Final Report
November 2, 2009
Prepared by:
The purpose of this research project, which was initiated at the request of the NFPA Technical
Committee on Hazardous Chemicals, is to develop a scientific and reliable method to classify
chemical oxidizers based on the degree to which an oxidizer increases the burning rate of
combustible materials with which it comes into contact. A test plan was developed to
determine the relationship between oxidizer chemical structure, composition, and packaging
on the burning rate of oxidizers for classification and fire protection in storage environments.
The resulting classification scheme for oxidizers is practical and includes a bench scale screening
test method and medium scale burn testing of the oxidizer in its packaging with criteria for
classification.
The Research Foundation expresses gratitude to the report author Elizabeth C. Buc of Fire and
Materials Research Laboratory, LLC and to the Project Technical Panelists and sponsors listed
on the following page.
The content, opinions and conclusions contained in this report are solely those of the author.
TECHNICAL PANEL, SPONSORS, COLLABORATORS
TECHNICAL PANEL
PROJECT SPONSORs
Advantis Technologies
American Pacific Corporation
Arch Chemicals
Carus Corporation
DuPont
FMC Corporation
Leslie‘s Poolmart
Pinch-a-Penny
Poolcorp
PPG Industries, Inc.
SC Johnson
Isocyanurate Industry Ad Hoc Committee
(Aqua Clor, S.A. de C.V.; Aragonesas, Industrias Y Energia, S.A.; BioLab, Inc. (a Chemtura
company); Clearon Corp.; Hebei Jiheng Chemical Co., Ltd.; Heze Huayi Chemical Co. Ltd.;
Inquide S.A.; Jingxian Hongfa Chemical Co., Ltd.; Nissan Chemical America Corp.; Occidental
Chemical Corp.; Shikoku Chemicals Corp.; and 3V Sigma S.p.A.)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.............................................................................................................. ii
Recommendations.................................................................................................................. 5
Disclaimers ............................................................................................................................. 5
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 7
Background ............................................................................................................................ 7
Safety ..................................................................................................................................... 9
DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................................ 9
MATERIALS .............................................................................................................................11
Chemical Oxidizers................................................................................................................18
Correlations .......................................................................................................................33
CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................................81
RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................................82
REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................83
FIGURE 1. Stereomicroscope images (top) and FTIR spectrum of Whatman CF11 cellulose
powder (bottom) (Lot No. 7311083). ..................................................................................13
FIGURE 3. HDPE containers and pail used as combustible test packaging in intermediate-scale
fire exposure tests. The 60 ounce HDPE container was used in a majority of the tests. ....16
FIGURE 4. Combustible test packaging consisting of a doubled-wall carton (left) and containing
six 60-ounce HDPE containers(right), each of which contained 4 pounds of granular,
crystalline, or tablet form common salt or oxidizer. .............................................................16
FIGURE 5. Stereomicroscope images (top) and FTIR spectrum (bottom) of phenolic resin
powder. ..............................................................................................................................17
FIGURE 6. Overview of the bench-scale screening test set-up showing the laboratory balance
with ceramic board protection materials, thermocouples above the test platform and
Nichrome wire. ...................................................................................................................21
FIGURE 7. Pile of oxidizer-cellulose powder mixture on the protected lab balance before
ignition (left) and during combustion (right). .......................................................................22
FIGURE 8. Single container wood crib fire exposure test set-up. ..............................................23
FIGURE 10. Photographs showing modified combustion-type test set up before and after
addition of 30g pile of oxidizer-cellulose powder. ...............................................................25
FIGURE 11. Plan view schematic drawing showing the intermediate-scale fire exposure test set-
up, identification and location of instrumentation (see Appendix 4). ...................................27
FIGURE 12. Photograph of the intermediate-scale fire exposure test set up under a 2MW hood.
..........................................................................................................................................28
FIGURE 13. Photograph during fire exposure test with a packaged oxidizer. ............................28
FIGURE 14. Thermal image during a fire exposure test with a packaged oxidizer. ...................28
FIGURE 15. Correlation between the peak convective heat release rate and peak radiant heat
flux. ....................................................................................................................................33
FIGURE 16. Radiant heat flux and mass loss profile of packaged oxidizer illustrating the active
burning time and mass loss rate calculated from the width at one-half the peak radiant heat
flux. ....................................................................................................................................34
FIGURE 17. Correlation between the active burning time and peak convective heat release rate
data from the intermediate scale tests with 24-lbs net weight packaged salt and oxidizers in
the test packaging. .............................................................................................................34
FIGURE 19. Correlation between the peak heat release rate based on carbon dioxide
generation and gas temperature rise from tests with 24-lbs net weight packaged sodium
chloride and oxidizers. .......................................................................................................36
FIGURE 20. Ratio of the peak convective to peak chemical heat release rate of the oxidizers
tested including potassium perchlorate. .............................................................................36
FIGURE 21. Peak heat release rates of 24-lb of sodium chloride, phenolic resin powder and
oxidizers based on carbon dioxide generation and gas temperature rise. ..........................37
FIGURE 22. Peak convective heat release rate and peak radiant heat flux from empty test
packaging and 24-lbs packaged sodium chloride, phenolic resin powder and oxidizers. ....38
FIGURE 23. Peak convective heat release rate and active burning times of empty test
packaging, 24-lbs packaged sodium chloride, phenolic resin powder and oxidizers. Note,
the active burning time data for some tests were greater than 600 seconds or not
distinguishable from the burner baseline. ...........................................................................39
FIGURE 24. Radiant heat flux profiles of oxidizers with a range in burning behavior.................42
FIGURE 25. Radiant heat flux profiles of 24 lbs net weight 1:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium
chloride in three different packaging..................................................................................43
FIGURE 26. Radiant heat flux profiles of 24 lbs net weight 2:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium
chloride in HDPE containers and 1-lb bags. .......................................................................44
FIGURE 27. Inversion in the oxygen concentration of the combustion gas during the fire
exposure test with 2:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium chloride in twenty-four, 1-lb bags. ......44
FIGURE 28. Photograph and thermal image during test with high strength calcium hypochlorite.
..........................................................................................................................................46
FIGURE 30. Representative photograph and mass loss-temperature profile of dried, cellulose
powder. ..............................................................................................................................48
FIGURE 31. Comparing the mass loss profiles of cellulose powder as-received and after drying.
..........................................................................................................................................49
FIGURE 32. Photograph during screening test with 30 g, 3:7 potassium bromate:cellulose
powder. ..............................................................................................................................53
FIGURE 33. Mass loss profiles from six trials with 30-g 3:7 potassium bromate:cellulose powder
mixtures. ............................................................................................................................53
FIGURE 34. Representative mass loss-temperature profile from one trial with 3:7 potassium
bromate:cellulose powder. .................................................................................................54
FIGURE 36. Correlation between mass loss rate and active burning time for 1:1
oxidizer:cellulose powder mixtures. ....................................................................................55
FIGURE 37. Correlation between mass loss rate and active burning time for 4:1
oxidizer:cellulose powder mixtures. ....................................................................................56
FIGURE 38. Representative photographs and mass loss-temperature profiles of 1:1, 4:1 and
9:1 mixtures of barium nitrate:cellulose powder (30-g) .......................................................57
FIGURE 39. Representative photographs and the mass loss-temperature profiles of 1:1, 4:1
and 9:1 high-strength calcium hypochlorite:cellulose powder (30-g)...................................58
FIGURE 40. Active burning time and mass loss rate from 20% to 80% consumed for 19
oxidizers in 4:1 mixtures with cellulose powder ..................................................................59
FIGURE 41. Heat release rate and mass loss profile of 1:1 calcium peroxide (75%):cellulose
powder (15 g) showing the correlation between the time to the peak heat release rate and
peak mass loss rate. ..........................................................................................................65
FIGURE 42. Barium nitrate:cellulose powder mixture heat release rate profiles illustrating the
difference in burning behavior as a function of oxidizer concentration. ...............................65
FIGURE 43. Heat release rate profiles of calcium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite-sodium
chloride and sodium chloride (NaCl):cellulose powder mixtures (1:1, 30 g). .......................66
FIGURE 44. Peak heat release and mass loss rate data of 30-g cellulose powder, 1:1 sodium
chloride (NaCl) :cellulose powder and 1:1 inorganic oxidizers with cellulose powder. ........67
FIGURE 45. Bench-scale screening test data of inorganic oxidizers with a range in burning
rate. ...................................................................................................................................71
FIGURE 46. Flow diagram of oxidizer classification tests and criteria .......................................73
TABLE 1. Properties of Whatman CF11 Cellulose Powder (Lot No. 7311083). .........................12
TABLE 2. FPA Reaction-to-Fire Test Data of Whatman CF11 Cellulose Powder (30-g)............12
TABLE 6. Bench-Scale Screening Test Data Recorded and Calculated for Each Mixture .........22
TABLE 9. Test Materials with Sustained Surface Temperatures Greater than 700°C................41
TABLE 12. Sodium Chloride-Cellulose Powder Mixture FPA Test Data ....................................62
TABLE 13. Oxidizer-Cellulose Powder (30 g) Mixture FPA Test Data .......................................63
TABLE 14. Oxidizer-Cellulose Powder (15g) Mixture FPA Test Data .......................................64
TABLE 15. Intermediate- and Bench-Scale Test Results of Sodium Chloride and Oxidizers. ...70
TABLE 16. Tests and Criteria for Assigning Solid Oxidizers to Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 & Class
4. .......................................................................................................................................72
TABLE 17. Advantages and Limitations of the Bench-Scale Screening Test ............................74
TABLE 18. Advantages and Limitations of the Intermediate-Scale Fire Exposure Test .............74
Chemical oxidizers are defined as ‗any material that readily yields oxygen or other oxidizing gas,
or that readily reacts to promote or initiate combustion of combustible materials and, under
some circumstances, can undergo vigorous self-sustained decomposition due to contamination
or heat exposure‘.1 Unless properly stored and handled, oxidizers are serious fire safety
hazards. In an effort to prevent and/or mitigate fires caused by or involving oxidizers, the NFPA
developed a four-class classification system for solid and liquid oxidizers. The first and most
important step in applying the Code‘s requirements for the safe storage of oxidizers is Class
assignment. The Class of oxidizer not only provides an indication of the potential fire hazard but
also specifies the quantities of material requiring protection under various storage configurations
and occupancies. Oxidizers assigned to Class 1 are least hazardous, while those assigned to
Class 4 exhibit the most severe physical hazards (i.e., explosive reaction). While in use since
1973, this classification system is subjective. Burning rate, the principal physical hazard of
oxidizers used to distinguish between the four Classes, is not defined by the Code and there are
no tests for assessing the degree to which an oxidizer increases the burning rate of combustible
materials with which it comes into contact.
During Phase II, a bench-scale screening test was developed based on the globally accepted
UN Test O.1 method for Division 5.1 solid oxidizers.3 The bench-scale test was used to perform
over 225 screening tests with twenty oxidizers that exhibited a range in burning behavior. Four
test-operator-independent variables were used to evaluate burning rate: mass loss rate, burning
duration, peak temperature, and flame height. Fifty-nine oxidizer-fuel mixtures were tested
using the Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA, ASTM E 20584) at FM Global. Results from the
bench-scale screening test were validated by establishing correlations between mass loss rate
and heat release rate data from the FPA. Thirty-two intermediate-scale fire exposure tests
based on ASTM E 20675 were conducted at Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) with empty
packaging, packaged sodium chloride, packaged phenolic resin powder, and fourteen oxidizers
in three combustible test packaging types. Most intermediate-scale tests consisted of the same
mass (24-lbs) of oxidizer in the same combustible packaging consisting of six high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) containers enclosed in doubled-wall corrugated board cartons. Energy
released during the fires involving oxidizers at the intermediate-scale was characterized by peak
convective heat release rate and the duration of active burning from radiant heat flux profiles.
The proposed oxidizer classification method consists of two reaction-to-fire tests: (1) a bench-
scale screening test with 30-g mixtures of oxidizer and dried cellulose powder exposed to a
glowing wire and (2) an intermediate-scale test with 24-lbs of oxidizer in combustible test
The proposed bench-scale screening test can be performed by most laboratories at low cost*.
The intermediate-scale fire exposure test requires a burn facility. The screening test should be
used as a first step to classify oxidizers, followed by confirmatory intermediate-scale tests,
especially for oxidizers that are not clearly Class 1 or Class 3. And for safety, the bench-scale
screening test should be conducted before intermediate-scale testing.
The mass loss rate and active burning time data from the bench-scale screening test are test-
operator-independent indicators of burning rate and are capable of preliminary categorizing an
oxidizer according to the fire characteristic in question (i.e., burning rate). The method of
collecting mass loss data during combustion has already been subject to inter-laboratory
testing. Criteria based on mass loss data were found to be more reliable than the burning time
determined with a stop watch. The bench-scale screening test can distinguish between weak or
clearly Class 1 oxidizers, strong or clearly Class 3 oxidizers, and oxidizers that principally
decompose. It can also be used to investigate the influence of particle size, additives and the
degree of hydration or moisture content on burning rate. The intermediate-scale test and the
peak convective heat release rate are the best method and measure of the burning rate of the
packaged oxidizer, respectively. The larger scale test results were used to establish meaningful
criteria for the bench-scale screening test. The intermediate-scale fire exposure test would be
required for oxidizers that principally decompose, and are not clearly Class 1 or Class 3. The
results of an intermediate-scale fire exposure test with 24 pounds of material in combustible test
packaging will determine if an oxidizer is Class 1, Class 2, or Class 3.
Cumulative results indicated that the burning rate of the tested solid oxidizers was principally a
function of the oxidizer and its concentration. Inclusive in the influence of the oxidizer and its
concentration were the amount and type of additives as well as the degree of moisture content
of the oxidizer or hydrated salt additives. The tests and criteria are sensitive enough that
formulated or oxidizers mixed with inert materials were distinguishable from the unformulated or
pure oxidizer. Product form (granular vs. tablet) did not exhibit as strong an influence on burning
rate.
Additional research is required to evaluate fire scenarios involving liquid oxidizers. Because
there are fewer liquid phase oxidizers than solid phase oxidizers, it is recommended that the
storage, use and handling of these materials be subject to individual fire hazard assessment
until which time a test method(s) and criteria based on fire scenario are developed and validated
by intermediate-scale tests. Also, Code provisions should be considered for liquid oxidizers that
have been identified as explosive precursors.
Results from this project will significantly improve the Code and safety where oxidizers are
stored by properly identifying the Class to which an oxidizer or oxidizer-containing product
belongs. This research represents the first time bench-scale tests to evaluate chemical oxidizers
*
The laboratory should have oxidizer-handling experience, the minimum required equipment requirements and
chemical safety training.
The following table and flow diagram summarize the proposed oxidizer classification tests and
criteria resulting from this research project. The bench-scale screening test can be used to
classify oxidizers. If the material‘s maximum mass loss rate and active burning time are not
clearly Class 1 or clearly Class 3, then it is a candidate Class 2 oxidizer. A manufacturer can
accept Class 2 assignment or proceed to intermediate-scale testing in combustible test
packaging to resolve whether the oxidizer is a Class 1, Class 2, or Class 3.
Tests and Criteria for Assigning Solid Oxidizers to Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 and Class 4.
Generally meets the Class 3 criteria plus evidence to support explosive reaction due to contamination
CLASS 4
or exposure to thermal or physical shock including UN and/or GHS designations.
* Maximum mass loss rate from 20 to 80% the final measured mass (mf) of 1:1, 4:1 and 9:1 mixtures.
** Calculated from the mass loss profiles.
***Calculated from the width of the curve at ½ the peak radiant heat flux.
* Thirty-gram ( 30-g) piles of 1:1, 4:1 and 9:1 by weight mixtures of the oxidizer, with the as-received
particle size, and dried cellulose powder. I f the 1:1 or 4:1 oxidizer: cellulose powder mixture result in
burning durations less than 6 seconds or mass loss rates greater than 3 g/ s, testing a 9:1 mixture is not required.
* * A Class 4 oxidizer generally meets the Class 3 burning rate criteria plus evidence to support explosive reaction
due to contamination or exposure to thermal or physical shock.
Solid oxidizer classification tests and criteria flow diagram.
(1) Adopt the proposed method with two reaction-to-fire tests and criteria for assigning solid
oxidizers to Class 1, Class 2, Class 3, or Class 4.
(2) Evaluate and refine the definitions of oxidizer, burning rate and the definitions of Class 1,
Class 2, Class 3, and Class 4 oxidizers based on this report and the proposed tests and
criteria.
(4) Evaluate the test data and Class of oxidizers that, based on the intermediate-scale test
results, differed from their current NFPA Class. These oxidizers are sodium persulfate,
calcium peroxide, potassium permanganate, potassium perchlorate and calcium
hypochlorite (50 wt%). Under the proposed tests and criteria, each would be one class
higher. Further, potassium monopersulfate should be considered for addition to Class 1 in
the Code‘s annex.
(6) Establish a technical basis for the existing fire protection provisions with additional testing
using Class 1-borderline Class 2 and Class 2-borderline Class 3 oxidizers.
(7) Modify the Code to provide the same security measures recommended by the NRCan
Explosive Act for specific solid and liquid oxidizers identified as explosive precursors. The
oxidizers include hydrogen peroxide (≥30%), potassium chlorate, potassium perchlorate,
sodium chlorate, nitric acid (≥68%), potassium nitrate, and sodium nitrate.
Disclaimers
Oxidizers have multiple physical and health hazards. The tests and data described in this report
provide information only on the ‗burning rate‘ of oxidizers. This report does not address other
physical hazards of oxidizers, such as thermal instability and chemical reactivity, or health
hazards of gaseous products generated during combustion or decomposition. Dangerous
reactions can occur if oxidizers are exposed to fire or other heat sources. If confined, gaseous
products generated from oxidizer decomposition can result in overpressure events and
explosions. This report and research can be used as part of a full hazard-assessment of
oxidizers, including thermal decomposition and reaction to contaminants.
The results in this report do not include an evaluation of oxidizer-containing explosive mixtures,
pyrotechnic mixtures, and oxidizers stored in non-combustible vessels or in non-combustible
packaging. Recognizing that some oxidizers are packaged in non-combustible packaging, this
research and proposed tests and criteria involved combustible test packaging consisting of
plastic and corrugated cardboard, which may not be representative of oxidizers in their normal
packaging.
Background
Recognized hazards of chemical oxidizers are the potential to (1) increase the burning rate of
combustible materials; (2) cause spontaneous ignition of combustible materials; (3) decompose
rapidly; (4) evolve or emit hazardous gases; (5) undergo self-sustained decomposition which
can result in an explosion; and (6) react explosively if mixed with incompatible materials or if
involved in an exposure fire6. Whether it decomposes and initiates a fire or is involved in an
exposure fire, an oxidizer can release an oxidizing gas, in the condensed and/or gaseous
phase, that can increase the intensity of a fire compared to normal combustible materials. The
degree and/or range of hazards vary and are different for each oxidizer. Storage environment-
related combustible materials with which oxidizers come into contact include combustible
packaging and pallets.
The loss history of oxidizers includes large fires during transportation and storage. Recent fires
involving oxidizers have occurred at waste treatment facilities. Contaminated sodium chlorate,
for example, resulted in the destruction of a warehouse at Teris LLC in El Dorado, Arkansas in
January 2005.7 A subsequent fire at an EQ hazardous waste treatment facility in Apex, North
Carolina,8 originated where tablet-form swimming pool treatment chemicals and sodium chlorate
oxygen generators were stored.
Solid and liquid oxidizers are available as formulated products and can exist in different product
forms. Solid product forms include powder, granular, and compacted solid. Compacted solid
oxidizers include pellets, briquettes, pill or disk-shaped tablets of varying diameter, and solid
candles (i.e., oxygen generators, emergency road flares). Some oxidizers are neat or pure;
some are hydrated or anhydrous; others are formulated. In formulated products, the
concentration of the oxidizer constituent can vary. Examples of oxidizers that vary in
concentration in commercial formulated products are sodium dichloroisocyanurate dihydrate,
trichloroisocyanuric acid, sodium percarbonate, and calcium hypochlorite. Other constituents or
additives in oxidizer-containing commercial products may include hydrated salts, inert or non-
oxidizers, and/or oxidizing components. The number and concentration of additives in a
formulated product also vary.
Some oxidizers are explosive chemicals or explosive precursors. The National Research
Council‘s Committee on Marking, Rendering Inert and Licensing of Explosive Materials
identified ammonium nitrate as an explosive chemical, nine oxidizers that could be physically
mixed with a fuel to produce an explosive composition, and two liquid oxidizers as precursors
requiring chemical reactions.9 Solid and liquid oxidizers that made the Committee‘s short list of
explosive precursors most likely to be used in bomb-making were ammonium nitrate, sodium
nitrate, potassium nitrate, sodium chlorate, potassium chlorate, potassium perchlorate,
hydrogen peroxide, and nitric acid. Recently, the Natural Resources Canada (NRCan)
Explosives Act listed nine chemicals as explosive precursors, eight (six solids and two liquids) of
which were oxidizers.† The new regulation requires buyers and sellers of restricted components
to enroll with NRCan and to comply with security measures where these materials are stored
†
Ammonium nitrate (solid, 28-34% nitrogen), hydrogen peroxide (liquid, ≥30%), nitromethane, potassium
chlorate, potassium perchlorate, sodium chlorate (solid), nitric acid (liquid, ≥ 68%), potassium nitrate, and
sodium nitrate (solid). The non-oxidizer restricted component is liquid nitromethane.
The fire codes utilize a system for classifying oxidizers based on their potential fire hazard. In
the four-class system, oxidizers assigned to Class 1 are least hazardous, while those assigned
to Class 4 exhibit the most severe physical hazards (i.e., explosive reaction). NFPA 430 Code
for the Storage of Solid and Liquid Oxidizers applied to the storage and handling of oxidizers
and provided requirements for the safe storage of commercially available strengths of oxidizers
based on their Class. NFPA 430 Code was consolidated with other hazardous materials codes
into the new NFPA 400 Hazardous Materials Code. The definitions of Class 1, Class 2, Class 3
and Class 4 oxidizers and those listed as typical of each Class in the Annex did not change.
Class 4 oxidizers are considered high hazard level 1 contents; Class 3 oxidizers are high hazard
level 2 or level 1 contents; Class 2 solid and liquid oxidizers are high hazard level 1 contents.
The hazard level of Class 3 solid and liquid oxidizers is based on whether they are used or
stored in normally closed containers or systems at gauge pressures more or less than 15 psi
(103.4 kPa). The maximum allowable quantities (MAQ) of oxidizer per control area are
contained in Chapter 5 and are based on the Class and form of oxidizer, whether the material is
in storage or use in open and closed systems and the building occupancy. Chapter 6 contains
the fundamental requirements for the safe storage, use and handling of hazardous materials in
general; for storage when exceeding the MAQ per control area for high hazard level contents;
and for use, dispensing and handling in amounts exceeding the MAQ. Specific fire protection
requirements for solid and liquid oxidizers in various storage configurations are contained in
Chapter 15 and are based on the oxidizer Class. Class specific requirements include limitations
on the quantity of material, allowable distances, and sprinkler criteria.
There are well over 90 different solid and liquid oxidizers. The Code‘s Annex lists twenty-eight
―typical‖ Class 1 oxidizers, forty-three Class 2 oxidizers, and fifteen Class 3 oxidizers. Only five
oxidizers are listed as Class 4. In the past, oxidizers were assigned to a Class based on
evaluation of available scientific and technical data, experience, historical fires and results of
tests by conducted by the Bureau of Mines and GE Research in the 1970s. Ammonium nitrate
and organic peroxides are contained in Chapter 11 and Chapter 14 of the Hazardous Materials
Code, respectively.
Since their establishment in 1973, the NFPA definitions of Class 1, Class 2, Class 3, and Class
4 oxidizers have been subjective and require interpretation. Revisions to the Code also have
included changes to the definition of oxidizer as well as the subjective descriptions used to
define each Class. Since 2004, oxidizers are assigned to Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 or Class 4
based on the degree to which the oxidizer increases the ‗burning rate‘ of combustible materials
with which it comes into contact; however, burning rate is not defined by the Code. The NFPA
Code has never had tests or criteria to assess burning rate or for assigning an oxidizer to a
Class. On occasion, the Hazardous Chemicals Technical Committee has classified or re-
classified specific oxidizers based on fire losses and/or results from reaction-to-fire tests with
oxidizers in their intended form and packaging, with and without calorimetry. These tests have
included intermediate-scale and pallet-scale forced-ignition/fire exposure tests.
The goals of this project were to 1) define burning rate in terms of fire-test-response
characteristics, 2) develop reaction-to-fire tests to quantify the degree to which an oxidizer
increases or enhances the burning rate of combustible materials, and 3) develop burning rate
criteria to classify oxidizers based on the NFPA definitions of Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 and
Class 4 oxidizers.
The tests and criteria proposed herein provide a technical basis for the classification of oxidizers
based on the quantity and duration of energy released as a result of its involvement in a fire.
The use of an intermediate-scale fire exposure test method is consistent with the Hazardous
Chemicals Technical Committee‘s preference for real-scale scenarios. The bench-scale
screening test designed reduces the need, number, and expense associated with intermediate-
scale testing. The data contained in this report also can be used to assess the classification of
oxidizers, or formulations containing oxidizers, that differ from their current Class and/or that are
not listed in the Code‘s Annex.
A fire hazard assessment of oxidizers based on burning rate only has limitations. Information on
other oxidizer physical hazards (e.g., reactivity, thermal instability) is not provided, nor is
information on the toxicity of gaseous products of decomposition and/or combustion. The
assessment does not include the potential for explosive reactions or provide information on the
behavior of oxidizers in non-combustible packaging or vessels when exposed to fire. It is
assumed that the maximum allowable quantities per control area and occupancy and the fire
protection strategies for Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3 oxidizers are appropriate for the safe
storage of these materials.
Safety
Oxidizers are hazardous materials that pose both physical and health hazards. The safe
handling, storage, testing, and disposal of oxidizers and post-test residue require knowledge of
and training regarding these hazards, including (but not limited to) the information provided in
Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and product technical information.
MSDS and product information should be consulted before handling and storing oxidizers prior
to testing. Some oxidizers are hygroscopic, toxic, and/or require temperature control. The
MSDS provides useful information on the composition and fundamental properties of the
material, including decomposition temperature, toxicity, hazardous products of decomposition,
and special fire extinguishing, safe handling, and disposal considerations.
DEFINITIONS
Active Burning Time. Duration (s, min) of burning with flaming combustion, or decomposition
with minor flaming combustion, calculated from test data. From bench-scale screening test
data, the active burning time is calculated as the time from first measurable mass loss to the
time at which 80% of the mixture is consumed and/or decomposed. From intermediate-scale
radiant heat flux test data, the active burning time is the width of the curve at one-half the peak
radiant heat flux.
Burning Rate. (1) The mass of solid or liquid fuel consumed per unit time (g/s).11 (2) The
intensity, characterized by the quantity of energy released in the form of heat and light or fire,
and time duration over which the energy is released.
Chemical Heat Release Rate. Heat release rate (kW) calculated from the composition of the
combustion gases either by oxygen consumption calorimetry (HRRO2 or qO 2 ) or carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide generation (HRRCO2 or qCO 2 ). (see also Heat Release Rate)
Convective Heat Release Rate (HRRconv or qconv ). Heat release rate (kW) estimated from the
temperature increase of the combustion gases in the exhaust duct. (see also Heat Release
Rate)
Formulated Product. A product that contains an oxidizer as one of its constituents, including
admixtures. Some oxidizers are not sold in pure form (i.e., lithium hypochlorite, calcium
hypochlorite). Formulations include unavoidable by-products and un-reacted raw materials
inevitably present in the product and intentionally added diluents and exotherm control agents,
such as hydrated salt crystals coarsely blended with the manufactured oxidizer. The MSDS and
stereoscopic examination of the material are used to distinguish between a homogeneous
material and an admixture of two or more granular solids.
Heat Flux.12 Heat transfer to a surface per unit area per unit time (kW/m2-s).
Heat Release.13 Amount of heat evolved, produced, or released from burning material or
combustion of a given weight (J/g) or volume (J/cm3) of material.
Heat Release Rate (HRR).12 Measure of fire intensity based on quantity of heat evolved,
produced, or released during combustion, usually expressed per unit time (J/s) or per unit
quantity of material (J/g). Thermal energy released per unit time by an item during combustion
under specified conditions.
Mass Loss. The change in mass of a solid material to gaseous products during combustion or
decomposition expressed per unit quantity of material (g/g, %).
Mass Burning Rate.12 Mass loss per unit time (g/s, kg/min) by materials burning under
specified conditions.
Oxidizer. (1) A chemical other than a blasting agent or explosive that initiates or promotes
combustion in other materials, thereby causing fire either of itself or through the release of
oxygen or other gases;14 (2) Substances (Division 5.1) which, while in themselves not
necessarily combustible, may, generally by yielding oxygen, cause, or contribute to, the
combustion of other material;3,15 (3) Any material that readily yields oxygen or other oxidizing
gas, or that readily reacts to promote or initiate combustion of combustible materials and, under
Class 1 Oxidizer. An oxidizer that does not moderately increase the burning rate of
combustible materials with which it comes into contact.
Class 2 Oxidizer. An oxidizer that causes a moderate increase in the burning rate of
combustible materials with which it comes into contact.
Class 3 Oxidizer. An oxidizer that causes a severe increase in the burning rate of
combustible materials with which it comes into contact.
Packaging. The intended outer wrapping of the test material, including plastic bottles, bags,
corrugated board carton, pails, and fiberboard drums.
Radiant Heat Flux. Energy released from a burning object in the form of convective and radiant
heat fluxes transferred to the surface of a gage that absorbs the heat at one surface and
transfers the heat in a direction normal to the absorbing surface (kW/m2).
Test Packaging. Packaging for solid (granular, tablet or powder) oxidizers during the
intermediate-scale fire exposure test consisting of six, high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
containers in a double-wall corrugated board carton.
Visual Burning Duration. Duration (s, min) of visible flaming combustion, as measured with a
stopwatch.
MATERIALS
Dry, fibrous cellulose powder (Whatman CF11) was used as combustible fuel for bench-scale
screening test mixtures. Mean fiber size ranged from 50 to 350 microns.
Cellulose is an organic polymer. Its chemical formula is (C6H10O5)n. From the Whatman CF11
product specification sheet, the CF11 cellulose powder is a diethylaminoethyl-derivatised
cellulose or cellulose-O-(CH2)2N(C2H5)2. The chemical structure consists of pyranose rings with
hydroxyl- and methoxy-functional groups. Figure 1 shows two stereomicroscope images of the
cellulose powder and its FTIR spectrum. On a mass basis, the cellulose powder used contained
49.6% oxygen, 43.9% carbon, 6.2% hydrogen, and 0.16% nitrogen. Table 1 summarizes the
properties of cellulose powder from the manufacturer‘s product specification sheet. The
moisture content of cellulose powder was confirmed using an analytical moisture analyzer.
Moisture content was reduced by drying in an oven at 108°C for 4 to 5 hours.
TABLE 2. FPA Reaction-to-Fire Test Data of Whatman CF11 Cellulose Powder (30-g)
90
80
70
1641.42
901.99
60
50
%T
562.07
40
30 1281.94 663.42
2902.08 1433.79 621.44
20
3377.72 1371.55 1033.94
1339.87
10 1319.96 1160.87
0.0
4000.0 3000 2000 1500 1000 500.0
cm-1
FIGURE 1. Stereomicroscope images (top) and FTIR spectrum of Whatman CF11 cellulose powder (bottom)
(Lot No. 7311083).
The corrugated board cartons had doubled-wall construction. The cartons were made by JM
Packaging-Detroit Tape and Label (Warren, Michigan). The dimensions of the corrugated board
carton used to enclose six 60-ounce HDPE containers were 16 in x 10 in x 8 in (40.6 cm x 25.4
cm x 20.3 cm). The dimensions of the corrugated board carton used to enclose six 85-ounce
HDPE containers were 16 in x 10 in x 10 in (40.6 cm x 20.3 cm x 20.3 cm). The average mass
of the 16 in x 10 in x 8 in doubled-wall carton was 625 grams (1.4 lbs). Figure 4 shows six 60-
ounce HDPE containers in a doubled-wall corrugated carton.
The dimensions of the HDPE containers and pails and the dimensions and properties of the
carton are summarized in Tables 3 and 4, respectively.
FIGURE 4. Combustible test packaging consisting of a doubled-wall carton (left) and containing six 60-
ounce HDPE containers(right), each of which contained 4 pounds of granular, crystalline, or tablet form
common salt or oxidizer.
Sodium chloride (99.5%, NaCl, CAS No. 7647-14-5), or common salt, is a readily available
inorganic solid that does not contribute to the burning rate of combustible materials. Sodium
chloride is sold in fine to coarse granular or crystalline form, as pellets, as compacted spools or
tablets, and as large blocks (50 lbs) that can be machined to tablets of different size and shape.
Phenolic resin powder is an organic material with a high surface area that does not readily ignite
or burn or cause a significant increase in the burning rate of combustible packaging. Figure 5
contains stereomicroscope images and the FTIR spectrum of phenolic resin powder.
100.0
95
90
85
80
75
70 914.76 631.50
614.26
65
3641.44
60
55
50
%T
45
40
35 676.10
30
25 1012.87
2947.77
20 760.92
0.0
4000.0 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 500.0
cm-1
FIGURE 5. Stereomicroscope images (top) and FTIR spectrum (bottom) of phenolic resin powder.
The oxidizers listed in NFPA 400 Annex G (formerly NFPA 430 Annex B) as typical Class 1,
Class 2, Class 3, and Class 4 are reproduced in Appendix 1. In Appendix 1, the solid oxidizers
tested at some level in this research project are highlighted yellow, and the liquids are
highlighted blue. The solid and liquid oxidizers are further described in Table 5, which includes
each oxidizer‘s chemical formula, CAS number, purity or concentration, physical form, and, if
applicable, current NFPA Class. Appendix 2 contains a table of the same oxidizers listed with
their current NFPA Class and UN hazard class, number, and packing group.
Table 5 lists eleven current Class 1 solid oxidizers, three current Class 2 solid oxidizers, four
current Class 3 solid oxidizers, and two current Class 2 liquid oxidizers. Only two liquid oxidizers
were included in the research project: hydrogen peroxide (50%) and sodium permanganate
(20–40%).
Two solid oxidizers in Table 5 are not listed in the Code‘s annex: sodium nitrate and potassium
peroxymonosulfate or potassium monopersulfate (KHSO5). Potassium monopersulfate is a
component of a triple salt (2KHSO5·KHSO4·K2SO4) that contains 4.5–5.2% active oxygen. In
pure form, triple salt is 49.5% potassium monopersulfate. Commercial products contain about
45% potassium monopersulfate, being a slightly diluted or partially decomposed triple salt.
Commercial products include denture cleaners, swimming pool/spa oxidizers, and laundry
bleach. Triple salt and diluted products are labeled corrosive solids.
According to the Code‘s annex, ―all inorganic nitrates and nitrites are Class 1 unless otherwise
classified.‖ This includes sodium nitrate (NaNO3), which is one of eight oxidizers identified by
the NRCan Explosives Act as a restricted component. It is also one of three oxidizers evaluated
as part of the IGUS Oxidizing Substances Ad Hoc Working Group‘s UN O.1 Round Robin Test.†
The results of the round robin testing are immediately applicable to the current research.
†
Sodium nitrate was evaluated because it is ‗supposed to be a medium oxidizer of Packing Group II in
consideration of its oxidizing properties, although listed officially as a weak oxidizer of Packing Group III
(PG III UN1498)‘.
SOLID OXIDIZERS
Sodium nitrate NaNO3 7631-99-4 100% Crystalline NC
45% KHSO5
2KHSO5 •KHSO4
Potassium monopersulfate 10058-23-8 or ~90% Crystalline NC
•K2SO4
2KHSO5·KHSO4·K2SO4
Barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2 10022-31-8 99% Crystalline 1
24-28% MgO2
Magnesium peroxide complex MgO2•MgO 1335-26-8 Powder 1
13.7% Avail oxygen
Sodium persulfate Na2S2O8 7775-27-1 99% Crystalline 1
The bench-scale screening test, the FPA combustion-type test, single container wood crib fire
exposure test, intermediate-scale fire exposure test, and ad hoc tests with liquid oxidizers, using
representative photographs are summarized below with references to appendices containing
more detailed descriptions. The results and analysis of test data from the intermediate-scale,
bench-scale, FPA, single-container, and ad hoc tests with liquid oxidizers are discussed in the
subsequent sections.
Materials Characterization
Before each test with a new material, the MSDS was reviewed and basic information regarding
the material was recorded. Additional material characterizations were performed, including
particle morphology, particle size distribution, bulk density and solid-state Fourier Transform
Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy.
The bench-scale screening tests were done inside a clean laboratory hood. Thirty-gram (30
gram) mixtures of the oxidizer, with the as-received particle size and size distribution, and dried
cellulose powder in three ratios (1:1, 4:1, 9:1 by mass) were prepared and exposed to a glowing
150±7 Watt Nichrome wire ignition source. The forced ignition of the oxidizer-cellulose powder
mixtures was done on a calibrated, laboratory balance with time-stamped data output to a data
acquisition system. The balance‘s weighing surface was protected with high-temperature, low-
thermal conductivity ceramic fiberboard. The cellulose powder was dried in a laboratory oven,
and its moisture content monitored with a moisture analyzer.
For a typical test, the prescribed amounts of oxidizer and cellulose powder were weighed and
combined in a clean polyethylene container, thoroughly mixed, and then transferred into a
funnel with the stem opening sealed. Using card stock paper, the funnel with mixture was
inverted over the Nichrome wire on the lab balance. Three K-type thermocouples were
positioned at 7.6 cm (3 inches), 15.2 cm (6 inches), and 22.8 cm (9 inches) above and centered
over the test platform and pile (Fig. 6). A fourth K-type thermocouple monitored the ambient
temperature. After transferring the material to the balance, the balance display was tared to
zero, and data acquisition was initiated. Mass loss and temperature data were collected at 0.2
second to 1 second intervals depending on how fast or slow the mixture ignited and burned.
At the start of a trial, the Nichrome wire under the pile was energized, and a stopwatch
activated. Data were collected until spreading discoloration or flaming combustion ceased.
When the last small or intermittent flame at the pile went out, the data acquisition was stopped.
If the mixture did not ignite, the wire was left energized and the mixture observed for 5 minutes.
A test series included five trials each with 1:1 and 4:1 oxidizer:cellulose powder mixtures.
Oxidizer-rich (9:1) mixtures also were prepared and tested under the same conditions for some
oxidizers. Figure 7 is a representative photograph before and during a screening test.
The time at which the Nichrome wire opened, if at all, was recorded. Other observations noted
during each trial were (1) ignition propensity, (2) rate of flame spread over pile, (3) flame color,
(4) approximate peak flame height, (5) clarity of endpoint, (6) phase change, and (7) evolution
and color of gaseous products. After each test, the Nichrome wire was released from the
terminal block, and the test residue and test platform were removed. When cool, the post-test
residue was weighed and recorded. Data collected and calculated from these tests are
FIGURE 6. Overview of the bench-scale screening test set-up showing the laboratory balance with ceramic
board protection materials, thermocouples above the test platform and Nichrome wire.
TABLE 6. Bench-Scale Screening Test Data Recorded and Calculated for Each Mixture
An ad-hoc fire exposure test was developed to compare and evaluate the burning behavior of
granular and tablet form sodium chloride (NaCl) and oxidizers. A single container (60-ounce
HDPE) with ~2-lbs of material was exposed to a small wood crib fire. The wood crib was
constructed with three 8-in x ¾-in x ¾-in and four 4-in x ¾-in x ¾-in wood pieces in a steel pan
lined with half-inch thick drywall. The HDPE container with the test material was positioned on
top of the small wood crib. Two isopropyl alcohol soaked cotton igniters were positioned under
the wood crib in front of the HDPE container. Figure 8 shows an overview of the test set up.
Single-container fire exposure tests were documented with video recordings.
Thirty-gram (30 gram) and fifteen-gram (15 gram) mixtures of cellulose powder, sodium
chloride-cellulose powder, and 1:1, 4:1 and 9:1 oxidizer-cellulose powder were ignited and
burned using the Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA) at FM Global using the same general
procedures as the bench-scale screening test. All FPA tests were documented with
photographs and video recordings. An overview of the FPA with a vertical exhaust collection
duct is shown in Figure 9.
The moisture content of cellulose powder (CF11) was measured using a moisture analyzer. The
sodium chloride (NaCl)-cellulose powder and oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures were prepared
immediately before each test. After thorough mixing in a clean HDPE container, mixtures (30
grams, 15 grams) were transferred to a funnel and then inverted over a Nichrome wire on a test
platform centered on an electronic load cell under an exhaust collection hood. A Kaowool ring
placed on the test platform around the pile prevented spillover and loss of material during
combustion. The ring was open in the area of and did not contact the Nichrome wire. After
transferring the material to the test platform, a quartz tube was positioned around the aluminum
support cylinder. A close-up of the test platform and Nichrome wire before and after the addition
of cellulose powder (30 grams) are shown in Figure 10.
At the start of each test, a 30-second baseline was established. The Nichrome wire was then
energized at the variable power supply to dissipate 150±7 Watts. Data were collected at 1
second intervals. A stopwatch was activated when the wire was energized. Observations were
recorded during each test, the duration of visible flaming combustion, and the time when the
Nichrome wire opened, if at all. Data collection continued for 30 seconds after the end of visible
flaming combustion. At the conclusion of each test, the test platform and post-test residue were
moved to a laboratory hood. When cool, the mass of the post-test residue was recorded. New
Nichrome wire and test platforms were used for each test. Heat release rates were calculated
using the measured combustion gas temperature and composition with equations in ASTM E
2058.4
‡
For a 38-kW fire and using propane‘s effective heat of combustion (46.4 kJ/g), the mass flow rate of
propane to the burner was 0.82g/s.
Prior to testing, the oxidizer was transferred, in a laboratory hood, from its as-received
packaging§ into the test packaging. During this transfer, a representative sample was collected
in labeled 4 ounce glass jars with Teflon-lined lids. Most tests were performed with the oxidizer
in the test packaging consisting of six HDPE containers each containing 4 pounds of the
oxidizer, enclosed in a doubled-wall carton. Three tests were performed using combustible
packaging consisted of twenty-four bags each containing 1 pound of material in a doubled-wall
carton; 6 tests involved fire exposure of one or two 2.5 US gallon HDPE pails each containing
24 pounds of test material. The initial mass of the test packaging and oxidizer was recorded.
Data were collected in the exhaust collection duct as well as on the floor at/near the packaged
test material. The design and instrumentation of the exhaust system, measurements, and mass
flow rate and heat release rate calculations are described in ASTM E 2067. The exhaust
collection duct included thermocouples for the measurement of gas temperatures, gas sampling
probes, and a light source and target for smoke obscuration. An additional gas sampling probe
was inserted in the duct for time-resolved analysis using a heated gas cell and FTIR. The
maximum volume flow rate of the exhaust collection hood was 4 m3/s. At the location of the test
material under the hood, mass loss was measured with an electronic load cell. The incident
radiant heat flux was measured at two water-cooled Schmidt-Boelter heat flux transducers
located at a fixed distance from the test packaging. Temperature was measured using a high-
temperature pyrometer and four K-type thermocouples; the thermocouples were located on the
exterior and inside the packaging.
A 2 minute baseline was collected at the start of a test. The burner was ignited at 2 minutes and
remained on for the duration of the test, after the observed active burning of the test material
and for a sufficient duration to establish baseline burner values. The duration of a test ranged
from 12–20 minutes. Each test was documented with two digital video cameras and a FLIR
thermal imaging video camera. One video camera provided an overview. The second camera
provided a close-up view of the oxidizer in its test packaging. Photographs were taken of the
test packaging with oxidizer before, during, and after each test.
Figure 11 is a schematic overview of the test set-up under the exhaust collection hood. Figures
12 and 13 are photographs of the test set-up and during a test with an oxidizer, respectively.
Figure 14 shows a thermal image captured during a test with an oxidizer. Appendix 4 contains
detailed descriptions of the intermediate-scale fire exposure test set up with drawings,
photographs, locations of the instrumentation, methodology, heat release and smoke generation
rate equations and representative data profiles.
§
With the exception of potassium perchlorate, which was received in a 5 gallon DOT-approved metal pail,
the oxidizer test materials were received in combustible packaging. The combustible packaging included
1 pound bags in corrugated board cartons, HDPE pails, and plastic bags in fiberboard drums.
Thermal imaging
video camera Propane
cylinder
Video cameras
Load cell
Burner
Heat flux
transducers
Hood
Pyrometer
Witness
pole
Duct
FIGURE 11. Plan view schematic drawing showing the intermediate-scale fire
exposure test set-up, identification and location of instrumentation (see Appendix 4).
FIGURE 13. Photograph during fire exposure test with FIGURE 14. Thermal image during a fire exposure test
a packaged oxidizer. with a packaged oxidizer.
Liquid Oxidizers
Two liquid oxidizers were subjected to a series of ad hoc bench-scale tests. The liquid, as
received, was exposed on a glass rod to a Bunsen burner flame for a visual indication of
enhanced burning in comparison to a glass rod wetted with water. Next, a sample of liquid was
drawn into a plastic pipette (7 mL). The pipette was inverted to pool the liquid inside the plastic
bulb. The stem of the plastic pipette was cut just above the bulb with the liquid and then ignited
with a small flame. The burning plastic was observed for evidence of increased burning. Next,
a sample of the liquid was added dropwise to dried cellulose powder in a dish at room
temperature. The mixture was then exposed to a small flame. Finally, a thin film of the liquid
was applied to cellulose filter paper at room temperature and observed for 30 minutes for
evidence of spontaneous ignition.
Table 7 provides a matrix of the materials evaluated at the bench-scale, using the FPA, in single
containers exposed to a small wood crib fire, and at the intermediate-scale.
The key physical indicators of burning rate from the intermediate-scale test were peak
convective heat release rate and the burning time calculated from the radiant heat flux profile of
the packaged test material (i.e., less the burner).
The key physical indicators of burning rate from the screening test were mass loss rate and
burning time calculated from the mass data. Temperature and flame height data from the
bench-scale tests were secondary indicators used to distinguish between weak oxidizers, strong
oxidizers, and oxidizers that principally decompose. These values showed a range consistent
with the range in observed burning behavior. The same behavior for the various oxidizer-
cellulose powder mixtures subject to ignition by a glowing wire during the screening tests was
observed during tests with the FPA. The FPA provided additional combustion gas and
calorimetric data of the various mixtures that substantiated and defined the attributes of the
bench-scale screening test.
Table 8 summarizes the intermediate-scale fire exposure test data with empty test packaging,
five tests with packaged sodium chloride, one test with phenolic resin powder, and 14 different
oxidizers. The data are sub-categorized by the quantity of material tested. The test material’s
peak heat release rate and peak radiant heat flux are reported; the contributions from the burner
were subtracted. The full SwRI report of results from the intermediate-scale fire exposure testing
is available on request from the Foundation.
Visual observations of the packaged oxidizer when exposed to an external fire correlated very
well with the recorded test data. Once ignited, oxidizers that produced vigorous burning had
high peak heat release rates and high radiant heat flux, short burning times, and generally
higher mass loss rates. Oxidizers that did not produce vigorous burning had low to intermediate
peak heat release rates and radiant heat flux, longer burning times, and generally lower mass
loss rates. Oxidizers observed to generate significant gaseous products when exposed to the
burner and/or during combustion similarly showed high smoke production rates.
Data collected from the different types of oxidizers in the same quantity and test packaging were
correlated using scatter plots. Figure 15 shows the positive linear correlation between the peak
convective heat release rate and the peak radiant heat flux. The peak incident radiant heat flux
at the lower target at a fixed distance from the packaged test material was consistently 5–8% of
the peak convective heat release rate.
25
R2 = 0.8993
Peak Radiant Heat Flux (kW/m2)
20
15
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Peak Convective Heat Release Rate (kW)
FIGURE 15. Correlation between the peak convective heat release rate and peak radiant heat flux.
The duration of active burning was calculated from the radiant heat flux profiles, as illustrated in
Figure 16. The ‗active burning time‘ based on the heat flux peak width at half height was
chosen to facilitate reproducible data reduction rather than as a realistic description of the entire
time involved in a burn. The mass loss rate was calculated over the duration of active burning.
Linear regression of mass loss over the duration of active burning had r-square values greater
than 0.95. The active burning time decreased (Figure 17) and the mass loss rate generally
increased (Figure 18) with increasing peak heat release rate.
500
R2 = 0.8689
Peak Convective Heat Release Rate (kW)
400
300
200
100
0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600
Active Burning Time (s)
FIGURE 17. Correlation between the active burning time and peak convective heat release rate data from the
intermediate scale tests with 24-lbs net weight packaged salt and oxidizers in the test packaging.
4
Mass Loss Rate (kg/min)
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Peak Convective Heat Release Rate (kW)
FIGURE 18. Correlation between the mass loss rate and peak convective heat release rate data from the
intermediate scale tests with 24-lbs net weight packaged sodium chloride and oxidizers in the same
combustible test packaging.
The peak heat release rates, based on carbon dioxide generation and on gas temperature rise,
showed a strong correlation (Fig. 19). Under test conditions, the ratio of the peak convective to
peak chemical heat release rate (peak HRRconv/ peak HRRCO2) was 51±10% (Fig. 20)—meaning
the heat release rate ratio did not depend on the chemical composition. In Figure 20, the
apparent outlier for 1:1 calcium hypochlorite:sodium chloride in 1-lb bags is likely the result of
the hood blower (volumetric flow) increasing just as the packaged test material ignited and fire
rapidly spread causing a dilution in the heat resulting in a lower temperature and a lower peak
convective heat release rate.
Figure 21 shows the peak convective heat release rate and peak heat release rate based on
carbon dioxide generation for the packaged sodium chlorite and various oxidizers in the same
test packaging in order of increasing peak convective heat release rate. The range in peak heat
release rate was consistent with the anticipated and observed range in burning behavior. As
expected, the peak convective heat release rate was lower than the chemical heat release rate.
About two-thirds of energy generated by a fire is released through convection.17 The ratio of the
total convective heat released (THRconv) for the packaged oxidizers to the total chemical heat
released (THRCO2) was 68±19%.
200
400
600
800
1000
0
So Tri r 3-
di c h in
0
ta
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
um lor
So bl
di 1-i et
70 di ch n s
:3 u m lo tab
0 r l
Fo C di
ch dih
et
s
rm al yd
hy lo
ul r r
at po d ih
at
e
ed w
Po / m ydr
ta Tr a a t
S
ss ic g s e
R2 = 0.9518
100
ta m r gr te
ss m
iu pe ono anu
m rc la
potassium perchlorate.
ta c y or aC
Test Material
ss i p i l
iu um och te-N
m a
300
hy lo C
2: pe po rit
1 r e- l
C Ca ma ch
l N
al lc ng or a
ci i i Cl
um um ana te-N
t a
C hy hyp e (
al o >9 Cl
Peak Convective Heat Release Rate (kW)
ci p o
u m ch ch l 7. 5
l or %
hy ori ite )
po t e -N
Po ch (br aC
ta lo iq
400
s rit ue l
Po siu e tte
ta m p (gr s)
ss er an
iu ch ula
m
pe lora r)
rc t
hl e (1
temperature rise from tests with 24-lbs net weight packaged sodium chloride and oxidizers.
36
or
at
e
(2
)
500
FIGURE 19. Correlation between the peak heat release rate based on carbon dioxide generation and gas
FIGURE 20. Ratio of the peak convective to peak chemical heat release rate of the oxidizers tested including
900
800
Convective HRR
Peak Heat Release Rate (kW)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
l
l
Ph ula Cl
di on rbo ul r
ta n
ss um mo r g ate
)
su )
)
)
na e- l
ch 97 l
l
ih t e
g ate
te
C
aC
lic C
ts
r)
2: lc hyp lo 75%
aC
aC
C
hy lori lor .5%
aC
So m ca ers la
p e 0%
ra s)
od at 45%
%
p na ate
si
a
ic eno Na
po r d ra
la
d i r d b le
ci alc an hlo -N a
te N a
u
e ette
ul (65
ra et N
ra r N
So Tri r 3 Re
lf
r
-N
-N
ch (br -N
pe no ran
nu
b
p um (10
hy hlo hyd
/ m yd
f
Po Sod ium chl su
r
(
a
c h in
Po 1 C um oc ite
iu um oc ite
C 1 C rm oc ite
it e
a
bo e
u
pe ers te
(>
rit
r
bl
ul
e
nu
ar fat
di chl -in
iq
i
r
ss lci hyp lor
pe hyp lor
(g
a
n
p
o
1
ra
h
lo
id
or
rit
G
w
um h
po te
um o
ci po ypo
um x
ga
i
hl
ri
c
lo
1: lci ero
T
rc
r
um o
h
S
Tr
S m
um ch
m
u
um iu
al
i
1 : c iu
i
as
C
hy
i
m
a
a
ot
iu
0
al
C
:3
C
P
1
ed
2:
ta
al
ta
C
at
al
ul
rm
Fo
Test Material
FIGURE 21. Peak heat release rates of 24-lb of sodium chloride, phenolic resin powder and oxidizers based
on carbon dioxide generation and gas temperature rise.
For the range in oxidizer burning behavior, the heat release rate, radiant heat flux, and surface
temperature profiles were consistent; in other words, the general shape of the data profiles were
the same. The radiant heat flux transducers were the closest non-contact sensors to the fires
and provided the best characterization of fire growth and intensity when comparing oxidizers.
The steady increase in the radiant heat flux correlated with the visual increase in burning
behavior. The peak visual burning behavior corresponded to the time of peak radiant heat flux.
A decrease in visual burning behavior correlated with a steady decrease in the radiant heat flux
toward baseline burner values.
A majority (25/32) of the intermediate-scale tests consisted of 24 pounds of test material (i.e.,
common salt or oxidizer) in combustible test packaging. The approximate weight percent
sodium chloride and oxidizer in the HDPE containers in DW cartons was 89%; 93 wt% when
packaged in 1-lb bags in a DW carton; and 94 wt% when packaged in a 2.5-gallon HDPE pail.
Figures 22 and 23 show the peak convective heat release rate, peak radiant heat flux and active
burning time of empty test packaging, packaged sodium chloride, phenolic resin powder, and
various oxidizers, respectively. The figures clearly illustrate the range in burning behavior of the
different types of oxidizers.
100
200
300
400
500
0
Ta r N
bl aC
G et l
r
Em anu Na
p t lar Cl
y
P Na
G ac Cl
ra ka
nu g
P in
Tr he lar g
ic no Na
hl
T or lic R Cl
So ri 3
di ch -i n esi
u lo n
So m r 1 tab
70 d di c -i n l et
:3 i um hl s
Fo 0 o ta
rm C di r d bl e
ul a l h ch ih t s
1 um di u ate 5%
Radiant Heat Flux
Test Material
p m (10 )
1: alc er
1 i o pe 0%
C um xi d rsu )
1: alci h y e ( lf
1 um po m ate
C
2 a l h ch in
7
Po :1 ci u ypo lori 5%
ta Ca m h ch te- )
ss lci l N
iu um ypo orit aC
m c e l
2: p h y hlo -Na
C 1 C erm po rit Cl
al c e
ci alc an hlo -N
um i u ga
m n
rit aC
e l
C
al hyp h y ate -Na
ci po (> Cl
um oc
h ch 97
hy lor lor .5%
po ite it )
packaged sodium chloride, phenolic resin powder and oxidizers.
ch (b e-N
lo riq aC
rit ue l
e
(g ttes
ra
nu )
la
r)
38
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
400 480
420
300
200 240
180
100 120
60
0 0
r g
Em ran t N l
l
ra ka l
di ich 3- Re l
l r
70 Sod m d r 1 ta in
So m m erc op ran e
)
1: alc h ide ers %)
ch ( b t e- )
1 : a lc p e iu m ( 1 % )
ci po hy ate e-N l
hy lo chl 97 l
e et l
w dih rate
ta diu m ch g s te
um Sod na (4 )
pt ula aC
G ac aC
So Tr or ic C
o t ts
hy hl ih ets
r)
ta Ca m po rit 5%
Tr Phe ula in
C
i aC
n it aC
(> aC
po rite ori .5%
rit u C
di o ar ers ula
ra s)
b o te %
pe per nat fate
p o n g at
t
hl nol Na
Po o iu ri ma dra
C um po (m lfa
la
:3 iu ic -in ble
iu iu yp lo -N a
lo riq N a
g
00
te 5
(g te
ar lfa 65
Ta r N
P N
f
al dic r d abl
s s m m lo u l
nu
po or yd
u
r
rc su e (
um no bo u
y
s s lc h c h e
a
m m oc rit
ul
lo in
al C r m o r
um ga or
n
p
ra
c
G
/
m hl
um c po
m x o
T
y
ic
h
u
u
s
i
i
as
C
1 : lc i
al h y
ci al
a
ot
iu
0
a
C
C
C
P
S
1
1
1
ed
2:
C
at
ul
rm
Fo
Test Materials
FIGURE 23. Peak convective heat release rate and active burning times of empty test packaging, 24-lbs
packaged sodium chloride, phenolic resin powder and oxidizers. Note, the active burning time data for some
tests were greater than 600 seconds or not distinguishable from the burner baseline.
The empty combustible test packaging was completely consumed. Its peak convective heat
release rate was 53 kW (less the burner) at 6 minutes 38 seconds after the burner was ignited.
The peak radiant heat flux from the empty packaging was 3.15 kW/m2. The dashed line in
Figure 22 is drawn through the peak convective heat release rate of the empty packaging for
ease in comparison with packaged sodium chloride, the phenolic resin and oxidizers.
When the test packaging contained granular or tablet salt, the peak convective heat release rate
and radiant heat flux were reduced. The crystalline or tablet form sodium chloride did not cause
an increase in the burning rate of the combustible test packaging. The peak convective heat
release rates of sodium chloride in the combustible packaging ranged from 20–44 kW; the peak
radiant heat flux ranged from 0.4–1.7 kW/m2. The duration of active burning could not be
calculated because the heat flux profile from the packaged salt was hardly distinguishable from
the burner baseline. At the end of the tests involving sodium chloride, there was unconsumed
and protected corrugated board carton which was consistent with the low peak temperatures
measured at the bottom of the carton.
The peak convective heat release rate of the oxidizers (24-lbs net weight) in the test packaging
ranged from 38–414 kW. The peak heat release rate based on carbon dioxide generation
ranged from 61–839 kW. The peak incident radiant heat flux ranged from 1–20 kW/m2: the
lowest was sodium dichlor in a HDPE pail and the highest heat came from the fire involving high
strength calcium hypochlorite briquettes in HDPE containers. The mass loss rate ranged from
0.2 kg/min for calcium hypochlorite formulated with magnesium sulfate heptahydrate to 5.1
kg/min for non-formulated or high-strength calcium hypochlorite. The burning duration
calculated from the radiant heat flux profiles ranged from 22 seconds (2:1 cal hypo:salt) to over
9 minutes (dichlor in a pail).
Referring to Figure 22, four materials had peak convective heat release rates and peak radiant
heat flux lower than the empty combustible test packaging and phenolic resin but higher than
packaged common salt. These materials were granular and tablet form trichlor, granular and
tablet form dichlor, granular 70:30 calcium hypochlorite with magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
and a formulated granular commercial product containing less than 45% potassium
monopersulfate (or less than 90% triple salt). The active burning times were 3 minutes or
longer. These materials did not cause a visual increase in the burning rate of the combustible
test packaging. Then, starting with sodium percarbonate (65%), the test data in Table 8 and in
Figure 22 show a gradual increase in the peak convective heat release rate and peak radiant
heat flux compared to the combustible test packaging.
While lower than the empty packaging, the formulated potassium monopersulfate product and
formulated sodium percarbonate (65%) had peak radiant heat flux ~78% higher than sodium
chloride in identical packaging. A gradual but notable increase in visual burning intensity was
observed and indicated by even higher radiant heat flux from the fires involving neat potassium
monopersulfate (45% or 90% triple salt) and sodium percarbonate (99%). The measured
surface temperature of test materials with peak convective heat release rate less than 100 kW,
or approximately twice the peak convective heat release rate of the test packaging, ranged from
420–722°C. Temperatures inside the packaging ranged from 362–940°C. With the exception of
sodium percarbonate (99%), the calculated durations of active burning were greater than 2
minutes.
Seven oxidizers had peak convective heat release rates greater than 100 kW or more than
double the peak convective heat release rate of empty test packaging. Three test materials had
peak convective heat release rates between 100–200 kW. These were 99% sodium persulfate
(115 kW), 75% calcium peroxide (127 kW) and 1:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium chloride (33%
available chlorine) in three different packaging (131-164 kW). The peak radiant heat flux from
these materials ranged from 3.5–11.2 kW/m2. The measured surface temperature ranged from
630–793°C. The temperatures inside the carton ranged from 659–1,012°C. With the exception
of 1:1 calcium hypochlorite: sodium chloride in 1-lb bags, the calculated active burning times of
these materials were less than or equal to 2 minutes.
The maximum surface temperatures recorded during each fire exposure test are listed in Table
8. Table 9 summarizes the duration of time at temperatures greater than 700°C (1,292°F).
TABLE 9. Test Materials with Sustained Surface Temperatures Greater than 700°C
Duration of Surface Temperature
Oxidizer (Packaging) Greater than 700°C (s)
To demonstrate the range in burning behavior and the acceleration of burning rate by oxidizers
exposed to an external fire, the radiant heat flux profiles of four, similarly-packaged test
materials are compared in Figure 24. The range in burning rate is demonstrated by the range in
the peak heat flux, the width of the peaks, the time to the peak, and rate in growth of the fire
(i.e., rate of rise in radiant heat flux).
Packaging did show an influence on burning behavior of oxidizers that exhibited Class 2
behavior. Figure 25 shows the radiant heat flux profiles of 1:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium
chloride in 6 HDPE containers in a doubled-wall carton, twenty-four 1-lb bags in a doubled-wall
carton, and a 2.5-gallon HDPE pail. The peak convective heat release rate of the same material
in the three different types of combustible test packaging ranged from 131–164 kW. Once the
carton was compromised, the ignition and spread of fire through the mixed-orientation 1-lb bag
was rapid. The duration of active burning was 30 seconds; the peak convective heat release
rate occurred 19 seconds after the first visual involvement of the oxidizer. The 2.5-gallon pail
required more time to penetrate but, once compromised, resulted in rapid fire growth. The
duration of active burning was 80 seconds, and the peak convective heat release rate occurred
at 43 seconds after the first visual involvement of the oxidizer. When packaged in 6 HDPE
containers, the peak convective heat release rate was 131 kW, the duration of active burning
was 72 seconds and the time from first visual involvement of the oxidizer to the peak convective
heat release rate was 76 seconds. The mass loss rate of the oxidizer packaged in 1-lb bag was
2.56 kg/min compared to 0.81 kg/min in HDPE containers. Twenty-one weight percent each of
the oxidizer packaged in 1-lb bags and in 60-ounce containers were consumed**.
A similar influence of packaging on the peak convective heat release rate and active burning
time was observed with the 2:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium chloride admixture in 1-lb bags and
in HDPE containers (Fig. 26). The peak convective heat release rates for the material in HDPE
**
Mass loss was not recorded for the calcium hypochlorite-sodium chloride admixture in the pail.
FIGURE 25. Radiant heat flux profiles of 24 lbs net weight 1:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium chloride in three
different packaging.
FIGURE 27. Inversion in the oxygen concentration of the combustion gas during
the fire exposure test with 2:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium chloride in twenty-four, 1-lb bags.
The intermediate-scale fire exposure test and peak heat release rate distinguished between
pure and formulated oxidizers and oxidizers admixed with a hydrated salt. In the same
combustible test packaging, the peak convective heat release rate of high-strength calcium
hypochlorite (72.6% available chlorine, 5.6% water) was reduced 51% when diluted in the 2:1
sodium chloride admixture and 68% in the 1:1 sodium chloride admixture. When admixed with
the hydrated salt, the peak convective heat release rate of high-strength calcium hypochlorite
was reduced 89%. Similarly, the peak convective heat release rate of sodium percarbonate
Product form (granular vs. tablet) had a lesser influence on burning rate than composition and
formulation. Three materials were tested using granular and tablet product forms: sodium
chloride, trichloroisocyanuric acid and high-strength calcium hypochlorite. In all three cases, the
peak heat release rate from the tablet-form material was lower than the granular-form. The
peak convective heat release rate of trichlor was reduced by 29% for both 1-inch and 3-inch
diameter tablets (i.e., independent of tablet size). The mass of material consumed during the
tests with the granular and 1-inch diameter tablet trichlor was the same (~35 wt%); the mass
loss rate of the 1-inch tablets (0.36-kg/min) was slightly lower than the granular trichlor (0.42-
kg/min). The peak convective heat release rate of briquette form high-strength calcium
hypochlorite compared to the granular form was only reduced by 3%. The mass consumed
during the two tests with high-strength calcium hypochlorite were the same (~38 wt%); the mass
loss rate of the briquettes (4.4 kg/min) was slower than the granular material (5.1 kg/min). In
both cases, the tablet form did not change the burning behavior expected of the Class of
oxidizer.
Two materials with Class 1 behavior, tablet-form trichlor and sodium percarbonate (65%), were
tested at 24 lbs in HDPE containers in cartons and also at 48-lbs in two 2.5-gallon HDPE pails.
The peak convective heat release rate did not increase significantly with the additional Class 1
oxidizer, so the packaging was less influential on the fire hazard. For the Class 1 materials
tested at 48 lbs, the peak convective heat release rate remained less than 100 kW. Doubling
the mass (i.e., from 24 lbs to 48 lbs) of Class 2 and Class 3 materials is expected to result in
higher heat release rates.
The 2-MW hood and 24-lb scale effectively captured the range in enhancement or acceleration
of burning rate by oxidizers. The 4 m3/s volume flow rate of the exhaust collection duct was
sufficient to capture the range in volume of gaseous products generated. Some oxidizers
released significant gaseous products, due to decomposition or rapid combustion. The 12–24-lb
scale was sufficient to quantify the heat release rate without the loss of gaseous products from
the hood. Twenty-four pounds of high-strength calcium hypochlorite (72.6% available chlorine,
5.6% water) had a peak chemical heat release of ~820 kW (Fig. 28), and significant gaseous
products were generated; 48 lbs would have overcome the 2-MW hood and/or a volume flow
rate less than 4 m3/s. Twelve pounds (12 lbs) of potassium perchlorate burned vigorously with
significant gaseous products generated (Fig. 29); 24 lbs of potassium perchlorate would have
overcome the hood and/or a volume flow rate less than 4 m3/s.
In the absence of direct or indirect calorimetric measurements, the burning rate of oxidizer-
cellulose powder mixtures can be described by the mass loss rate, burning time, flame
temperature and approximate peak flame height. For oxidizer cellulose powder mixtures that
ignited and burned with flaming combustion, mass loss rate and active burning time are
sufficient to characterize and compare burning rate. Thermocouples above the pile really
distinguish between decomposition without flaming combustion (e.g., low temps) and
combustion (e.g., high temperatures). The active burning time provides information on the rate
at which the mixture is decomposing or burning. Mass loss is a recognized fire-test-response
characteristic used in ASTM fire test methods. In ASTM E 2102, for example, mass loss and
ignitability are used for screening purposes, specifically ―to determine whether a material,
product or assembly: (a) exhibits any unusual fire-related characteristics; (b) has certain
expected fire-related characteristics; or (c) is capable of being preliminarily categorized
according to the fire characteristic in question‖.18 The burning rate of the various oxidizer-
cellulose powder mixtures were compared with the sodium chloride-cellulose powder mixtures.
The acquisition of mass loss and temperature data was terminated at the end of visible flaming
combustion. The final measured mass (mf) was used to calculate the mass of the mixture
during combustion at 20%, 50%, and 80% consumed. The final measured mass was also used
to calculate the total mass lost (i.e., percent consumed). Linear regression of independent- time
and dependent-mass data from 20–80% of the final measured mass resulted in the mass loss
rate and typically had r-squared values greater than .96 and more often .99. The active burning
time was calculated from the time of first measurable steady mass loss to the time at 80% mass
lost. The time to 50% consumed, the time from first recordable mass loss to the time at 50%
mass loss, was also evaluated as a potential indicator of burning duration.
The advantages of the bench-scale screening test to assess the burning rate of different,
granular oxidizers are: 1) mass loss is a fire-test-response characteristic, 2) it can be performed
by lab technicians using typical laboratory equipment and low expense, 3) can be used to
examine both oxidizer pure materials, admixtures, different particle size and different fuels, and,
4) provides more information including test-operator-independent burning time durations. In
addition to mass loss data, thermocouples in the plume directly above the pile provided even
more data including plume temperatures and approximate peak flame height to characterize
burning rate. Evaluation of the materials chemical structure before testing and the review of
other additional decomposition data should be done before testing. The bench-scale screening
test cannot incorporate all factors required for fire hazard or fire risk assessment of oxidizers,
specifically thermal instability, decomposition, and reactivity or behavior under actual fire
conditions.
Cellulose Powder
Thirty grams of cellulose powder filled the 100-mL funnel. It was easily ignited by the glowing
wire and spread flaming combustion over the pile. When the entire pile was involved, the peak
flame height reached 9 inches above the test platform. The cellulose powder continued to burn
after the wire opened but at a slower rate and with low blue flames over its surface. The mass
loss rate of cellulose powder during combustion under free convection conditions was 0.08 g/s,
which represented the linear portion of the mass loss data profile over 3 minutes (180 seconds).
Figure 30 is a photograph and the mass loss-temperature profile of cellulose powder. As seen
in the photograph, the thermocouple located 3 inches from the test platform was clearly in the
flames directly above the pile. The drop or decrease in the temperature profile at ~320 seconds
FIGURE 30. Representative photograph and mass loss-temperature profile of dried, cellulose powder.
The moisture content of cellulose powder had a negligible influence on the mass loss rate,
duration of combustion, and peak temperature at 6 inches above the pile. Figure 31 compares
the mass loss profiles of CF11 before and after drying at 108°C. There was no visual difference
in the burning behavior with orange flames over the pile followed by low blue flames after the
wire opened. The duration of visible flaming combustion of dried, cellulose powder was 692±37
seconds compared to 638±121 seconds for CF11 with 3.8wt% water. The dried cellulose
powder had peak temperatures 6 inches from the test platform of 395±54°C; cellulose powder
with 3.8wt% moisture had peak flame temperatures 358±71°C.
While moisture content did not have an influence on the burning rate or behavior of the fuel, the
cellulose powder was dried before mixing with oxidizers to eliminate any potential influence of
moisture content on the burning rate or behavior of the various oxidizers.
Granular common salt (NaCl) did not increase the burning rate of cellulose powder; did not
show glowing combustion; and, with increasing sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration, reduced
the mass loss rate and peak temperature of the mixtures. Individual salt particles were
apparent in the post-test residue. The mass loss rate of 1:1 sodium chloride:cellulose powder,
from 20–80% cellulose powder consumed, was 0.045±0.006 g/s or one-half the mass loss rate
of cellulose powder alone. The 1:1 mixture‘s calculated active burning time was 219±12
seconds, which was shorter than cellulose powder alone (e.g., less fuel). The peak temperature
during combustion of the 1:1 mixture at 6 inches from the test platform was 167±6°C, which was
lower than cellulose powder alone. At higher sodium chloride concentrations (4:1), the mass
loss rate from 20–80% cellulose powder consumed was reduced to 0.021±0.002 g/s; the
calculated active burning time was 251±6 seconds; and, the peak temperature at 6 inches from
the test platform was 35±7°C (i.e., heat from the glowing wire). In the next section, the FPA
combustion type tests with salt-cellulose powder mixtures resulted in lower peak convective and
chemical heat release rates.
Table 10 contains the data reduced from the bench-scale screening tests with 20 oxidizers,
including pure oxidizers, formulated oxidizers, and oxidizers with intentional additives or
diluents. The visual burning duration, mass loss rate, active burning time, time to 50% of the
final measured mass, peak temperature at 6 inches above the test platform, and mass loss in
Table 10 are shown as average values ± sample standard deviation over the number of trials
performed in a series.
Temperature data and peak flame height were also consistent with the observed burning
behavior and added value to the mass loss test data. Specifically, the plume temperature data
distinguished mass loss due to flaming combustion or decomposition with little to no flaming
combustion. Similarly, the peak flame height distinguished between weak oxidizers with low
flaming combustion and low peak flame height from strong oxidizers with flames extending
greater than 9 inches from the test platform. The temperature profiles provided an indication of
the mixture‘s ignition propensity. Oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures that ignited readily and
spread flaming combustion over the pile showed a higher initial rate in temperature rise (i.e.,
dT/dt) and higher temperatures at 6 inches above the test platform. Oxidizer-cellulose powder
mixtures that did not ignite readily and spread discoloration with or without flaming combustion
had temperature profiles with slower or lower initial rates of temperature rise and lower peak
temperatures at 6 inches above the test platform. The sodium chlorate-cellulose powder
mixtures were instantly ignited and burned so vigorously and rapidly that accurate temperature
data, even at 0.2 second intervals, was difficult to capture.
The correlation between visual burning behavior and the test data is illustrated with photographs
and figures from screening tests with 9-g potassium bromate (99.8%) and 21-g cellulose
powder. Potassium bromate is listed as typical under Class 3 oxidizers. The 3:7 mixture is used
in UN Test O.1 as the reference oxidizer-mixture for the lowest hazard Packing Group III
assignment.
The 3:7 oxidizer-cellulose powder mixture ignited readily; the peak flame height during
combustion reached and was sustained at greater than 9 inches from the test platform (Fig. 32).
The mixture showed intermittent, low flaming near the end of the test, but flaming combustion
was over in less than 100 seconds. The 3:7 mixture showed consistent burning behavior (e.g.,
repeatability) as demonstrated by the mass loss profiles compiled in Figure 33. The average
mass loss rate from 20–80% consumed was 0.62±0.07 g/s. Figure 34 is a representative mass
loss-temperature profile, which includes labels and arrows to indicate the mass of the mixture at
20% and 80%. The indicated mass at 20% and 80% lie within the elevated temperature profile
envelope and does not include intermittent or irregular burning observed at/near the end of test.
The presence of intermittent or low flaming combustion appears as elevated temperatures at 3
inches above the test platform in Figure 34. In UN Test O.1, intermittent flames cause difficulty
for test operators with stopwatches to determine the end of the main reaction including mixtures
with the reference oxidizer. Temperatures in the plume above the fuel-rich, potassium bromate
pile exceeded 1,000°C.
FIGURE 33. Mass loss profiles from six trials with 30-g 3:7 potassium bromate:cellulose powder mixtures.
Other oxidizers were slow to ignite and spread discoloration over the pile instead of flames. As
expected, mixtures that underwent dehydration and/or decomposition when exposed to the
glowing wire also resulted in some mass loss. Temperature data from the thermocouples above
the pile distinguished mixtures that underwent dehydration and/or decomposition with little to no
or low flaming combustion from mixtures that burned with flames extending from the test
platform. To illustrate mass loss and low temperature during decomposition with minor flaming
combustion, Figure 35 contains a photograph and the mass loss-temperature profile of sodium
dichloroisocyanurate dihydrate mixed in equal parts (30g, 1:1) with cellulose powder. This
mixture was slow to ignite, released white gaseous products throughout the test, had little and
low flaming combustion, and spread black discoloration over the pile. The average mass loss
rate was 0.2 g/s, the duration of decomposition was 111 seconds, and the total mass lost was
24 grams or 81wt%. The peak temperature immediately above the pile was only ~300°C.
The correlation between mass loss rate and active burning time from the various oxidizer-
cellulose powder mixtures in 1:1 and 4:1 by mass mixtures are illustrated with scatter plots in
Figures 36 and 37, respectively. The relationship between mass loss rate and burning time is
not linear but follows a power law equation.
0
0 30 60 90 120 150
Active Burning Time (s)
FIGURE 36. Correlation between mass loss rate and active burning time for 1:1 oxidizer:cellulose powder
mixtures.
12
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Active Burning Time (s)
FIGURE 37. Correlation between mass loss rate and active burning time for 4:1 oxidizer:cellulose powder
mixtures.
Oxidizers may increase the intensity of a fire either in the condensed phase, in the gaseous
phase above the burning material, or both. Further, burning rate is concentration-dependent.
The relationship between oxidizer (and fuel) concentration and burning rate are integral to
existing tests that evaluate the burning rate of various oxidizer-combustible fuel mixtures. It is
well known that the burning behavior of oxidizers is a function of the amount of fuel or fuel
content. The historic Bureau of Mines19 and GE Research20 studies tested numerous mixtures
of the oxidizer and fuel (i.e., sawdust), in 10wt% increments. The ratio of oxidizer and fuel with
the fastest propagation rate was reported. UN Test O.1 includes five different mixtures: 3:7, 2:3,
and 3:2 potassium bromate:cellulose powder and 1:1 and 4:1 by mass mixtures of the test
oxidizer with dried cellulose powder. The influence of composition is clearly demonstrated by
specific mixtures used for pyrotechnic effects, explosions, and smoke powders.
A number of the 1:1 by mass mixtures of oxidizer and finely divided cellulose powder had higher
flames, higher peak temperatures, longer durations of burning, but lower or slower mass loss
rates than the 4:1 mixtures. Mass loss rate data alone does not capture this burning behavior
which presents its own fire hazard. Other oxidizers exhibited accelerated burning behavior with
increasing oxidizer concentration with concurrent faster mass loss rates. Figure 38 illustrates
the first case using photographs and mass loss-temperature profiles from the screening tests
with barium nitrate. Figure 39 illustrates the second behavior with calcium hypochlorite. The 1:1
by mass barium nitrate:cellulose powder mixture had higher flames, higher peak temperatures,
and longer burning durations than the 4:1 by mass mixture. The oxidizer-rich 9:1 by mass
barium nitrate:cellulose powder mixture exhibited only minor combustion with low flames, and
the mixture phase changed from a crystalline solid into a boiling slurry. In other words, the
oxidizer clearly contributed to increasing the burning rate of cellulose powder when mixed in
equal parts but the oxidizer-rich mixture mostly decomposed. When comparing the different
barium nitrate:cellulose powder mixtures‘ mass loss rates, the maximum mass loss rate
occurred during combustion of the 4:1 mixture and the 1:1 mixture mass loss rate was
intermediate between the 4:1 and 9:1 mixture mass loss rates. On the other hand, the mass
Like barium nitrate, oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures that had higher flame height and longer
burning durations when mixed in equal parts (i.e., 1:1) with dried cellulose powder but lower
mass loss rates than the 4:1 or 9:1 concentrations were calcium hypochlorite formulated with
magnesium sulfate heptahydrate, potassium monopersulfate, sodium persulfate, sodium
dichloroisocyanurate dihydrate, lithium hypochlorite, sodium perborate monohydrate, sodium
nitrate, sodium percarbonate, 1:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium chloride, and calcium peroxide.
Like calcium hypochlorite, oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures that exhibited peak flame heights
at or above 9 inches for all mixtures and mass loss rates that increased with increasing oxidizer
concentration were 2:1 calcium hypochlorite-sodium chloride, potassium permanganate, high-
strength calcium hypochlorite with low- and high-water content, potassium perchlorate, and
sodium chlorate. Trichlor principally decomposed when exposed to the glowing wire; the rate of
The mass loss rates and active burning times of the 4:1 oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures are
shown for the various oxidizers in Figure 40. The data demonstrate the range in burning
behavior. The trend in Figure 40 shows that oxidizer mixtures with low mass loss rates typically
had long active burning times and oxidizers with high mass loss rates had short active burning
times.
180 18
tactive
MLR
150 15
120 12
Active Burning Time (s)
60 6
30 3
0 0
ss oc chl te
e
)
pe ng id
te
e
)
ex
)
w )
ch e (1 e ( e
)
)
)
)
e
)
9%
So erc ter
r
po r at 9%
1. 75%
%
%
%
%
at
at
i d at
um rat
d
id
te
a
ra
c
pl
o: nit (29
i
o n 99
or sul (45
Po or o ium nitr
um lor
a
r
hy hlo r ox an
on lor
or
a
(5 wa
p diu e (9
lo
um ium r su hyd
(9
d
he om
c
m e(
hy
ch
h
pe ur i
rb arb ch
te
2%
e
e
um %
t
rit
c
t
pe fat
a
o
a
a
a
n
.6
pt
pe erc m
lfa ide
r
f
m
ya
Tr po odi
h y yd
l
p
r
di
ox
m dih
od
Po ite
r
yp m
S
te
te
ag per
is
po rit
l h iu
um C a m
si
p
:s
r
m
a
lo
S o S no
ta
iu
or
hy iu
iu su
Po h m m
L i ch l
o
lc
y
hl
um oc
m
u
lh
ta
iu
di
w esi
ic
o
p
m
th
Ca
So odi
um
n
ag
ss
S
1
1
di
it
di
1:
2:
M
ta
ci
ci
o
al
al
yp
C
C
h
al
C
Oxidizer
The screening test distinguished between pure and formulated oxidizers and, in one case, an
oxidizer with low- and high-water content. The 2:1 by mass calcium hypochlorite-sodium
chloride admixture had a higher mass loss rate and shorter burning time than the 1:1 calcium
hypochlorite-sodium chloride admixture and a lower mass loss rate and longer active burning
Combustion-type tests using the Fire Propagation Apparatus were first performed by FM Global
in the late 1990s as part of a project to evaluate the criteria for packing group assignment for the
transportation of commercial solid oxidizers. Instead of burning time, the energy released at
eighty percent the total heat released based on carbon dioxide generation was proposed as
criteria. An alternate burning time was proposed, not based on stopwatch time, but on the time
from the first measurable mass loss to 80% of the mixture consumed. These tests involved
various granular oxidizers mixed with dried sawdust and ignited with a glowing wire. This
preliminary work showed a range in the duration of burning, the peak mass loss rate, heat
release rate and total heat released for the various oxidizers.
While it provides far more and valuable fire test response data, including the peak heat release
rate and total heat released, the FPA is not widely available for use to screen and assign
oxidizers to a NFPA Class. For this project, the FPA was used to validate the screening test.
The same behavior observed during the bench-scale screening tests with cellulose powder,
sodium chloride (NaCl)-cellulose powder mixtures, and oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures were
observed when using the FPA. Oxidizer-fuel mixtures slow to ignite and spread flame in bench-
scale testing were slow to ignite and spread flame during the FPA tests. Oxidizer-fuel mixtures
that ignited readily and burned rapidly in the bench-scale tests were similarly observed to ignite
readily and burn rapidly during the FPA tests. Oxidizer-fuel mixtures that did not ignite but
spread discoloration and/or had low flame showed the same behavior in the FPA tests.
Oxidizer-fuel mixtures that generated significant gaseous products were also observed to
generate significant gaseous products in the FPA. The only difference was that under forced
convection conditions, the mass loss rate was higher and the active burning time shorter than
the same mixtures tested under free convection conditions at the bench-scale test.
The FPA tests with oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures provided calorimetric or heat release rate
data not provided by the bench-scale screening test—though both record the change in mass
over time. In general, the peak mass loss rate during combustion occurred at the same time as
the peak heat release rate and, higher peak mass loss rates corresponded to higher peak heat
release rates. The additional data corroborated the observed dependence of oxidizer
concentration on the burning intensity of the various mixtures with dried cellulose powder. Like
the bench-scale screening test, the FPA heat release rate data distinguished between (1) weak
oxidizers, oxidizers that principally decomposed, and strong oxidizers; (2) pure and formulated
oxidizers; and (3) oxidizers with different water content.
The FPA test data are summarized in Tables 11–14 for cellulose powder, cellulose powder-
sodium chloride (NaCl) mixtures, 30-g oxidizer:cellulose powder mixtures, and 15-g
oxidizer:cellulose powder mixtures, respectively. Fifteen gram mixtures were tested when
ignition of the mixture was expected to produce flames that extended from the test platform to
the opening of the exhaust collection duct; flame extension into the duct would result in invalid
Seven trials were performed with 30-g cellulose powder. The mass loss rate was comparable to
the screening test. The average chemical heat release rate based on oxygen consumption and
gas temperature rise was 1.8 kW; the average heat release rate based on carbon dioxide
generation was 2 kW. The convective heat release rate was 42–48% of the heat release rate
based on carbon dioxide generation. The effective heat of combustion of cellulose powder,
based on the total heat released, was 19.2±0.4 kJ/g. Moisture content (up to 3.8 wt%) had a
negligible effect on the heat release rate.
Similar to the bench-scale screening tests, sodium chloride (NaCl) did not increase or contribute
to the burning rate of cellulose powder. The mixtures were slow to ignite and spread flaming
combustion, and the peak mass loss rate and peak heat release rates were less than cellulose
powder alone. Increasing the amount of sodium chloride (NaCl) resulted in even lower mass
loss rates and lower peak heat release rates. The peak chemical heat release rate of 1:1 by
mass sodium chloride (NaCl)-cellulose powder mixture ranged from 1.3–1.5 kW; the peak
convective heat release rate ranged from 0.5–0.6 kW. The peak convective and chemical heat
release rates of the 4:1 sodium chloride (NaCl)-cellulose powder mixtures were lower than the
1:1 mixtures.
††
The FPA software calculates the mass loss rate using a moving linear regression of data over 18
seconds.
Moisture Content Visual Burning Duration Peak MLR Peak HRRconv Peak HRRCO2 Time to Peak
(%) (s) (g/s) (kW) (kW) HRR (s)
3.8 722, 772 0.09 0.73, 0.84 1.7, 1.87 155, 198
MLR=mass loss rate; HRR=heat release rate. * Using the total heat released based on carbon dioxide generation and
the amount of material consumed.
Effective
Visual Time to Heat of
Test Burning Peak Peak Peak Peak Combus-
Mixture Duration MLR HRRconv HRR CO2. HRR tion
Oxidizer (Concentration) Ox:CF11 s g/s kW kW s (kJ/g)*
From Tables 12, 13 and 14, the peak mass loss rate and peak heat release rate of a majority of
the oxidizers were greater than the mixtures with the equivalent amount of sodium chloride.
Figure 41 shows the peak heat release rate occurred at or near the peak mass loss rate during
combustion of the oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures. The peak convective heat release rate
and the effective heat of combustion were higher for the oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures that
had higher flame extension from the pile.
The influence of burning behavior as a function of oxidizer and fuel content from the bench-
scale screening test data was illustrated with barium nitrate. The results showed that the 1:1 by
mass mixture of barium nitrate and cellulose powder had higher flames, higher peak
temperatures, and slower mass loss rate than the 4:1 mixture. The heat release rate profiles of
barium nitrate:cellulose powder mixtures are shown in Figure 42. The FPA heat release rate
results are consistent with the observed difference in burning intensity of the three mixtures.
The peak heat release rates of 1:1 oxidizer-cellulose powder mixtures were higher than the 4:1
mixtures for eight oxidizers: sodium persulfate, calcium hypochlorite formulated with magnesium
sulfate heptahydrate, formulated sodium percarbonate, sodium dichlor dihydrate, lithium
hypochlorite (29%), barium nitrate, potassium permanganate, and trichlor. With the exceptions
of potassium permanganate and trichlor, the peak heat release rates based on carbon dioxide
generation of the oxidizers in 30 gram mixtures were less than 3 kW. The peak convective heat
release rates of the 4:1 mixtures were higher than the 1:1 mixtures for five oxidizers: 2:1 calcium
hypochlorite-sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium peroxide (75%), potassium perchlorate, calcium
8.00 0.5
0.45
7.00
0.4
6.00
HRR CO2
0.35
5.00
Heat Release Rate (kW)
0.3
4.00 0.25
MLR
0.2
3.00
0.15
2.00
0.1
1.00
0.05
0.00 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time [s]
FIGURE 41. Heat release rate and mass loss profile of 1:1 calcium peroxide (75%):cellulose powder (15 g)
showing the correlation between the time to the peak heat release rate and peak mass loss rate.
1 to 1
4 to 1
HRR [kW]
3 9 to 1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time [s]
FIGURE 42. Barium nitrate:cellulose powder mixture heat release rate profiles illustrating the difference in
burning behavior as a function of oxidizer concentration.
10.000
9.000
Sodium chloride
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time [s]
FIGURE 43. Heat release rate profiles of calcium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite-sodium chloride and
sodium chloride (NaCl):cellulose powder mixtures (1:1, 30 g).
Under the FPA conditions, the peak heat release rate based on carbon dioxide generation
showed a better correlation with mass loss rate and the observed burning behavior than the
peak convective heat release rate. The peak heat release rate (HRR) and peak mass loss rate
14 1.2
HRR chem
12 HRR conv 1
MLR
10
0.8
HRR( KW)
MLR (g/s)
8
0.6
6
0.4
4
0.2
2
0 0
l
2
l
4
Cl
l)2
g)
aC
aC
aC
3)
lO
2O
0
C
O
-N
-N
(3
KC
Li
O
S
(N
)2
)2
1
a2
a(
F1
Ba
Cl
Cl
C
N
(O
(O
C
Ca
Ca
1
1
1:
2:
Test Materials
FIGURE 44. Peak heat release and mass loss rate data of 30-g cellulose powder, 1:1 sodium
chloride:cellulose powder and 1:1 inorganic oxidizers with cellulose powder.
Liquid Oxidizers
The ad hoc tests with the liquid oxidizers on a glass rod exposed to a Bunsen burner resulted in
a visible increase in burning at the glass rod. The flame from the sodium permanganate was
yellow; the permanganate solution was dried but not consumed on the glass rod. When added
to dry cellulose powder in a metal dish and exposed to a gas flame, neither the wet hydrogen
peroxide nor sodium permanganate cellulose powder ignited or increased the combustion of the
adjacent cellulose powder. When contained inside the bulb of a plastic pipette and the pipette
ignited with a small flame, the plastic ceased to burn when it contacted the liquids. When a
small flame was applied directly to the bulb containing the liquid, heat was absorbed by the
liquid, and no vigorous burning was observed. When a thin film of hydrogen peroxide was
added to cellulose paper, the liquid dried without spontaneous ignition. When a thin film of
sodium permanganate was applied to cellulose paper, the liquid dried, gaseous products were
evolved, and the contaminated paper spontaneously ignited.
Additional research is required to better define the fire scenario of liquid oxidizers. Specifically,
the fire scenarios to be evaluated should distinguish between the oxidizer in its as-stored liquid
phase and concentration and the liquid as a contaminant that can react with a combustible
material.
The objective of the research project was to develop test(s) and criteria for classifying oxidizers
based on the degree to which the oxidizer, either by decomposition, release of oxygen or other
oxidizing gas and heat, increased or enhanced the burning rate of typical combustible fuels to
be consistent with the fire codes classification of Class 1 (does not moderately increase the
burning rate), Class 2 (causes a moderate increase in the burning rate), and Class 3 (causes a
severe increase in the burning rate)oxidizers.
The reaction-to-fire criteria for classifying oxidizers based on burning rate only was developed
after completion of all bench-scale, FPA, and intermediate-scale tests. The intermediate-scale
test data of the various oxidizers in combustible test packaging were evaluated relative to empty
test packaging and similarly packaged sodium chloride or common salt. Further, the burning
behavior of the oxidizers exposed to fire was evaluated in context of the current subjective
definitions for Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3 oxidizers. The peak convective heat release rate
was consistent with the observed range in burning behavior or burning rate. The time duration
over which the energy was released was characteristic of strong and weak oxidizers: strong
oxidizers had higher heat release rates over a shorter period of time compared to weak
oxidizers that had low heat release rates over a longer period of time. Next, the bench-scale
burning behavior and test data of the same materials tested at the intermediate-scale were
evaluated. The screening test mass loss rate and active burning time that would characterize
clearly Class 1 oxidizer behavior and clearly Class 3 oxidizer behavior were established.
Oxidizers that did not clearly meet Class 1 or Class 3 mass loss rate and burning time criteria
would be assigned to Class 2 until confirmatory intermediate-scale testing is done.
The intermediate- and bench-scale test results for granular sodium chloride and 11 oxidizers are
summarized in Table 15. The bench-scale test data in Table 15 corresponds to the mixture with
the fastest mass loss rate (i.e., 1:1, 4:1 or 9:1 mixture). Calcium peroxide is not included in
Table 15 because the oxidizer tested at the intermediate-scale contained 25wt% calcium
hydroxide, while the material tested at the bench-scale contained 25wt% calcium carbonate.
*Data shown as average ± sample standard deviation. ** The material tested at the intermediate-scale contained
65wt% oxidizer; the mixture tested at the bench-scale contained 40wt% oxidizer.
The materials in Table 15 are listed in the order of increasing peak convective heat release rate.
By inspection, the peak radiant heat flux generally increased and the calculated active burning
time decreased with increasing peak convective heat release rate. Similarly, the mass loss rate
from the screening test increased and the active burning time from the mass loss data
decreased with increasing peak convective heat release rate.
Figure 45 is a graph showing the bench-scale test data of the oxidizers tested at the
intermediate-scale and that exhibited a range in burning behavior. The graph does not include
the dichlor and trichlor test data because these materials principally decomposed. Vertical lines
in Figure 45 separate materials that exhibited clearly Class 1 behavior, clearly Class 3 behavior,
and intermediate behavior. A clearly Class 1 oxidizer is an oxidizer which when mixed with dried
cellulose powder was slow to ignite, did not readily or rapidly spread flaming combustion over
the pile and had a peak flame height less than nine inches from the test platform. A clearly
Class 3 oxidizer is an oxidizer which when mixed with dried cellulose powder ignited readily,
rapidly spread flaming combustion over the pile and had peak flame heights greater than nine
inches from the test platform.
10
9
60
8
Active burning time (s)
5
30
4
15 2
0 0
)
)
)
l
te
5%
te
)
aC
aC
%
0%
9%
ar
fa
lfa
.5
ul
(4
-N
-N
(4
(9
ul
97
su
an
it e
it e
te
rs
te
te
(>
r
fa
ag
pe
or
or
na
na
(g
te
l
su
l
/m
bo
bo
ch
ch
um
ite
na
er
ar
ar
po
po
w
r
ga
di
lo
op
rc
rc
po
hy
hy
So
an
ch
on
pe
pe
hy
rm
po
m
m
m
um
um
hy
l
pe
Ca
ci
ci
m
di
di
al
al
iu
m
m
0
So
So
C
ss
iu
iu
:3
lc
ss
70
ta
1:
2:
Ca
Po
ta
Po
FIGURE 45. Bench-scale screening test data of inorganic oxidizers with a range in burning rate.
The inorganic oxidizers at the intermediate-scale with peak convective heat release rates
greater than 200 kW had maximum mass loss rates at the bench-scale greater than 2.9 g/s and
active burning times ranging from 5–7 seconds. The inorganic oxidizers at the intermediate-
scale with peak convective heat release rates less than 100 kW had bench-scale mass loss
rates less than 0.55 g/s and burning times longer than 26 seconds. Bearing in mind that there
are many more oxidizers, the bench-scale maximum mass loss rate and active burning time for
clearly Class 1 materials were rounded to 0.3 g/s and 30 seconds, respectively, and to 3 g/s and
6 seconds, respectively, for clearly Class 3 materials.
From the cumulative results of testing, one method with two reaction-to-fire tests and criteria is
proposed in Table 16 and Figure 46. Using data collected from oxidizers with a range in
burning behavior, burning rate was defined using fire test response characteristics namely the
peak heat release rate, maximum mass loss rate and duration of active burning. The bench-
scale test should be used as a first step to screen oxidizers, followed by confirmatory
intermediate-scale tests for materials which are not clearly Class 1 or Class 3. Class 4 oxidizers
meet the burning rate criteria of Class 3 oxidizers but require further evaluation to determine if
an explosive reaction can result from reactivity and/or exposure to thermal or physical shock.
TABLE 16. Tests and Criteria for Assigning Solid Oxidizers to Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 & Class 4.
Generally meets the Class 3 criteria plus evidence to support explosive reaction due to contamination
CLASS 4
or exposure to thermal or physical shock including UN and/or GHS designations.
* Maximum mass loss rate from 20 to 80% the final measured mass of 1:1, 4:1 and 9:1 mixtures.
** Calculated from the mass loss profiles.
***Calculated from the width of the curve at ½ the peak radiant heat flux.
Importantly, the intermediate-scale test results were consistent with existing pallet-scale tests
with Class 1 trichlor (all forms), Class 1 formulated calcium hypochlorite, and Class 3 high-
strength calcium hypochlorite.21 22
* Thirty-gram ( 30-g) piles of 1:1, 4:1 and 9:1 by weight mixtures of the oxidizer, with the as-received
particle size, and dried cellulose powder. I f the 1:1 or 4:1 oxidizer: cellulose powder mixture result in
burning durations less than 6 seconds or mass loss rates greater than 3 g/ s, testing a 9:1 mixture is not required.
* * A Class 4 oxidizer generally meets the Class 3 burning rate criteria plus evidence to support explosive reaction
due to contamination or exposure to thermal or physical shock.
The advantages and limitations of the bench-scale screening test and the intermediate-scale fire
exposure test are summarized in Tables 17 and 18, respectively. It should be noted that the
limitations of the bench-scale screening test are addressed by the intermediate-scale fire
exposure test. As a result, the proposed method with two reaction-to-fire tests is better than a
single test.
TABLE 18. Advantages and Limitations of the Intermediate-Scale Fire Exposure Test
Advantages Limitations
More realistic than 30-g mixtures with cellulose Requires test facility and trained personnel
powder
Less expensive than pallet scale More expensive than screening test
Can accommodate tablets Can be damaging to equipment
Provides calorimetric data Test packaging instead of actual packaging
Added instrumentation can include combustion gas
analysis
A reliable, bench-scale screening test was one goal of the research project. The bench-scale
screening test used in these studies was an improvement on and provides more information
than the current UN Test O.1 method for solid oxidizers. It provided test-operator independent
data and was able to distinguish between weak oxidizers, oxidizers that decompose, and strong
oxidizers. The inclusion of thermocouples above the test platform provided additional
information to distinguish between combustion and decomposition.
In terms of the test set-up, the added instrumentation (i.e., laboratory balance with data output,
four thermocouples, video camera) did not add significantly to the cost or complexity of the test.
Once set-up, a series of tests (e.g., up to 15 trials) could be performed in one day. Fewer tests
are required per oxidizer because the proposed test methodology and criteria do not require a
reference oxidizer for classification. Video recordings showed the range in burning behavior, so
their use are strongly recommended.
The method of collecting mass loss data during combustion of oxidizer-fuel mixtures was the
subject of inter-laboratory testing and has been shown to be reproducible. Starting in February
2009, twelve laboratories participated in round-robin testing with three granular oxidizers under
Solvay‘s leadership for the IGUS Ad hoc Working Group on the Solid Oxidizer Test (UN Test
O.1). Another major finding of the inter-laboratory testing was criterion based on mass loss
rate, in comparison to stop-watch burning time, was less likely to result in the assignment of an
oxidizer to the wrong packing group (for transportation).
The 30-g screening test is useful to screen materials for dangerous properties. While it does not
provide calorimetric data, more tests can be done at the bench scale. It can be performed by
lab technicians using typical laboratory equipment; it is versatile; it can be used to examine and
distinguish between pure materials and admixtures; and it provides information previously
unavailable, including test-operator-independent rate data, temperature, and flame height. The
limitations of mass loss are well known. Mass loss, like burning time, is not an inherent or
intrinsic property of the material being tested; it does not assess the release of smoke or
combustion products; and it is not always a result of combustion. Indeed, ASTM E 2102
Notably, oxidizers are not sold as intimate mixtures with cellulose powder and the combustible
material with which the oxidizer comes into contact may be plastic and not cellulosic. Plastic
fuels, either powder or pellets, were examined as a fuel in oxidizer mixtures at the bench-scale,
but the end-point of combustion was obscured as pools of molten plastic continued to burn after
the oxidizer was consumed. Mixtures of oxidizer with plastic fuel were also observed to expel
molten plastic droplets from the test platform.
ASTM E 2102 provides guidance on the addition of a short stack and thermopile above the test
material to estimate heat release rate based on gas temperatures; however, identifying and
calibrating a thermopile requires additional research. On the other hand, combustion-type FPA
tests measure heat release rate and, when used in combination with the material‘s composition,
provides fundamental reaction-to-fire properties. The FPA has recently been used to
characterize the heat release rate of two potassium nitrate based smoke powder mixtures and
energetic materials.23-24 The FPA could have potential added value when investigating material-
specific properties, including formulations and reactions with inert and hydrated salts compared
to the pure oxidizer without additives. The FPA could be used to investigate the influence of
aged or aging stored materials such as dehydration and slow decomposition on the heat release
rate of the material.
The intermediate-scale fire exposure test with 24 lbs net weight of the oxidizer in combustible
test packaging meets all the criteria for a reliable, scientific, and realistic test for classifying
oxidizers. The intermediate-scale fire exposure test data showed (1) can accommodate
oxidizers with a range in burning behavior and (2) can distinguish the influence of oxidizer
concentration and/or formulation on the quantity and duration of energy released.
Like the FPA, the intermediate-scale test provides heat release rate data. The heat release rate
is most often used and considered the best parameter for characterizing the intensity of a fire
and is the single most important parameter for characterizing fire hazard for storage protection.
The convective heat release rate is an accepted but indirect measurement of the heat release
rate based on the increase or rise in temperature of the combustion gases. It does not include
the composition of the gaseous products. The chemical heat release rate is direct assessment
of the combustion reaction based on the composition and volume of gaseous products
collected. The convective heat release rate is typically lower than the chemical heat release
rate because some of the heat during combustion is lost as radiant energy. The determination
of heat release rate is applicable to small, intermediate and large scale fire tests. The criterion
for classification based on peak convective heat release rate of the packaged material was
chosen because it applies to all oxidizers irrespective of its composition and some oxidizers
produce gaseous products that may be destructive to gas analysis instrumentation required for
the chemical heat release rate determinations.
In addition to combustibility, low, moderate, or high heat release rates are used to classify
occupancies and commodities in the design of sprinkler protection.25 The heat release rate of
oxidizers could be used in modeling the sprinkler discharge densities.
Although more realistic than an oxidizer intimately mixed with cellulose powder, the
intermediate-scale test requires a fire test laboratory and staff. For safety reasons, intermediate-
When combined, the bench-scale screening test reduces the cost associated with intermediate-
scale fire exposure testing. Intermediate-scale testing would be required for borderline Class 2,
Class 2, and borderline Class 3 oxidizers. The screening test also can be used to preliminarily
classify oxidizers and/or to study the influence of admixtures, diluents, exotherm control agents,
particle size and water content on burning rate. If the test material by mass loss and active
burning time were not clearly Class 1 or clearly Class 3, then it would be a Class 2 oxidizer. The
manufacturers can accept Class 2 assignment or proceed to intermediate-scale testing with 24
pounds of the oxidizer in the test packaging to resolve whether the oxidizer is a high Class 1
and not Class 2, Class 2, or Class 3.
While not required for classification, the intermediate-scale fire exposure test could be used to
distinguish an influence of product form and packaging on burning rate. In general, packaging
can add combustible material for reaction with the oxidizer and can influence the time for fire to
penetrate the packaging and the rate of fire spread through the packaging. Eventually, the
quantity of fuel from packaging will influence the heat release rate. In this project, three
materials were tested in both granular and tablet form. The tablet form materials had lower
peak convective heat release rates, but it did not change the burning behavior from that of the
expected Class.
The proposed tests and criteria do not require a reference oxidizer for classification. Fire
hazard assessment procedures recognize the use of inert materials for comparing the ignition
propensity and heat release rate with the class of materials under investigation.27 For the
determination of the degree of enhanced burning rate, the use of an inert material is more
meaningful than the use of a reference oxidizer. Potassium bromate (the reference oxidizer in
UN Test O.1) contains and releases oxygen as the oxidant. Other oxidizers may not contain the
same amount of oxygen in their chemical structure to release during combustion and/or may
release oxidants other than and/or in addition to oxygen (i.e., nitrates, persulfates) or have
different decomposition temperatures or combustion reactions. Potassium bromate is also
toxic. Sodium chloride (NaCl) does not decompose or undergo a phase change when exposed
to a glowing wire or the propane burner temperatures and is available in both granular and
tablet forms.
Each oxidizer and/or formulated product must be evaluated. There should be no substitution of
one oxidizer with other similar oxidizers. For example, the burning rate of calcium peroxide is
very different than sodium peroxide. Neither reaction-to-fire test provides information on thermal
stability, reactivity, nor the toxicity of the gaseous products generated. Thermal decomposition
studies and reactivity tests were outside the scope of the current project. Standard fire test
methods for evaluating the toxicity of decomposition and/or combustion products include ASTM
The current Class assignment of oxidizers used in this research project was not used in the
development of the criteria. Using test data and the proposed criteria, some tested oxidizers
had Class assignments different from their current Class. The oxidizers tested and their Class
assignment based on the screening test and intermediate-scale tests are summarized in Table
19. The oxidizers for which there was only screening test data are summarized in Table 20.
At the intermediate-scale and exposed to fire, the granular potassium monopersulfate triple salt
increased the burning rate of its combustible packaging; however, their peak convective heat
release rates were well below 100 kW. The peak convective heat release rate of the diluted
potassium monopersulfate containing commercial product was 32% lower than the concentrated
triple salt. Both materials exhibited oxidizer-type Class 1 burning behavior.
Using the intermediate-scale test data and criteria for the remaining 12 oxidizers that are listed
in the Annex, seven had burning behaviors consistent with the results of the proposed criteria.
They were Class 1 trichlor (all forms), dichlor, formulated calcium hypochlorite, concentrated
sodium percarbonate (99%), and diluted sodium percarbonate (65%); Class 2 calcium
hypochlorite with 33% available chlorine; and, all forms of Class 3 calcium hypochlorite
(>50wt%). Five of the oxidizers had burning behaviors different from their current Class. In
each case, the actual burning behavior was consistent with a higher Class. In other words, they
were more hazardous than their current Class suggests. These were sodium persulfate,
calcium peroxide, potassium permanganate, potassium perchlorate, and calcium hypochlorite
with 48% available chlorine. Two tests with 50 wt% calcium hypochlorite (e.g., 48% available
chlorine) had peak convective heat release rates greater than 200 kW. The burning behavior
was considered borderline Class 3 ―severe increase in burning rate‖.
In order for the screening test to be meaningful, a majority of the bench-scale predictions should
agree with the Class from the intermediate-scale test data. Eight of the twelve materials with
bench-scale test data in Table 19 predicted the same Class as the intermediate-scale; two
predicted higher; and two predicted lower than the intermediate-scale. The two oxidizers that
the screening test did not assign as clearly Class 1 were trichlor, which decomposed, and
sodium percarbonate, which turned out to have Class 1 behavior anyway. The intermediate-
scale results for both were consistent with their current Class. These results show the screening
test is conservative. In two cases, the bench-scale test data and criteria predicted Class
behavior different than the intermediate-scale results. Class 1 sodium persulfate exhibited
clearly Class 1 behavior at the bench-scale but had a peak convective heat release rate greater
than 100-kW (Class 2) at the intermediate-scale. The 50 wt% calcium hypochlorite burned
more vigorously at the intermediate-scale (Class 3) than at the bench-scale screening test
(Class 2) predicted.
Eight oxidizers were only tested at the bench-scale. All the oxidizers are listed in the Code‘s
Annex: five are current Class 1, and three are current Class 3. Barium nitrate and sodium
nitrate are not specifically listed and therefore are Class 1. The Predicted Class and Current
Class are compared in Table 20. Based on the bench-scale screening test results, one
oxidizer was clearly Class 1, and three oxidizers were clearly Class 3. Of the remainder,
intermediate-scale fire exposure testing is recommended to confirm the Class. However, the
mass loss rate of lithium hypochlorite (29%) and barium nitrate shown in Table 20 were very
close to the Class 1 cut-off, and 24 pounds of the material in the combustible test packaging
would most likely have peak convective heat release rates less than or close to 100 kW. On the
Burning rate is the principle physical hazard of oxidizers. The degree to which an oxidizer
increases the burning rate of combustible materials with which it comes into contact is the basis
of the current NFPA Classes. However, burning rate is not defined in the NFPA Code. Existing
test methods for assessing oxidizers use visual burning time (i.e., seconds) or combustion
propagation rate (i.e., cm/s or in/s) to characterize the enhancement or acceleration of burning
rate by oxidizers in small quantities and always in comparison to a reference oxidizer. In this
project, the enhancement or acceleration of burning rate by oxidizers, intentionally mixed with
cellulose powder or in combustible test packaging, was evaluated in terms of fire-test-response
characteristics.
The Phase II project delivers a method with two reaction-to-fire tests and criteria for assigning
solid oxidizers to Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 and Class 4. Based on this research project, the
following recommendations are proposed to the Hazardous Chemicals technical committee:
(1) Adopt the proposed method with two reaction-to-fire tests and criteria for assigning solid
oxidizers to Class 1, Class 2, Class 3, or Class 4.
(2) Evaluate and refine the definitions of oxidizer, burning rate and the definitions of Class 1,
Class 2, Class 3, and Class 4 oxidizers based on this report and the proposed tests and
criteria.
(4) Evaluate the test data and Class of oxidizers that, based on the intermediate-scale test
results, differed from their current NFPA Class. These oxidizers are sodium persulfate,
calcium peroxide, potassium permanganate, potassium perchlorate and calcium
hypochlorite (50wt%). Under the proposed tests and criteria, each would be one class
higher. Further, potassium monopersulfate should be considered for addition to Class 1 in
the Code‘s annex.
(6) Establish a technical basis for the existing fire protection provisions with additional testing
using Class 1-borderline Class 2 and Class 2-borderline Class 3 oxidizers.
(7) Modify the Code to provide the same security measures recommended by the NRCan
Explosive Act for specific solid and liquid oxidizers identified as explosive precursors. The
oxidizers include hydrogen peroxide (≥30%), potassium chlorate, potassium perchlorate,
sodium chlorate, nitric acid (≥68%), potassium nitrate, and sodium nitrate.
Additional Research
The screening test, the collection of and reducing mass loss data, has been subject to inter-
laboratory testing. The following topics were identified as areas requiring additional research.
(1) Factors influencing burning rate at the intermediate-scale including product form and
packaging.
(2) Fundamental research on oxidizers that decompose rapidly with and without flaming
combustion to include an evaluation of the toxicity, corrosivity, and combustibility of the
gaseous products of decomposition.
(2) Fundamental research on the fire scenario(s) and fire hazard(s) of liquid oxidizers.
Specifically, the fire scenarios to be evaluated should distinguish between the oxidizer in
its as-stored liquid phase and concentration and the liquid as a contaminant that can react
with and/or cause spontaneous ignition of a combustible material.
1
NFPA 400 (2010) Hazardous Materials Code, One Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA.
2
Buc, E. C. & Hoffmann, D. J.. 2006. Development of an enhanced hazard classification system for
chemical oxidizers. Quincy, Mass, National Fire Protection Association Fire Protection Research
Foundation. http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files//PDF/Research/OxidizerClassificationProject.pdf.
3
UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, Manual of Tests and Criteria, Section
th
34.4.1, 4 Revised Edition, 2003, Geneva and NY. See also, Annex I section 2.13.1 of Regulation (EC)
n°1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of the 16 December 2008 on Classification,
labeling and packaging of substances and mixtures, amending and repealing directives 67/548/EEC and
1999/45/EC and amending Regulation (EC) n°1907/2006, OJEC 31 December 2008
4
American Society of Testing and Materials. 2006. ASTM E 2058 standard test method for measurement
of synthetic polymer material flammability using a fire propagation apparatus (FPA). West Conshohocken,
Penn, ASTM International. Also, International Standards Organization. (2008). ISO 92 Reaction to Fire
Tests-- Measurement of Fundamental Material Properties using a Fire Propagation Apparatus.
5
American Society of Testing and Materials. 2008. ASTM E 2067 Standard practice for full scale oxygen
consumption calorimetry fire tests. West Conshohocken, Penn, ASTM International.
6
NFPA 430 (2004) Code for the Storage of Solid and Liquid Oxidizers, One Batterymarch Park, Quincy,
MA.
7
Teris LLC Fire http://www.adeq.state.ar.us/ftproot/Pub/WebDatabases/Legal/CAO/LIS_Files/06-067.pdf
8
United States. 2008. Fire and community evacuation in Apex, North Carolina Environmental Quality
Company, Apex, North Carolina, October 5, 2006. Washington DC, U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard
Investigation Board. http:purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS100911.
9
National Research Council. 1998. Containing the threat from illegal bombings, Washington DC:National
Academy Press
10
Natural Resources Canada. 2008. Explosives Act: Restricted Component Regulations. Canada
Gazette, Part II.
.
11
Quintiere, J.G., 1998. Principles of fire behavior, Boston, MA. Delmar Publishers.
12
American Society of Testing and Materials. 2008. ASTM E 176 standard terminology of fire standards,
West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
13 th
Hilado, C.J., 1998. Flammability handbook for plastics, 5 Edition, Lancaster, PA. Technomic
Publishing Co.
14
Davletshina, T.A., Cheremisinoff, N.P. 1998. Fire and explosion hazards handbook of industrial
chemicals, Westwood, NJ: Noyes Publications.
15
International Maritime Organization, 2004. International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code,
Incorporating Amendment 32-04, London, UK: International Maritime Organization.
16
Hugget, C., 1980, Estimation of Rate of Heat Release by Means of Oxygen Consumption, Fire and
Materials, 4(2), pp 61-65.
17
Arvidson, M., Lonnermark, A., 2002. Commodity classification tests of selected ordinary combustible
products, SP Report 2002:03, SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute. SP Fire Technology.
23
Biteau, H, Torero, J., Marlair, G. 2007. Proceedings from Interflam, Interscience Communications, UK.
24
Biteau, H., Fuentes, A., Marlair, G., Brohez, S., Torero, J.L., 2009, Journal of Hazardous Materials,
166(2-3), pp 916-924.
25
National Fire Protection Association. 2002. NFPA 13 Installation of Sprinkler Systems, One
Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA.
26
American Society of Testing and Materials. 2006. ASTM E 2536 standard guide for assessment of
measurement uncertainty in fire tests. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
27
American Society of Testing and Materials. 2000. ASTM E 1546 standard guide for development of
fire-hazard-assessment standards. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
28
American Society of Testing and Materials. 2001. ASTM E800 standard guide for the measurement of
gases present or generated during fires, West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
29
Nordtest, (1993) Method NT Fire 047 Combustible Products – Smoke Gas Concentrations, Continuous
FTIR Analysis, Espoo, Finland.
30
National Materials Advisory Board (NAS-NAE) Washington DC. 1979. Fire Safety Aspects of Polymeric
Materials. Volume 5. Elements of Polymer Fire Safety and Guide to the Designer. Ft. Belvoir, Defense
Technical Information Center.