which
has no detrimental effects. This will hence increase the life period of steel and the
durability of the structure.

The two main reasons for the presence of chloride ions in the concrete are

1. Addition of calcium chloride as accelerating admixture

2. Use of seawater as mixing water

For those cements that are not sulfate resistant, the use of CaCl2 will adversely affect the
sulfate resistances of the concrete mix. This is not a problem if the cement has some
amount of sulfate resisting measure in it.

Hence in cold weather conditions, the CaCl2 can be employed to accelerator add some
content of sulfate resisting cement (in a measure equal to that added to the normal
cement).

The codes do not support the use of calcium chloride when the sulfate resisting cement is
employed. But in situations which are unavoidable, it is used in plain concrete that is
submerged under water.

Effect of Acids and Alkalis in Water on Properties of Concrete

The water that consists of industrial waste are not suitable for concrete construction. The
industrial water consists of detrimental acids or alkalies that depend on the waste product
of the respective industry.

In terms of pH value, the water that has a pH value greater than 6 can be employed for
the concrete construction. But the pH value will not give a proper and adequate measure
about the acid content in the water.

The acid content in water can be gauged accurately based on total acidity, in the extend to
satisfy the below requirement, i.e.:

The amount of 0.02 normal NaOH required to neutralize 100ml of water sample by using
phenolphthalein as the indicator should not be greater than 5ml. Here, the acidity is
equivalent to 49 ppm of H2So4 or 36 ppm of HCL.

Effect of Algae on Properties of Concrete

Algae are observed on the surface of the mixing water or on the surface of the aggregates.
The algae (algae in aggregates) will combine with cement (cement + algae) reducing the
bond between the cement paste and aggregates.

The algae entering the mix through water will result in the air entrainment in large
quantities, which in turn result in the reduction of concrete strength.
Effect of Sugar on Properties of Concrete

The sugar content in water if is less than 0.05 percent by weight of water, then no adverse
effect is observed in the concrete structure. The sugar content in 0.15 percent will result
in retarding of setting time and the early strength of the concrete. But it is observed that
the 28th day strength of concrete is improved.

The sugar content increased by an amount to 0.20 percent is said to improve the setting
(time is accelerated). Further increase of sugar will cause rapid setting but the 28th day
strength is affected.

Effect of Oil Contamination on Properties of Concrete

Mineral oil in water, that have no animal or vegetable oil content have no adverse effect
on the concrete properties. The mineral oil content to a percentage of 2% is said to
increase the strength of the concrete. But for more than 8% mineral oil, the strength is
reduced.

The vegetable oil in water used for concrete manufacture shows its detrimental effects on
the strength of concrete at its later stages.

Maximum Limit of Water Impurities for Concrete

Construction
The table-2 specifies the limit of a number of solid impurities in water used for concrete
production.

The pH value that is most suitable for construction of concrete is generally between 6 to
8. It is said that water equivalent to drinking water is best for construction. The solid
contents in water are determined based on the procedures given in IS: 3025.

Table-2: Limits of Permissible Impurities in Water for Concrete

Construction

Types of Impurities in Limit of Permissible Salt

Water (Percentage weight of water)
Organic Solids 0.02
Inorganic Solids 0.03
Sulfates (SO3) 0.04
Alkali Chlorides (as
Cl2)
1. Plain Concrete 0.2
2. Reinforced Concrete 0.05
Effect of Impurities in Curing Water on Concrete
Construction
The main intention of curing is to let the water penetrate the concrete. No water is
necessary for curing if proper steps were taken to prevent the loss of water from the
concrete.

There is inevitably some loss of water from the surface of the structural members due to
evaporation. The hydration process is carried out within the interior of the structure, but
at the surface, the situation is not same as there is a lack of moisture or water content due
to evaporation. Hence it is necessary to have curing.

If the water used is seawater, the chloride ions will enter the surface zone which will later
move inwards by means of diffusion. It should be noted that most of the durability issues
start from the surface or an attack from the surface to move inwards.

Marine structures that are intended to be submerged in the seawater have large risk due to
the sea dissolved salts. But these problems are covered if proper curing is carried out by
fresh water.

The iron content or organic matter in water that is used for curing will result in the
staining or deposits in the concrete surface. As per IS: 456-2000, the presence of iron or
tannic acid compounds are restricted in curing water.

Read More: Water Quality Tests for Concrete Construction and Recommended
Limits

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Water for Construction
Water is one of the most important elements in construction but people still ignore quality
aspect of this element. The water is required for preparation of mortar, mixing of cement
concrete and for curing work etc during construction work. The quality and quantity of
water has much effect on the strength of mortar and cement concrete in construction
work.

Quality of Water

The water used for mixing and curing should be clean and free from injurious quantities
of alkalis, acid, oils, salt, sugar, organic materials, vegetable growth and other substances
that may be deleterious to bricks, stone, concrete or steel. Potable water is generally
considered satisfactory for mixing. The pH value of water should be not less than 6.

Effects of Bad Quality Water on Cement Concrete

It has been observed that certain common impurities in water affect the quality of mortar
or concrete. Many times in spite of using best material i.e. cement, coarse sand, coarse
aggregate etc. in cement concrete, required results are not achieved. Most of
Engineers/Contractors think that there is something wrong in cement, but they do not
consider quality of water being used. Some bad effects of water containing impurities are
following.

 Presence of salt in water such as Calcium Chloride, Iron Salts, inorganic salts and
sodium etc. are so dangerous that they reduce initial strength of concrete and in
some cases no strength can be achieved. There is rusting problem in steel
provided in RCC.

 Presence of acid, alkali, industrial waste, sanitary sewage and water with sugar also
reduce the strength of concrete.
 Presence of silt or suspended particle in water has adverse effect on strength of
concrete.
 Presence of oil such as linseed oil, vegetable oil or mineral oil in water above 2 %
reduces the strength of concrete up to 25 %.
5. Presence of algae/vegetable growth in water used for mixing in cement concrete
reduce of the strength of concrete considerably and also reduce the bond between cement
paste and aggregate.
 Don't let this happen in your home. Use quality water for construction.

Caution: It has been observed at various places that cement concrete start falling down in
pieces after rusting mild steel from RCC slab, which is due to use of bad quality/salty
water in RCC slab. All this is due to negligence or ignorance which creates great
problems and also bears a heavy loss. It is advisable that the water must be tested before
using in construction work.

How to test water and what should be tested

It is recommended that the water is tested through a certified lab. The water should
confirm the standard IS: 3025-1986 which is briefly described below.

 Limit of Acidity: To neutralize 200 ml sample of water, use phenolphthalein as an

indicator. It does not require more than 2 ml 0.1 normal NAOH.
 Limit of Alkalinity: To neutralize 200 ml sample of water, use methyl oil as an
indicator, it does not require more than 10 ml 0.1 normal HCL

Limit of Solids

 Organic: 200 Mg per liter

 Inorganic: 3000. Mg per liter
 Sulphate: 400 mg per liter
  Chloride: 500 mg per liter for RCC work and 2000 mg per liter for concrete not
containing steel.
 Suspended matter: 2000 mg per liter

Physical and chemical properties of ground water should be tested along with soil
investigation and if the water is not found conforming to the requirements of IS:
456-2000, it should not be used. The water found satisfactory for mixing is also
suitable for curing. However the water used for curing should not produce any
objectionable stain or unsightly deposit on the surface. The presence of tannic
acid or iron compounds in water meant for curing is objectionable. Sea water
should not be used for mixing or curing.

It is a common thinking in construction work that the water fit for human consumption is
generally acceptable for mixing mortar or concrete and curing work. However, the water
must be tested before using in construction work. When you are making huge expenditure
on construction work, a negligible amount spent on water testing should not be saved.
Tested water or treated water should be used as this will increase the strength of cement
concrete and enhance the life of building.

Treatment of Water: It is advisable that water should be tested in lab and if found
unsatisfactory, it should be treated according to directions of laboratory. It is generally
observed that ground water has some quantities of salt. In case of small work or in a
situation where good water is not available, salty water must be treated with HCL @ 10
ml for 100 liters of water.

Quantity of Water: Water is an important component for mortar or concrete. The

quantity and quality of water have much effect on the strength of mortar and cement
concrete. It has been observed many times that in spite of using best raw materials,
cement and tested water; concrete does not provide required results.
Engineers/contractors think that there is something wrong in cement, but they do not
consider water cement ratio or quantity of water added in the mix.

When the water is mixed in mortar, it reacts with cement and forms a binding paste which
fills small voids in the sand. This creates a close cohesion of sand particles and cement.
In case of cement concrete the voids formed between sand and coarse aggregate gets
filled with the paste forming a cohesive substance/concrete. The required quantity of
water is used to prepare mortar or concrete, but in practice it is seen that more water is
mixed to make the mix workable. This is a bad practice and additional water weakens the
strength of cement paste. Extra water also weakens adhesive quality.

Main disadvantages of mixing too much water in mortar and concrete

  The water occupies space in sand and it evaporates to create voids. Moreover the
water voids will be more and this will reduce the density, strength and durability
of mortar or concrete.
 When more water is used in concrete excess water brings a mixture of excess
cement paste with water floating on the surface. This material forms a thin layer
of chalky material on the surface which reduces proper bonding with second layer
of cement concrete in case of water tank and dams etc. This will affect the
strength of concrete.
 When more water is used, the cement slurry starts coming out from from cement
concrete mix. The excess slurry formed by water and cement comes out through
shuttering joints. This makes concrete of less cement and reduces the strength of
concrete.
 When more water is used, proper compaction is not achieved and there is
bleeding, large voids and more shrinkage, less durability and less strength.
 When more water is mixed in cement concrete, the problem of segregation of
material is faced at the time of laying the mix. As a result Coarse Aggregate and
cement paste separate from each other.

Hence strict control should be kept on water cement ratio for preparing the mortar or
concrete for qualitative finish/ strength.

Quantity of Water for One Bag Mix

 Approximate 32 liters of water is required where the ratio 1:2:4 of cement

concrete is used.
 Approximate 30 liters of water is required where the ratio 1:1.5:3 of cement
concrete is used.

Water for Cement Concrete

 Water for ordinary cement concrete mix should be equal to 5% by weight of

aggregate and 30% by weight of cement.
 The actual quantity of water required to be added in the field depends on
availability of aggregate and surface water present in the aggregate.
 It should be calculated by slump test.
 Generally for vibrated concrete the quantity of water is less by 20%.

Water Reducing Admixtures

The water reducer admixture improves workability of concrete/mortar for the same water
cement ratio. The determination of workability is an important factor in testing concrete
admixture. Rapid loss of workability occurs during first few minutes after mixing
concrete and gradual loss of workability takes place over a period from 15 to 60 minutes
after mixing. Thus relative advantages of water reducing admixture decrease with time
after mixing. These admixtures increase setting time by about 2 to 6 hours during which
concrete can be vibrated. This is particularly important in hot weather conditions or
where the nature of construction demands a time gap between the placements of
successive layers of concrete.

Advantages

 It can reduce 10% of water consumption.

 It can improve mixture of cement concrete for workability.
 Compression strength improves by more than 15 %.
 It can reduce initial stage of cement heat hydration by large margin.
 It has no function of corrosion reinforcing bars.
 It increases workability, density and strength without increasing the quantity of
cement.

Hence in the area where there is less availability of water and the water is carried from
long distances for construction work, the water reducing admixture is most beneficial for
cement concrete work as it saves water up to 10%. It also increases the strength of
cement concrete with the same quantity of cement.

Note: - pH Value: A method of expressing differences in the acidity or alkalinity of a

solution. A figure of 7 is regarded as neutral; figures below this indicate the decree of
acidity and above alkalinity.
Specification of Water
Water for Construction

Water used for all construction works like masonry work, making concrete, mortar,
bricks, or for other plain or reinforced general construction, should be clean and free from
objectionable quantities of suspended materials, vegetables, or organic impurities like
alkalis, salts, and other deleterious substances.

Because such deleterious materials cause efflorescence or are likely to interfere with
setting of mortar or prove harmful to construction works. Clear and potable water is
considered quite satisfactory for all purposes.

NOTE: In any case, salty water must not be used for construction works.

Deleterious Materials in Water

The following considerations are assumed to rectify maximum permissible limits of
deleterious materials in water.
1. Limits of Acidity
2. Limits of Alkali
3. Percentage of solids

Limits of Acidity

To neutralize 200 ml of sample water, required caustic soda solution should not be more
than 2 ml of 0.1 N. The details of its test are given in I.S. 3025-1964.

Limits of Alkali
To neutralize 200 ml sample of water, required hydrochloric acid should not be more than
0.1 ml of 0.1 N. The details of its test are given in I.S. 3025-1964.

Percentage of solids
The percentage of solids should not exceed the following limits when tested in
accordance with I.S. 3025-1964
Fine Sand /classification of sand
Fine Sand

Fine sand should consist of natural sand or crushed stone sand. It should be hard, durable,
clean and be free from organic matter etc.Fine Sand should not contain any appreciable
amount of clay balls and harmful impurities such as alkalis, salts, coal, decayed
vegetation etc. The silt contents should not exceed 4%.

Classification of Sand

Classification of sand is given below.

1. Fine sand = 0.075 to O.425 MM
2. Medium sand = 0.425 to 2 MM
3. Coarse Sand = 2.0 to 4.75 MM

Various Types of Sand

There are following three types of sand.
1. Pit Sand
2. River Sand
3. Sea Sand

Pit Sand (Coarse Sand or Badarpur)

Pit sand is obtained by forming pits into soil from ‘Quarries’. It consists of sharp angular
grains which are free from salts. It is coarse sand which is usually used in concreting and
has reddish yellow color normally.

River Sand
This sand is obtained from banks or beds of rivers. River sand is fine and consists of fine
rounded grains. The color of river sand is almost white and Grayish. River sand is usually
available in clean condition and is used for plastering.

Sea Sand
This sand is obtained from sea shores. It has fine rounded grains and light brown color.
Sea sand contains salts which attract moisture from atmosphere. Such absorption causes
dampness and disintegration of work. Sea sand also retards setting action of cement. Due
to these reasons, sea sand is generally avoided for engineering purposes. It is used only as
a local material for nonstructural purposes.

Sand for Construction Works

Different construction works require different standards of sand for construction.

• Brick Works: finest modulus of fine sand should be 1.2 to 1.5 and silt contents should
not be more than 4%.

• Plastering Works: finest modulus of fine sand should not be less than 1.5 and silt
contents should not be more than 4%.

• Concreting Works: coarse sand should be used with finest modulus 2.5 to 3.5 and silt
contents should not be more than 4%.
Water for Construction
Water is one of the most important elements in construction but people still ignore quality
aspect of this element. The water is required for preparation of mortar, mixing of cement
concrete and for curing work etc during construction work. The quality and quantity of
water has much effect on the strength of mortar and cement concrete in construction
work.

Quality of Water

The water used for mixing and curing should be clean and free from injurious quantities
of alkalis, acid, oils, salt, sugar, organic materials, vegetable growth and other substances
that may be deleterious to bricks, stone, concrete or steel. Potable water is generally
considered satisfactory for mixing. The pH value of water should be not less than 6.

Effects of Bad Quality Water on Cement Concrete

It has been observed that certain common impurities in water affect the quality of mortar
or concrete. Many times in spite of using best material i.e. cement, coarse sand, coarse
aggregate etc. in cement concrete, required results are not achieved. Most of
Engineers/Contractors think that there is something wrong in cement, but they do not
consider quality of water being used. Some bad effects of water containing impurities are
following.

 Presence of salt in water such as Calcium Chloride, Iron Salts, inorganic salts and
sodium etc. are so dangerous that they reduce initial strength of concrete and in
some cases no strength can be achieved. There is rusting problem in steel
provided in RCC.

 Presence of acid, alkali, industrial waste, sanitary sewage and water with sugar also
reduce the strength of concrete.
 Presence of silt or suspended particle in water has adverse effect on strength of
concrete.
 Presence of oil such as linseed oil, vegetable oil or mineral oil in water above 2 %
reduces the strength of concrete up to 25 %.
5. Presence of algae/vegetable growth in water used for mixing in cement concrete
reduce of the strength of concrete considerably and also reduce the bond between cement
paste and aggregate.
 Don't let this happen in your home. Use quality water for construction.

Caution: It has been observed at various places that cement concrete start falling down in
pieces after rusting mild steel from RCC slab, which is due to use of bad quality/salty
water in RCC slab. All this is due to negligence or ignorance which creates great
problems and also bears a heavy loss. It is advisable that the water must be tested before
using in construction work.

How to test water and what should be tested

It is recommended that the water is tested through a certified lab. The water should
confirm the standard IS: 3025-1986 which is briefly described below.

 Limit of Acidity: To neutralize 200 ml sample of water, use phenolphthalein as an

indicator. It does not require more than 2 ml 0.1 normal NAOH.
 Limit of Alkalinity: To neutralize 200 ml sample of water, use methyl oil as an
indicator, it does not require more than 10 ml 0.1 normal HCL

Limit of Solids

 Organic: 200 Mg per liter

 Inorganic: 3000. Mg per liter
 Sulphate: 400 mg per liter
  Chloride: 500 mg per liter for RCC work and 2000 mg per liter for concrete not
containing steel.
 Suspended matter: 2000 mg per liter

Physical and chemical properties of ground water should be tested along with soil
investigation and if the water is not found conforming to the requirements of IS:
456-2000, it should not be used. The water found satisfactory for mixing is also
suitable for curing. However the water used for curing should not produce any
objectionable stain or unsightly deposit on the surface. The presence of tannic
acid or iron compounds in water meant for curing is objectionable. Sea water
should not be used for mixing or curing.

It is a common thinking in construction work that the water fit for human consumption is
generally acceptable for mixing mortar or concrete and curing work. However, the water
must be tested before using in construction work. When you are making huge expenditure
on construction work, a negligible amount spent on water testing should not be saved.
Tested water or treated water should be used as this will increase the strength of cement
concrete and enhance the life of building.

Treatment of Water: It is advisable that water should be tested in lab and if found
unsatisfactory, it should be treated according to directions of laboratory. It is generally
observed that ground water has some quantities of salt. In case of small work or in a
situation where good water is not available, salty water must be treated with HCL @ 10
ml for 100 liters of water.

Quantity of Water: Water is an important component for mortar or concrete. The

quantity and quality of water have much effect on the strength of mortar and cement
concrete. It has been observed many times that in spite of using best raw materials,
cement and tested water; concrete does not provide required results.
Engineers/contractors think that there is something wrong in cement, but they do not
consider water cement ratio or quantity of water added in the mix.

When the water is mixed in mortar, it reacts with cement and forms a binding paste which
fills small voids in the sand. This creates a close cohesion of sand particles and cement.
In case of cement concrete the voids formed between sand and coarse aggregate gets
filled with the paste forming a cohesive substance/concrete. The required quantity of
water is used to prepare mortar or concrete, but in practice it is seen that more water is
mixed to make the mix workable. This is a bad practice and additional water weakens the
strength of cement paste. Extra water also weakens adhesive quality.

Main disadvantages of mixing too much water in mortar and concrete

  The water occupies space in sand and it evaporates to create voids. Moreover the
water voids will be more and this will reduce the density, strength and durability
of mortar or concrete.
 When more water is used in concrete excess water brings a mixture of excess
cement paste with water floating on the surface. This material forms a thin layer
of chalky material on the surface which reduces proper bonding with second layer
of cement concrete in case of water tank and dams etc. This will affect the
strength of concrete.
 When more water is used, the cement slurry starts coming out from from cement
concrete mix. The excess slurry formed by water and cement comes out through
shuttering joints. This makes concrete of less cement and reduces the strength of
concrete.
 When more water is used, proper compaction is not achieved and there is
bleeding, large voids and more shrinkage, less durability and less strength.
 When more water is mixed in cement concrete, the problem of segregation of
material is faced at the time of laying the mix. As a result Coarse Aggregate and
cement paste separate from each other.

Hence strict control should be kept on water cement ratio for preparing the mortar or
concrete for qualitative finish/ strength.

Quantity of Water for One Bag Mix

 Approximate 32 liters of water is required where the ratio 1:2:4 of cement

concrete is used.
 Approximate 30 liters of water is required where the ratio 1:1.5:3 of cement
concrete is used.

Water for Cement Concrete

 Water for ordinary cement concrete mix should be equal to 5% by weight of

aggregate and 30% by weight of cement.
 The actual quantity of water required to be added in the field depends on
availability of aggregate and surface water present in the aggregate.
 It should be calculated by slump test.
 Generally for vibrated concrete the quantity of water is less by 20%.

Water Reducing Admixtures

The water reducer admixture improves workability of concrete/mortar for the same water
cement ratio. The determination of workability is an important factor in testing concrete
admixture. Rapid loss of workability occurs during first few minutes after mixing
concrete and gradual loss of workability takes place over a period from 15 to 60 minutes
after mixing. Thus relative advantages of water reducing admixture decrease with time
after mixing. These admixtures increase setting time by about 2 to 6 hours during which
concrete can be vibrated. This is particularly important in hot weather conditions or
where the nature of construction demands a time gap between the placements of
successive layers of concrete.

Advantages

 It can reduce 10% of water consumption.

 It can improve mixture of cement concrete for workability.
 Compression strength improves by more than 15 %.
 It can reduce initial stage of cement heat hydration by large margin.
 It has no function of corrosion reinforcing bars.
 It increases workability, density and strength without increasing the quantity of
cement.

Hence in the area where there is less availability of water and the water is carried from
long distances for construction work, the water reducing admixture is most beneficial for
cement concrete work as it saves water up to 10%. It also increases the strength of
cement concrete with the same quantity of cement.

Note: - pH Value: A method of expressing differences in the acidity or alkalinity of a

solution. A figure of 7 is regarded as neutral; figures below this indicate the decree of
acidity and above alkalinity.