PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVE

Mary Elizabeth A. Estevanez, Sheanna May R. Furia,

Eric Cristian C. Juniosa, Yohan Jung
4BIO 9 – GROUP 4
Department of Biological Sciences
College of Science
University of Santo Tomas

Summary
The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the
brain and spinal cord, and to the different parts of the body. To understand the physiology of the
nerve, five experiments were done under this exercise. The isolated nerve was subjected to
mechanical, thermal, osmotic, chemical, and electrical stimuli. In all conditions, nerve
contraction was observed. Applying anesthesia and blocking of pressure increased the threshold
voltage needed to elicit response as compared to no anesthesia. Pithing the frog had effects on
the reflexes of the frog showing minimal to no response as compared to a non-pithed frog. For
the reflex action in the frog, 10% HCl concentration gave the fastest reflex time, with the
duration of 7.95 seconds. Testing for the sensory systems, somatic senses showed that the
subject’s hands were the most accurate in tactile localization with an average error of 4.3 mm.
In terms of touch receptor adaptation, initial perception lasted for 6.11 seconds and increased
minimally to 7.16 seconds after adding another coin, then decreased to 6.14 seconds after
adding the third coin. Under the test for hearing, it was revealed that the auditory acuity of the
subject was not same for both ears. In auditory adaptation there was a tingling sensation in both
ears when the rubber tubing was not pressed, and a tingling sensation on the other where it was
pressed. Under binocular vision and test perception, it was revealed that the two eyes see images
at slightly different positions, but images fuse when both are open. Lastly in visual acuity, two
members with poor eyesight were able to read only up to line 7 while the one member with 20/20
vision was able to read up to line 9 of the chart.

Introduction
The central nervous system (CNS) is the
main processing center for the nervous
system. This is composed of the brain and
spinal cord. The brain is responsible for the
control in most functions in the body. This
includes awareness, movements, sensations,
thoughts, speech, and memory. The spinal
cord is the one responsible in carrying
signals (messages) back and forth between
the brain and the peripheral nerves. The
fundamental unit of the central nervous
system is the neuron. It is responsible for
most special functions attributed to the
nervous system. These cells send and
receive electrical as well as chemical signals
to and from other neurons throughout the
body.
The objectives of this experiment are to
determine the effect of mechanical, thermal,
osmotic, chemical, electrical stimuli, signal
blocking and anesthetics on nerve
conduction; and to determine the effect of
single pithing and double pithing on
different reflexes of a frog.
Methods
Double-Pithing
The frog was grasped using the left hand,
with the head bended ventrally with the
index finger over the middle finger. The
foramen magnum was located using a
dissection needle. Then the dissection needle
was pushed cranially into the foramen
magnum to destroy brain. After the brain
was destroyed, the dissection needle was
directed caudally and pushed to destroy the
spinal cord.
Nerve Dissection
The skin from legs and abdomen of the
double-pithed frog was removed by cutting
around the abdomen and peeling the skin
downward and off the animal. The frog was
kept moist using Ringer’s solution. Next, the
urostyle was grasped with forceps and then
cut. The sciatic nerve was then located and
lifted using a glass hook. This was cut from
the spinal cord and tied with a piece of
thread. Using the forceps and glass hook, the
nerve was severed from the gastrocnemius
muscle, and then placed in a petri dish
containing frog Ringer’s solution.
A. Nerve Function
A muscle nerve was prepared by following
the “Nerve dissection procedure” and the
femur was clamped. The nerve was
stimulated successively by pinching
(mechanical), touching the free end with a
hot glass rod (thermal), cutting a small
portion of the dead end of the nerve and
applying a few crystals of NaCl to the fresh
cut (osmotic), dipping the free end in HCl
(chemical), and applying a mild electrical
shock using a stimulator (electrical).
B. Signal Blocking
B.1 Anesthetic Solution
A long sciatic nerve was isolated and laid on
a moist glass plate. One end of the nerve
was touched with a stimulating electrode.
Then the minimum stimulus that will elicit a
response on the gastrocnemius muscle was
determined and recorded. Two small pieces
of cotton was soaked with anesthetic and
was placed between the middle portions of
the nerve. This was covered with filter paper
moistened with Amphibian Ringer’s
solution. The free end of the nerve was
stimulated using the minimal stimulus
previously determined. This stimulation was
repeated at two-minute intervals and the
threshold stimulus at each stage was
determined. The cotton was moistened with
anesthesia periodically. The results were
then tabulated. The anesthetic was washed
away with Amphibian Ringer’s solution and
the minimum stimulus that will give a
response on the gastrocnemius muscle was
determined at two-minute intervals. The
results were then tabulated.
B.2 Pressure Blocking
Another long nerve was prepared. The
minimum stimulus that will elicit a response
was determined and then recorded. The
prongs of a forceps were covered with
rubber tubing and pressure was applied
gradually on the middle portion of the nerve.
The pressure was released immediately. The
minimal stimulus was determined again and
the same procedure was repeated at 1-
minute intervals. The results were then
tabulated.
C. Functions of the Central Nervous
System
A set of physiological tests was performed
for a non-pithed, single-pithed and double-
pithed frog. First, the frog was placed in a
dissecting pan and the position of the head,
eyes, and legs were observed. The pulsation
in the throat area was also noted. Second, in
the dissecting pan the frog was placed on its
back and the righting position of the frog
was observed. Third, the frog was placed in
a pail of water and pulsation in the throat
area was observed. Then the frog was placed
again on the table and a loud noise was
made. The reaction of the frog was noted.
After that, the firmness and flaccidness of
the frog’s legs were also observed. Next, the
hind leg of the frog was pulled and
resistance to it was noted. The toe of the
frog was pinched after, taking note of the
reaction again. Following this, the eyes of
the frog were then touched with a piece of
cotton or tissue paper. Lastly, the toes of the
right foot of the frog were soaked in water
that was being heated in a beaker. All these
procedures were done on the non-pithed,
single and double-pithed frog, taking note of
all the observed reactions or response.
D. Reflex Action in the Frog
The frog was single-pithed by following the
“Pithing procedure”. The frog was
suspended through the jaw with a wire hook
attached to a clamp on a stand. The long toe
was immersed with 10% Sodium
Bicarbonate and tap water. Then, it was
immersed in 10% Hal. The time before the
reflex action obtaining the reflex action was
noted. The procedure was repeated after 2
minutes using a different concentration of
the acid. Another trial was made after
obtaining a reflex action in a specific
concentration.
F. Specific Sensory Systems
F.1 Somatic Senses
Tactile Localization
With the subjects eyes closed, the skin was
touched with a pointed pencil then had the
subject touch the same spot using the same
object. The localization difference was
measured in millimeters. The procedure was
repeated and noted if there was any
improvement in the localization. This was
performed twice on other parts of the body.
Touch Receptors Adaptation
With the subject’s eyes closed, a small coin
was placed on the inside of his forearm. The
initial perception was measured on how long
it lasted. Two more similar coins were added
when the sensation was no longer felt. The
sensation of the extra coins was timed.
Temperature Receptors
The subject’s left hand was placed in a
1000-mL beaker filled with ice water and
the right hand was placed in a 1000-mL
beaker with water at 45 degrees Celsius
simultaneously, for two minutes. The
sensations felt on each hand were recorded.
F.2 Hearing
Watch Tick Test for Auditory Acuity
The subject’s ear was plugged with cotton
and had his eyes closed. The watch was held
against the auditory canal of the unplugged
ear and was slowly moved until the subject
was not able to hear it. The distance was
measured. The watch was moved closed
until the subject heard it again, and any
difference was noted. The procedure was
repeated with the other ear.
Auditory Adaptation
A stethoscope was placed on the subject’s
ears, and a tuning fork was vibrated at the
bell of the stethoscope. The tuning fork was
then removed, and the subject stayed at rest
for two minutes without removing the
stethoscope. The procedure was repeated,
but the rubber tubing was pressed firmly that
leads to one ear. The fork was moved away
so the sound was barely heard on the free
ear. The pressure was then released on the
tube to the other ear. The sensation felt by
the subject was recorded.
F.3 Vision
Binocular Vision and Space perception
The person focused a coin held in front of a
nose. First the left eye was closed and the
right was open, then the right eye was closed
and the left open. The difference in position
of the coin in front of the nose was noted.
Visual Acuity
Individually, the members of the group
stood 20 feet from the Snellen Eye Chart.
With one eye covered and the other open,
the person reads up to line 8. Then line 9
was read if the person could read up to line
8. This was repeated using the other eye.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Prior to examination of the physiology of
the nerve with sets of different tests, double-
pithing procedure of the frog was done.
Pithing procedure as defined by Medical
Dictionary (2009) is the destruction of the
central nervous system of an experimental
animal in preparation for physiological
research that is usually done by inserting a
blunt a blunt probe through the foramen
magnum. Single pithing and double pithing
were performed in the frog rendering the
brain and spinal cord destroyed.
After double pithing, nerve dissection was
performed. During this procedure, the frog
was kept moist with Ringer’s solution.
Ringer’s solution is an aqueous solution of
sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and
calcium chloride that is isotonic to the
animal tissue that is bathed in it (Medical
dictionary, 2007). It is important to keep the
frog nerve moist to keep it from drying and
becoming brittle. Use of metal tools to
handle the nerve was prohibited so that any
depolarization of the neurons in the nerve
may be prevented.
Table 2-1 Nerve Function
Stimulus Observations
When the nerve was pinched off,
Mechanical
the gastrocnemius contracted.
When the nerve was touched
Thermal with a hot glass rod, the nerve
slightly contracted.
When crystals of NaCl were
applied to a small portion of the
Osmotic
end of the nerve, the thigh
muscles contracted repeatedly.
When the free end of the nerve
Chemical was dipped in HCl, the
gastrocnemius contracted.
When a mild electric shock was
Electrical applied to the nerve, the
gastrocnemius contracted.
After the nerve dissection, the function was
examined through mechanical, thermal,
osmotic, chemical, and electrical
stimulation. The entire stimulus given to the
frog elicited response in the form of
contraction. This response is due to sensory
receptors present in the frog i.e.
thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and
nociceptors. These sensory receptors initiate
sensory transduction by recognizing stimuli.
In accordance to McMillan (2014), sensory
transduction recognizes converted stimuli by
means of sensory receptors to neural signals.
A neuron is initially in a state of resting
membrane potential. In other words, the cell
is not involved in sending an electrical
signal. During this phase, most of the ion
channels are closed except for some of the
potassium channels. Thus, potassium ions
can diffuse freely out of the cell. During the
nerve stimulation, there is an influx of
sodium ions into the cell because the sodium
ion channels are open. When this happens,
the inside of the cell membrane is positive in currents also blocks the conduction. This
relation to the outside. This state is called reduces the ability of the potassium ion
the depolarization state. During this state, channels to set the membrane potential.
the difference in the charge between the
inside and the outside of the cell membrane Basing from the results attained, applying
decreases. In other words, the membrane anesthesia to the nerve increases the
potential becomes less negative. When threshold voltage needed to elicit a response
depolarization reaches a membrane potential as the time goes by. The principle behind
of -55 mV, action potential is integrated. these results can be explained by the three
The resting membrane potential is types of classification of nerve fibers based
reestablished by means of Na/K ATPase. on diameter. Type A fibers have the biggest
Based on the observations, the threshold diameter and are responsible for conducting
potential was reached creating a response of pressure and motor sensations. Type B fibers
contraction. are moderate in size. Type C fibers are the
smallest and are responsible for transmitting
Table 2-2 Signal and Pressure Blocking pain and temperature sensations. As a result,
With Without Pressure type C fibers are more easily blocked by
Interval
Anesthetic Anesthetic Block anesthetics than the type A fibers. This is
1 3V 12 V
  why in the early time intervals, the effect of
2 4.5 V 12 V
  anesthesia was not yet apparent. Only type C
3 6V 12 V
  fibers were blocked primarily, but as time
4 9V 9V
  went by, the type A fibers were also
5 9V 9V
  blocked, no longer eliciting any response.
6 12 V 6V
 
On the other hand, when anesthetic solution
7 6V
  was not applied to the nerve, the stimulus
8 4.5 V
  needed to elicit a response went down as the
9 4.5 V
  time went by. This is because the stimulus
10 4.5 V
  was cumulating and no stronger stimulus
was needed to pass the threshold level.
The group used a long sciatic nerve to
examine the effects of blocking the signals When pressure is used to block the signal
by applying anesthetic solution and applying rather than anesthetic, it is expected that
pressure to the nerve. Anesthetic solution similar results like that of using anesthetic
works by inhibiting the depolarization of the will be presented. The nerve diameter will
nerve membrane by disrupting the Na+ and be forcefully reduced as the time goes by
K+ currents. This inhibition does not allow until such time when no more signals will be
the action potential to be propagated by able to pass. The pressure applied gradually
increasing the threshold level. The local with the forceps will deform the tissue
anesthetic, when applied, diffuses across the temporarily, blocking the conduction of
cell membrane and goes on to bind to a signal currents.
specific receptor located at the voltage-gated
sodium channel, altering the structure and
the function of the channel, resulting in the
inhibition of sodium ion movement.
Blocking the leakage of potassium ion
Table 2-3 Functions of the CNS to Noise
Observations Firmness Very flaccid
Normal Position Normal position, of Legs
of Head blinking eyes, fast Eye No response
rhythmic pulsation in Response
the throat area
Righting The frog immediately In this experiment, the objective was to
went to righting determine the effect of single pithing and
position double pithing on the different reflexes of a
In water Slow pulsation in the frog. A normal, non-pithed frog was
throat area included as the constant variable to which
Reaction No reaction other frogs (single-pithed and double-pithed
to Noise frogs) are compared. The normal or non-
Firmness Firm legs pithed frog responded normally, as expected,
of Legs to the physiological tests that were
Eye Closes eye upon performed. The stimuli elicited responses
Response touching from the frog. The single-pithed and double-
pithed showed some differences in these
Observations observations and it has something to do with
Single- Position Lying/bowing the procedure that was done on these frogs.
Pithed of Head position, slow As mentioned, pithing is the destruction of
Frog blinking eyes, slow the central nervous system of an
pulsation in the throat experimental animal in preparation for
area physiological research (Medical Dictionary,
2009). This procedure is done by inserting a
Righting Frog went to righting
blunt probe through the foramen. Single
position*
pithing a frog destroys the brain. The frog is
In water Slow pulsation in the
brain-dead but its spinal cord is still
throat area
functional. The frog can still crouch or
Reaction No reaction
move, but is not in pain. These actions are
to Noise
neural reflexes that are controlled by the
Firmness Firm legs motor senses in the spinal cord. Here the
of Legs corneal reflex is destroyed, but not the reflex
Eye No response withdrawal response that the spinal cord is
Response responsible for. Without the brain, sensory
perception is not possible so to confirm if
Observations the sensory perception has been destroyed,
Double- Position Lying position, eyes test for corneal reflex is done. This involves
Pithed of Head are not blinking, no touching the eyes, and no response should
Frog pulsation in the throat be observed. Double pithing a frog destroys
area both the brain and spinal cord therefore the
Righting No movement or frog has no reflex actions at all. This time,
response not only is the corneal reflex damaged but
In water No movement; no also the reflex withdrawal response. To
pulsation confirm spinal cord damage, test for this
Reaction No reaction reflex withdrawal response is made. This
involves pinching of the frog’s legs and no Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) was used as a
movement or response should be observed. stimulus. Since the frog uses cutaneous
respiration for breathing, the skin of the frog
A normal frog is able to assume a crouching is sensitive to chemicals such as HCl since
position with its head upright. It is also there are blood vessels present underneath
capable of doing a righting position. The the skin. Amphibians can easily feel
single-pithed frog can still crouch but its solutions especially acidic ones. By means
head was not upright anymore, and it of using graded concentrations of HCl, it
struggled to get up when placed on its back. was determined that there is an increase in
The double-pithed frog did not move at all. the reaction time of the frog as the
In the water, the normal and single pithed concentration rises. 10% concentration of
frog is observed to have a slower pulse rate, HCl yielded the fastest reaction time. In
while there is no pulsation in the throat area accordance to Doratt (2008), the acid
in the double-pithed frog. In terms of its disrupts the pH of the frog skin. To prevent
reaction to noise, the normal frog did not further disruption in the pH, a buffering
react as expected. But it could be that the agent or sodium bicarbonate should be
stimulus was not enough. The legs were firm utilized.
in a normal frog and responsive when
pulled, pinched, or placed in a beaker of hot Table 2-8 Somatic Senses: Tactile
water. The single pithed frog is also Localization
responsive because the spinal cord still Parts of Localization Average
responds to the stimuli, therefore the legs are the body difference Error (mm)
observed to still have reflex withdrawal Hand 5 mm 3 5 4.3
response. But the legs of the double-pithed Arm 10 mm 3 8 7
frog are completely flaccid because of the Palm 15 mm 4 5 8
severed spinal cord. The reflex withdrawal Neck 10 mm 8 7 8.3
response is no longer observed when Calf 20 mm 30 10 20
pinched, pulled or placed in a beaker of hot Ankle 8 mm 9 4 21
water. Lastly, in terms of the eye response, Ribs 9 mm 12 14 11.7
again the corneal reflex is also destroyed Thighs 20 mm 6 14 22
when brain is damaged. Only the normal
frog reacts when its eyes are touched. Both
Tactile localization is the ability to
the single-pithed and double-pithed frog no
determine the exact location on the skin
longer responds.
where it has been touched by an object.
Depending on the density and distribution of
Table 2-4 Reflex Action
the receptors, localization varies on different
Time (sec) Acid Concentration
body parts. Those areas with higher
21.71 2% concentrations of touch receptors should be
14.22 4% more accurate in pinpointing the spot
13.94 6% touched. In table 2-8, after performing
10.63 8% localization on different body parts, it shows
7.95 10% that the area with the largest error is the
thigh, and the area with the smallest error is
During this activity, the group determined if the hand. Therefore, the hand has the highest
the strength of the stimulus influences the concentration of touch receptors present
reaction time. In this experiment, among the body parts since it had the least
average error, as compared to the thighs
with the most error and therefore has the
least touch receptors present.
Table 2-9 Somatic Senses: Touch
Receptors Adaptation
Number of coins Time of perception
1 6.11 seconds
2 7.16 seconds
3 6.14 seconds
Touch Adaptation, is defined as the ability
of the sensory system to filter out old
information and basically ignore it to be
prepared for new incoming sensory
stimuli. This phenomenon occurs in all
senses, except for the sense of pain. From
table 2-9, it shows that it had the longest
duration when two coins were present, as
compared to only a single coin and three
coins. It can be implied that the sensory
system gets “used to” having the stimulus in
that specific area, losing sensitivity. Neural
adaptation is defined as the result of the
decrement in response due to prolonged
stimulation. This must not be confused with
habituation, for habituation is
 mm 75
 mm 40
 mm
psychological process and neural adaptation
 mm 80
 mm 50
 mm
is a physiological process.
Table 2-10: Somatic Senses: Temperature
Receptors
Water
Sensation
Temperature
Ice Water While hands were immersed in
the ice water, a tingling
sensation was felt. Numbness
takes over as time progresses.
45 C Water Temperature gets higher as the
hand is held in water longer;
eventually feels like hot wax
poured on the hand; numb
when removed.
Thermoreceptors, which are found in the
dermis layer of the skin, are receptors that
perceive sensations related to the
temperature of objects the skin feels. These
receptors may be found all over the body,
but cold receptors are found in greater
density than heat receptors. The highest
concentration of thermo receptors is said to
be on the face and ears. The results in table
2-10 explains the fact that cold receptors
start to perceive cold sensations when the
surface of the skin drops below 35 ° C. They
are most stimulated when the surface of the
skin is at 25 ° C and are no longer stimulated
when the surface of the skin drops below 5 °
C. Hot receptors start to perceive hot
sensations when the surface of the skin rises
above 30 ° C and are most stimulated at 45 °
C. But beyond 45 ° C, pain receptors take
over to avoid damage being done to the skin
and underlying tissues.
Table 2-11: Hearing: Watch Tick Test
Distance Distance Difference
from ear to where
point where subject
subject can hear
cannot hear again
a Right 115
Left 130
The Watch Tick Test is a simple test that
determines the patient’s ability to hear high-
pitched sounds and screen for high
tone hearing loss. In table 2-11, the results
show that the left ear can hear better as
compared to the right ear. From this, it can
be said that auditory acuity is not the same
for both ears, and this may be due to many
factors such as a build-up of wax in one ear
more than the other, or infection. Auditory
acuity is lost with age, and it may not be lost
equally bilaterally, explaining a significant
difference between the acuity in the two ears
in older people. Hearing aids can be used to
assist hearing, which are available for people
with conduction deafness.

Table 2-12 Hearing: Auditory Adaptation
Sensation
Normal Startling sensation on both ears;
somehow painful (momentary)
Rubber Startling sensation only on the
tubing ear where rubber tubing was not
pressed pressed
Auditory Adaptation is transient loss of
hearing sensitivity to tones of certain
frequencies after prolonged exposure to
unchanging sounds. When the sound that
causes the effect is loud and the hearing loss
is more than transient, it is usually called
auditory fatigue. The results in table 2-12
shows that there was a tingling station felt
on both ears when the rubber tubing was not
pressed. On the other hand, the tingling
sensation was only felt on the ear where the
rubbing tubing was not pressed.
F.3 Vision
A. Binocular Vision and Sense Perception
Notes: When the left eye is open and the
right eye is closed, the coin is seen to be
slightly positioned to the right side. When
the right eye is open and the left eye is
closed, the coin is seen to be positioned
slightly to the left side.
B. Visual Acuity
Notes: Two members of the group with poor
eyesight were able to read only up to line 7.
One member of the group with 20/20 vision
was able to read up to line 9 of the chart.
Binocular vison is the state of simultaneous
vision, which is achieved by the coordinated
use of both eyes, so that separate and
slightly dissimilar images arising in each eye
are appreciated as a single image by the
process of fusion. Space perception, on the
other hand, is a process through which
humans and other organisms become aware
of the relative positions of their own bodies
and objects around them.
Visual acuity refers to the sharpness of our
vision. This is measured by our ability to
identify letters or numbers on a standardized
eye chart from a specific viewing distance.
The Visual acuity test is the most common
clinical measurement of visual function This
is performed one eye at a time and the
results are recorded as 20/#. The first
number (20) denotes the patient’s distance
(in feet) from the chart, the second number
denoting the distance (in feet) an eye can
read with perfect vision can read the same
line.
CONCLUSION
Stimulating the nerves in different ways
(mechanical, thermal, osmotic, chemical and
electrical) or subjecting it to signal blocking
has observable corresponding responses.
Single pithing and double pithing of a frog
affects the reflexes because damaging the
brain or both brain and spinal cord damages
the control center for these reflexes.
Brain and spinal cord (CNS) are both
primarily responsible for processing sensory
information and sending signals to the
peripheral nervous system (PNS) for action.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
1) Why must the nerve be kept moist?
Ringer’s solution is used to keep the nerve
moist at all times. The main purpose of
moistening is to create an isotonic solution
relative to the body fluids of the frog for it
contains sodium bicarbonate and calcium
chloride.
2) Nerves transmit signals due to
electrical potentials. How can stimuli,
other than electrical produce impulses in
the nerve?
Aside from electrical, nerves transmit
impulses across the synapse by means of
chemicals called neurotransmitters. They are
released from the synaptic vesicles inside
the synapse into the synaptic cleft, and
received by the target cells through a
neurotransmitter receptor.
3) Does impulse decrease with time? If so,
why?
There are factors affecting the decrease of
impulse such as synapses and graded
potentials. Firstly, synapses slows down the
passage of nerve impulses for there is no
physical connection between the adjacent
neurons. Secondly, graded potentials travel
at short distances and there is a decrement in
the conduction of nerve impulses.
4) Is the effect of anesthesia physical or
chemical?
The effect of anesthesia is chemical. Local
anesthesia inhibits depolarization of the
nerve membrane by interfering with Na+
and K+ currents. This interference seem to
increase the threshold voltage needed to
elicit response as time goes by. The loss of
feeling or sensation part may be felt
physically, but it is the chemical
mechanisms, which is causing it.
5) Why can pressure stop an electrical
signal along the nerve?
The electrical signal along the nerve can be
stopped by pressure because the nerve
diameter can be reduced until such time that
no signals can pass through it. In addition,
the influence of pressure in blocking
conduction is entirely dependent upon
deformation of the tissue due to its
unbalanced action (Causey, 1949).
6) In the experiment on the functions of
the CNS, explain the differences in
observations between the procedures.
It has something to do with the procedure
that was done on these frogs. As mentioned,
pithing is the destruction of the central
nervous system of an experimental animal in
preparation for physiological research
(Medical Dictionary, 2009). This procedure
is done by inserting a blunt probe through
the foramen. Single pithing a frog destroys
the brain. The frog is brain-dead but its
spinal cord is still functional. The frog can
still crouch or move, but is not in pain.
These actions are neural reflexes that are
controlled by the motor senses in the spinal
cord. Here the corneal reflex is destroyed,
but not the reflex withdrawal response that
the spinal cord is responsible for. Without
the brain, sensory perception is not possible
so to confirm if the sensory perception has
been destroyed, test for corneal reflex is
done. This involves touching the eyes, and
no response should be observed. Double
pithing a frog destroys both the brain and
spinal cord therefore the frog has no reflex
actions at all. This time, not only is the
corneal reflex damaged but also the reflex
withdrawal response. To confirm spinal cord
damage, test for this reflex withdrawal
response is made. This involves pinching of
the frog’s legs and no movement or response
should be observed.
7) What conclusions can you make about
the functions of the brain? Of the spinal
cord?
The brain is where all the processing and
interpreting happens. It process and
interprets sensory information sent from the
spinal cord. Now, the spinal cord acts as the
main pathway for information that relays
messages between the brain and PNS. It is
made up of nerves that transmit information
from body organs and external stimuli to the
brain and send information from the brain to
other areas of the body. It also acts as a
minor coordinating center responsible for
some simple reflexes.

8) In the reflex action of the frog, what is
the relation between the concentration of
acids and the time of response to acids?
As the concentration of acids increase, the
time of response to acids decreases. This is
because as the concentration level goes
higher, the chances of collision between two
particles are greater.
9) What is near point accommodation?
It is defined as the point nearest the eye at
which an object is clearly focused on the
retina when accommodation of the eye is at
a maximum.
10) Is auditory acuity same for both ears?
The normal auditory acuity for both ears is
the same. However, it varies depending on
many factors such as a build up of wax or
infection. Auditory acuity is lost with age,
and it may not be lost equally bilaterally,
explaining a difference between the acuity in
the two ears in older people.
Pithing. (n.d.) Mosby's Medical Dictionary,
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thefreedictionary.com/pithing
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Heritage® Medical Dictionary. (2007).
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What Is Central Nervous System?
Definition, Function & Parts. (n.d.).
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my of_the_central_nervous_system/
article_em.htm#what_is_the_cns_centra
l_nervous_system

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