ASEAN in Figures 2003

EDUCATION
6
Education, both formal and informal, is a process by which human beings and societies can reach their
full potential. Education is also a lifelong process. A full understanding of the education situation in a
country or for a region would require looking at many dimensions. The education indicators presented
in this chapter concentrated on four areas, namely: (i) financial resources, (ii) participation in education,
(iii) output and efficiency, and (iv) outcomes.

Education indicators reported here belong to primary, secondary and tertiary levels. Primary education
is the level of education where children are provided with basic reading, writing, and mathematical
skills together with elementary understanding of such subjects as history, geography, natural science,
social science, art, and music. Secondary education continues to build up on the knowledge provided by
primary education and aims at laying the foundations for lifelong learning and human development.
Tertiary education whether or not leading to an advanced research qualification, requires minimally the
successful completion of secondary education for admission.

FINANCIAL RESOURCES

Public Current Expenditure on Primary Education as a Percentage of GDP and per

Pupil as Percentage of GDP per Capita

The public current expenditure on primary education as a per cent of GDP and expenditure per pupil as
per cent of GDP reflect the investments given to primary education by governments. To be complete,
these two indicators have to be based on public current expenditure at central, provincial and local
government levels on all public primary schools and subsidies to private educational institutions,
teachers and pupils. In some instances, data on current public expenditure on education may refer
only to the Ministry of Education, excluding other ministries that spend a part of their budget on
educational activities. For the data in table 6.1, the status of the indicators as to the inclusion of different
types of expenditures, except in the case of the Philippines, is not clear and therefore comparisons and
interpretations should be viewed with reservation.

Educational 207
ASEAN in Figures 2003

Data from the reporting ASEAN countries show that the primary education expenditure is typically
lower than 3% of GDP, except Indonesia which reported 5%. The Philippines and especially Lao PDR,
show rising trends. Malaysia shows a gradual downward trend in the earlier years but seems to have
stabilized towards the end of the decade. A dramatic decline also occurred in Indonesia between 1995
and 1999 from almost 10% to 5%. Since 1993, the expenditure-GDP ratio for Singapore has been stable
at 0.6% until 2000 and increasing slightly to 0.7% in 2001. This means regaining the same percentage
of GDP covering expenditures of the public sector in primary education in the early 1990s.

While the public current expenditure on primary education as percentage of GDP can never be close
to 100%, it is theoretically possible to have the public current expenditure per pupil as percentage of
GDP per capita to reach or exceed 100%. However, in four countries for which the latter indicator is
available, it does not exceed 15%. Except for Singapore, the indicator fluctuates somewhat, but seems
to have stabilized at around 10% for two reporting countries at the end of the decade. Since 1996, the
indicator has steadily risen in the Philippines reaching almost 14% by 1998. Upward or downward
trend for this indicator can have many causes which include sharp changes in enrolment rates of
government expenditures on primary education.

Figure 6.1
Public Current Expenditure on Primary Education as % of GDP

Figure 6.2
Public Current Expenditure on Primary Education per Pupil
as % of GDP per Capita

208 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Table 6.1
Public Current Expenditure on Primary Education as Percentage of GDP and
per Pupil as Percentage of GDP per Capita
Definition: (a) Public current expenditure in primary education expressed as a percentage of GDP. It shows the share of the value of the total
production of goods and services in a given year that has been devoted to primary education.
(b) Public current expenditure per pupil in primary education expressed as a percentage of GDP per capita in a given financial year
measures the average cost of a pupil in primary education in relation to the country’s GDP per capita.
Unit of measurement: %

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
As % of GDP
Indonesia – – – – – 9.87 9.67 9.48 5.68 5.43 – –
Lao PDR 1.60 1.80 1.90 2.40 2.70 – – – – – – –
Malaysia 1.45 1.49 1.62 1.41 1.33 1.22 1.37 1.15 1.19 1.15 1.14 –
The Philippines – 1.08 1.25 1.38 1.34 1.55 1.34 1.96 2.16 – – –
Singapore – 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.70

Per Pupil % of GDP per Capita

Indonesia – – – – – – – 4.6 5.9 6.8 – –
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – – –
Malaysia 10.7 11.0 11.7 10.2 9.7 8.9 10.3 8.7 9.3 9.2 9.1 –
The Philippines – 6.8 8.1 9.1 8.9 9.9 8.5 12.4 13.7 – – –
Singapore – 8.7 8.2 7.9 8.0 7.9 8.0 7.9 8.1 7.4 7.9 9.0
Notes: The Philippines – covers expenditures for elementary education of the Department of Education, and other national government agencies during the
calendar year while enrolment is by school year. Singapore – education expenditures are by financial year (April-March), GDPs by calendar year.
Sources: Brunei Darussalam – Ministry of Education through Survey of ‘Educational Institutions’ public and private school started 1997. Lao PDR – NSC. Malaysia
– Ministry of Education. The Philippines – National Education Expenditure Accounts, 1991-1998. National Statistical Coordination Board. Singapore
– Budget Book and National Accounts.

PARTICIPATION

Universal access to, and completion of, primary or basic education is a self-evident goal upon which
the foundations for building the human capacity rests. Increased participation, regardless of sex, in
secondary and tertiary levels of education is a necessary step to be able to move forward in the process
of achieving equity, capacity building, access to information, and strengthening science.

Participation in formal education is normally measured by Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) and Net
Enrolment Ratio (NER). The purpose of NER is to show the extent of participation in a given level
of education for children or youths belonging to the official age-group corresponding to the level
of education. In GER, the total enrolment in a level of education, regardless of age, is expressed as
a percentage of the official school-age population corresponding to the same level of education. For
reference, the official school ages and duration of primary and secondary education levels for ASEAN
member countries are given in table 6.5.

Educational 209
ASEAN in Figures 2003

Net Enrolment Ratio in Primary Education by Sex

As reported, Brunei Darussalam had almost reached 100% net enrolment ratio by 2001. Indonesia
achieved this target at the beginning of the decade, but had an appreciable downward trend thereafter,
while the Philippines has been consistently approaching this target in the recent years.

Figure 6.3
Net Enrollment Ratio in Primary Education, both Sexes, %

The data indicate two groups of countries - one which has consistently attained a net enrolment ratio
of more than 90% (Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore) and the other group
with around 80% (Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar). Viet Nam started in the lower group and moved
over to the higher group in the second half of the reporting period. Thailand has not provided data
for both sexes, but the separate net enrolment ratio for girls and boys indicates that the overall ratio
would be between 86% and 87%, and as such would be closer to the higher group.

Figure 6.4 clearly indicates that the primary net enrolment ratios of boys were almost always higher
than those of girls for all reporting countries except Malaysia. For Singapore throughout the reporting
period, and Indonesia since 1998, the net enrolment ratios for girls and boys, however, were not
significantly different. A marked widening of gender gap is noticeable in the Philippines in 1997 but in
1999 the net enrolment ratios for girls exceeded that for boys.

210 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Table 6.2
Net Enrolment Ratio in Primary Education by Sex

Definition: Enrolment in primary education of the official primary school age-group expressed as a percentage of the corresponding
population.
Unit of measurement: %

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Both Sexes
Brunei Darussalam – 97.2 – – – – – – – – – 98.7
Cambodia – – – – – – 84.7 77.8 78.3 85.5 83.8 –
Indonesia 100 100 99.0 100 99.0 97.0 96.0 – 92.0 93.0 92.0 93.0
Lao PDR – 58.0 62.7 66.5 65.2 68.6 71.9 76.2 76.4 77.3 79.8 80.3
Malaysia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Myanmar 66.3 71.8 78.8 76.2 76.4 73.6 75.8 74.8 75.2 77.0 77.5 78.0
The Philippines 99.1 85.1 85.2 85.4 87.1 92.7 94.3 95.1 95.7 97.0 96.8 97.0
Singapore 96.1 96.1 95.9 95.1 95.3 96.4 95.7 96.0 95.5 95.9 95.7 94.3
Thailand – – – – – – – – – – – –
Viet Nam – – – 78.0 – – – – 92.6 – – –

Male
Brunei Darussalam – – – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Indonesia 98.0 97.0 97.0 97.0 97.0 95.0 95.0 – 92.0 93.0 92.0 93.0
Lao PDR – 61.7 66.8 70.8 68.8 72.0 75.4 79.8 79.4 80.3 83.7 84.3
Malaysia – 93.2 93.6 94.0 93.9 94.9 94.7 94.8 94.6 94.4 96.0 96.0
Myanmar – – – – – – – – – – – –
The Philippines – – – – – – 95.3 97.9 97.4 96.8 – –
Singapore 96.4 96.6 96.3 95.5 95.8 96.9 96.3 96.3 95.8 96.2 96.2 94.5
Thailand – – – – – – 87.0 – – – – –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – 93.5 – – –

Female
Brunei Darussalam – – – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Indonesia 95.0 95.0 95.0 95.0 95.0 94.0 93.0 – 92.0 93.0 93.0 93.0
Lao PDR – 54.1 58.4 62.0 61.5 65.0 68.3 72.4 73.3 74.2 75.7 76.3
Malaysia – 93.1 93.6 94.2 94.3 95.6 95.3 95.4 95.1 95.0 97.1 97.4
Myanmar – – – – – – – – – – – –
The Philippines – – – – – – 93.4 92.1 94.0 97.2 – –
Singapore 95.9 95.6 95.4 94.6 94.8 95.9 95.1 95.7 95.1 95.6 95.1 94.0
Thailand – – – – – – 86.0 – – – – –
Vie Nam – – – – – – – – 91.7 – – –
Notes: Myanmar – 2001 data provisional. The Philippines – referred to as net participation rate in public and private elementary schools of enrollees 7-12 years
old. Singapore – resident students in national schools only.
Sources: Brunei Darussalam – Ministry of Education through Survey of ‘Educational Institutions’ public and private school started 1997. Cambodia – Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sport. Indonesia – National Socio Economic Survey. Lao PDR – Ministry of Education (2000): EFA for 1991-1997 data and Ministry
of Education (2002): AnnualReport for 1998-2001 data. Malaysia – Ministry of Education. Myanmar – Department of Education Planning and Training.
The Philippines – Department of Education. Singapore – Students’ Register. Thailand – school reports.

Educational 211
ASEAN in Figures 2003

Figure 6.4
Net Enrolment Ratio in Primary Education Male and Female

Net Enrolment Ratio in Secondary Education by Sex

With regard to secondary education, by 2001 Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines,
and Singapore have achieved improvements in the net enrolment ratios of 11 to 19 percentage points
over those of 1990 or 1991. The fastest growth is registered by Viet Nam between 1993 and 1998.
The country with the highest achievement, Singapore, has managed to attain consistently high net
enrolment rates of over 90% since 1994.

For the six countries for which these ratios are available for boys and girls separately, the difference in
the ratios ranges from 0.2 to 6 percentage points in the case of Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia at
the end of the reporting period (figure 6.6).

212 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Table 6.3
Net Enrollment Ratio in Secondary Education by Sex
Definition: Enrolment in secondary education of the official secondary school age-group expressed as a percentage of the corresponding
population.
Unit of measurement: %

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Both Sexes
Brunei Darussalam – 74.0 – – – – – – – – – 85.4
Cambodia – – – – – – 23.7 16.6 14.2 14.4 16.6 –
Indonesia – – – – – 51.0 54.5 57.8 57.0 59.1 60.3 60.6
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – 77.3 –
Malaysia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Myanmar 14.0 20.4 22.1 22.9 24.4 27.9 29.8 30.5 29.9 31.8 31.9 31.7
The Philippines 54.7 55.4 56.8 57.6 58.5 62.3 63.4 64.0 65.2 65.4 66.1 73.4
Singapore 80.4 80.5 81.3 79.3 90.3 92.8 92.6 92.5 91.9 90.6 91.7 92.7
Thailand – – – – – – – – – – – –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – 61.6 – – –

Male
Brunei Darussalam – – – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Indonesia – – – – – 50.7 53.6 57.4 56.1 58.4 59.1 59.2
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – – –
Malaysia – 66.0 66.4 67.1 67.9 69.8 71.2 73.4 75.2 76.7 77.3 77.6
Myanmar – – – – – – – – – – – –
The Philippines – – – – – – 58.7 61.6 62.5 62.7 – –
Singapore 78.3 78.4 79.5 77.2 89.4 92.4 92.3 92.6 92.1 90.8 91.8 92.6
Thailand – – – – – – 46.0 – – – – –
Vie Nam – – – – – – – – 61.1 – – –

Female
Brunei Darussalam – – – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Indonesia – – – – – 51.2 55.4 58.3 57.9 59.9 61.6 62.0
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – – –
Malaysia – 69.2 70.4 71.7 73.0 74.8 77.8 79.7 81.5 83.3 83.1 82.9
Myanmar – – – – – – – – – – – –
The Philippines – – – – – – 68.2 66.5 68.1 68.2 – –
Singapore 82.7 82.7 83.1 81.6 91.3 93.0 92.9 92.4 91.7 90.4 91.5 92.8
Thailand – – – – – – 50.0 – – – – –
Vie Nam – – – – – – – – 62.2 – – –
Notes: Cambodia and Viet Nam – Lower secondary. Myanmar – 2001 data provisional. The Philippines – referred to as net participation rate of enrollees 13-16
years old. Singapore – resident students in national schools only.
Sources: Brunei Darussalam – Ministry of Education through Survey of ‘Educational Institutions’ public and private school started 1997. Cambodia – Ministry
of Education, Youth and Sport. Myanmar – Department of Education Planning and Training. The Philippines – Department of Education. Singapore
– Students’ Register. Thailand – school reports.

Educational 213
ASEAN in Figures 2003

Figure 6.5
Net Enrolment Ratio in Secondary Education, both Sexes, %

The overall pattern is that girls seem to exhibit appreciably higher net enrolment ratios for secondary
education, except in the case of Singapore where the ratios for girls and boys converged in the second
half of the reporting period.

Figure 6.6
Net Enrolment Ratio in Secondary Education, % Females and Males

Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Education

The ratio of girls to boys in a particular level of education (table 6.4) is aimed at getting information
on the disparity of access to education between the genders at that education level. Two operational
variants of the indicator seem to exist. One is the Gender Parity Index (GPI) defined as the ratio
between the female and male gross enrolment ratios by UNESCO1. The other is the ratio of number
of females enrolled to males enrolled as used by the World Bank2. While the first definition of the

1
Gender-sensitive education statistics and indicators, a practical guide, UNESCO.
2
Used for combined primary and secondary enrolments. World Development Indicators 2002, p. 25.

214 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

ratio has the theoretical advantage of being insensitive to the number of girls and boys (including both
students and non-students) in the population, the method seems less intuitive for applying to tertiary
education. Among the countries reporting the ratios, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the
Philippines, and Singapore have used the second definition. The methodologies used by others were
unknown. On the latter case, Brunei Darussalam exemplifies those countries, as reflected in its ratio
of girls to boys in primary schools, significantly improving from 66% in 1991 to 109% in 2001. This only
shows a corresponding increase in the enrolment of girls during the period.

The graph of the reported data (figure 6.7) brings out an interesting pattern. The ratios are being spread
out further from equality for girls and boys as level of education changes from primary to secondary
and then to tertiary. At primary level, almost all the reporting countries show either stable ratios of
more than 90% or continously improving ratios that approach the 90% level where 100% represents
equality of participation in education by girls and boys.

Figure 6.7
Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Education, %

Here are some of the interesting patterns.

• Brunei Darussalam is the only reporting country with higher participation of girls in primary
education that crosses over to lower participation at secondary level.
• Most of the countries stayed around 10 percentage points on either side of line of equality for
secondary education, but Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam drop further to lower participation
of girls than in primary education.
• Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines, all having modest gender disparities at primary and
secondary levels, reached highest participation advantages of girls at the tertiary level that
reached a peak in the case of Myanmar of 175 girls for every 100 boys participating in tertiary
education in 2000.
• Singapore shows a somewhat lower participation of girls in national schools at primary and
secondary education levels. The lowest is at the tertiary level. This reflects the larger number

Educational 215
ASEAN in Figures 2003

of boys in the school-going age population. The participation of girls in Singapore schools is at
least the same or higher compared to other countries.
• Of the five reporting countries for tertiary education, Lao PDR has the lowest participation of
girls at around 55 girls for every 100 boys.

It should be noted that the ratios reported may not be strictly comparable among the countries, or
even between different years for a country, due to possible differences in definitions adopted.

Table 6.4
Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Education
Definition: (i) Percentage of girls to boys enrolled at primary or secondary or tertiary level of education.
(ii) Ratio of the gross enrolment ratio of girls to those of boys at primary or secondary or tertiary level of education.
Unit of measurement: %

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Primary
Brunei Darussalam – 66 110 121 110 111 109 112 112 113 112 109
Cambodia – – – – – – – 81 82 84 85 86
Indonesia – – – 94 92 93 95 93 92 92 93 93
Lao PDR 77 77 77 78 79 79 80 82 82 83 83 –
Malaysia 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95
Myanmar 93 94 94 94 94 94 95 95 97 97 97 98
The Philippines – – – 95 95 95 96 95 96 96 96 –
Singapore 90 90 91 90 91 92 92 92 93 93 93 93
Thailand 94 95 92 92 92 – 94 – 94 94 94 –
Viet Nam – 85 84 86 86 88 88 90 91 90 – –

Secondary
Brunei Darussalam – 72 93 93 93 93 92 94 94 95 97 98
Cambodia – – – – – – – 58 53 52 53 55
Indonesia – – – 92 92 94 97 95 95 95 95 96
Lao PDR 66 64 66 67 67 67 68 69 70 74 73 –
Malaysia 102 103 100 104 104 105 106 105 104 104 104 104
Myanmar 94 97 99 100 99 100 101 101 101 98 105 94
The Philippines – – – 106 104 105 105 105 107 106 105 106
Singapore 97 97 96 96 94 92 92 90 91 91 92 93
Thailand 96 97 99 101 104 106 109 – 109 111 111 –
Viet Nam – 84 84 84 84 84 85 86 86 – – –

Tertiary
Brunei Darussalam – – – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Indonesia – – – 85 89 88 88 94 94 96 93 91
Lao PDR 49 42 37 39 40 39 42 48 49 58 55 –
Malaysia 84 87 95 99 100 104 107 110 112 116 115 123
Myanmar – – – – – 160 164 166 158 168 175 156
The Philippines – – – 132 132 131 117 128 128 123 125 –
Singapore 73 75 76 76 78 80 79 81 80 84 86 87
Thailand – – 108 106 113 – 111 – 116 – 118 –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – – – – –
Notes: Cambodia – covering lower and upper secondary. Lao PDR – refers to lower secondary. Malaysia, Myanmar, and Singapore – percentage of girls to boys
enrolled. Myanmar – 2001 data provisional. Singapore – tertiary level covers resident students (full-time and part-time) in polytechnic and university.
Thailand – tertiary enrolment excludes students who are in private universities.
Sources: Brunei Darussalam – Ministry of Education through Survey of ‘Educational Institutions’ public and private school started 1997. Cambodia – Ministry
of Education, Youth and Sport. Lao PDR – Ministry of Education (2002) Annual Report. Myanmar – Primary and secondary – Department of Education
Planning and Training; tertiary – Education Research Bureau. The Philippines – Department of Education and Commission on Higher Education. Singapore
– Student’s Register. Thailand – Report of Education Statistics, National Statistical Office (NSO) of the Permanent Secretary for Education, Ministry of
Education, Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of University Affairs.
NSO website <http//www.nso.go.th/eng/THA_Indicat/THA_Indicat2003.pdf>

216 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Table 6.5
Primary and Secondary Levels of National Education Systems
Base/ Pre-primary Primary Secondary
Country Change/ Entrance Entrance Entrance
Last Year Duration Duration Duration
Age Age Age
Brunei Darussalam 1990 3 3 6 6 12 7
1997 3 3 6 6 12 7
Cambodia 1990 3 3 6 5 11 6
1996 3 3 6 6 12 6
1997 3 3 6 6 12 6
Indonesia 1990 5 2 7 6 13 6
1997 5 2 7 6 13 6
Lao PDR 1990 3 3 6 5 11 6
1997 3 3 6 5 11 6
Malaysia 1990 4 2 6 6 12 5
1997 4 2 6 6 12 5
Myanmar 1990 4 1 5 5 10 6
1997 4 1 5 5 10 6
The Philippines 1990 5 2 7 6 13 4
1997 5 2 7 6 13 4
Singapore 1990 * * 6 6 12 4/5
1997 * * 6 6 12 4/5
Thailand 1990 3 3 6 6 12 6
1997 3 3 6 6 12 6
Viet Nam 1990 3 3 6 5 11 7
1997 3 3 6 5 11 7
Notes: Base = Base year of this indicator report; Change = Year of education system change; Last = Latest available year for education system status. Singapore- *
Pre-primary education is provided by community and private organizations.
Sources: UNESCO database in conjunction with country verification for Malaysia and Singapore.

In 1998, the International Standard Classification of Education 1997 (ISCED97) was introduced by
UNESCO, which replaced the ISCED76 that had been used for two decades. ISCED97 introduced a new
category, “postsecondary nontertiary education”. Students in this category are not counted as either
secondary or tertiary. If followed, the new scheme will produce data that will not be consistent with
past data series and any time series analysis would then need to be made with caution. However, the
effects of ISCED97 on secondary and tertiary education data reported here have not been specified by
the reporting countries.

OUTPUT AND EFFICIENCY

Proportion of Pupils Starting Grade 1 Reaching Grade 5 of Primary Education

The effectiveness of efforts to extend literacy depends on the ability of the education system to ensure
full participation of school-age children and their successful progression to reach at least grade 5,
which is the stage when they are believed to have firmly acquired literacy and numeracy. The usual

Educational 217
ASEAN in Figures 2003

indicator to measure the level of such achievement is the Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 reaching grade
5 of primary education, which can be derived using the reconstructed cohort student flow method.

Grade is a stage of instruction usually covered in one school year. The indicator, in its strict sense,
would be undefined if primary level in an education system does not cover grade 5. For ASEAN
countries there is no such difficulty (see also table 6.5).

Care is needed in comparing and interpreting the reaching grade-5 indicator reported by countries
as they may have been derived from different models in each case . The children reaching grade-5
indicator, also known as the survival to grade-5 indicator, could not have a value greater than 100%.
Also, a consistent rate of 100% or close to it for a period of years may signify a highly efficient primary
education system or one with automatic promotion. In the latter case, the output and efficiency of the
education system will have a different essence.

Most of the reporting countries show steady improvement in the survival rates. Malaysia, Singapore
and Thailand have consistently shown a survival rate of close to 100% indicating very high retention
of children in school to grade 5. Among the rest of the countries with rates ranging from 57% to 89%
towards the end of the reporting period, Myanmar has maintained the largest improvements over the
years.

Figure 6.8
Proportion of Pupils Starting Grade 1 Reaching Grade 5 of Primary Education, %

3
See also the technical notes at the end of this chapter.

218 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Table 6.6
Proportion of Pupils Starting Grade 1 Reaching Grade 5 of Primary Education
Definition: Percentage of a cohort of pupils who enrolled in the first grade of primary education in a given school-year and who eventually reach
grade 5.
The proportion is based on the Reconstructed Cohort Method, which uses data on enrolment and repetition rates for two consecutive
years.
Unit of measurement: %

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Brunei Darussalam – – – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Indonesia – – 76.0 78.0 80.0 81.0 81.0 82.0 82.0 83.0 – –
Lao PDR – 47.7 48.7 42.0 57.4 52.3 56.6 54.0 52.6 51.5 59.9 –
Malaysia 97.2 97.3 97.2 97.5 97.9 97.9 98.1 99.0 99.1 98.0 98.6 97.2
Myanmar 24.5 29.5 29.1 30.9 35.1 36.1 34.5 35.8 41.2 48.5 53.7 57.3
The Philippines 68.2 67.6 63.4 67.5 66.5 67.2 68.0 68.6 69.8 69.5 67.2 67.1
Singapore 98.3 98.5 98.4 98.7 98.7 98.7 98.7 98.6 98.6 98.5 98.6 98.1
Thailand 97.6 99.7 99.0 99.0 97.5 95.1 99.1 99.4 99.1 – – –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – – – 88.9 –
Notes: Myanmar –
Sources: Indonesia – <http://www.pdk.go.id>. Lao PDR – Ministry of Education (2000): EFA for data from 1991-1997 and Ministry of Education (2002) Annual
Report for 1998-2000 data. Malaysia – administrative records, Ministry of Education. Myanmar – Department of Education Planning and Training. The
Philippines – Department of Education. Singapore – Students’ Register.

OUTCOME

Literacy Rates of 15-24 Years Old by Sex

Literacy indicators provide a measure of the stock of literate persons within the population who
are capable of using written words in daily life and to continue to learn. It reflects the accumulated
accomplishment of education in spreading literacy. Furthermore, literacy is closely linked to indicators
reflecting basic needs such as education, capacity building, information and communication. Literacy
rate is often linked to school enrolment ratios and population reaching grade 5 of primary education,
both of which influence the accumulation of the stock of literates.

In this context, the literacy rate of the 15 to 24 years old (table 6.5) has a special significance. It can
reflect the recent outcomes of the basic education process and is therefore considered a summary
measure of the effectiveness of the education system.

A high literacy rate among the 15-24 years old suggests a high level of participation and retention in
primary education, and its effectiveness in imparting the basic skills of reading and writing. Since
persons belonging to this age-group are entering adult life, monitoring their literacy levels is important
in respect to national human resources policies, as well as for tracking and forecasting progress in
adult literacy.

Educational 219
ASEAN in Figures 2003

Among the eight ASEAN countries reporting, six have made good progress towards 100% literacy by
2000. Their progress could be compared with member countries of the Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD). Most OECD countries do not achieve 100% literacy either; and
some, like Mexico and Turkey recorded only around 95% to 97% (see UNSD Millennium Indicators
database; <http://www.milleniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi>). Meanwhile, the data of the ASEAN
countries do not indicate much disparity between female and male literacy rates except for Cambodia
and Lao PDR, where female literacy rate is around 10 percentage points lower than for males in 1999.
The overall positive results indicate the effectiveness of the primary education systems of these
countries in the previous decade.

Figure 6.9
Literay Rate of 15-24 Years Old, Males and Females, %

220 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Table 6.7
Literacy Rate of 15-24 Years Old by Sex
Definition: Literacy is the ability to read and write with understanding a short simple statement related to one’s everyday life. Literacy rate
of a particular age group is the number of literate persons of that age group expressed as a percentage of the corresponding
population.
Unit of measurement: %

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Both Sexes
Brunei Darussalam – 98.1 – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – 65.3 – – 68.7 – 67.3 81.7 – –
Indonesia – – – 97.1 97.6 97.5 97.7 98.1 98.3 98.4 98.4 98.3
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – 81.4 –
Malaysia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Myanmar – – – – – – – – – – – –
The Philippines 96.6 – – – 97.3 – – – – – 95.1 –
Singapore 99.0 – – – – – – – – – 99.5 –
Thailand 98.1 – – – 98.6 – – – – – 98.0 –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – – – 94.8 –

Male
Brunei Darussalam – 98.1 – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – 79.7 – – 81.8 – 79.5 87.1 – –
Indonesia – – – 97.9 98.2 98.0 98.2 98.5 98.5 98.6 98.7 98.5
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – 88.4 –
Malaysia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Myanmar – – – – – – – – – – – –
The Philippines 96.3 – – – 96.6 – – – – – 94.5 –
Singapore 98.9 – – – – – – – – – 99.4 –
Thailand 97.8 – – – 97.3 – – – – – 97.8 –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – – – 95.6 –

Female
Brunei Darussalam – 98.1 – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – 53.4 – – 58.0 – 57.0 76.6 – –
Indonesia – – – 96.4 97.1 97.1 97.2 97.7 98.1 98.1 98.2 98.1
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – 74.8 –
Malaysia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Myanmar – – – – – – – – – – – –
The Philippines 96.9 – – – 98.1 – – – – – 95.7 –
Singapore 99.1 – – – – – – – – – 99.6 –
Thailand 98.4 – – – 98.7 – – – – – 98.1 –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – – – 94.0 –
Notes: Singapore – resident population only.
Sources: Brunei Darussalam – Ministry of Education through Survey of ‘Educational Institutions’ public and private school started 1997. Cambodia – Socio-
Economic Survey 1993 and 1999, Demographic Survey of Cambodia 1996 and General Population Census of Cambodia 1998. Lao PDR – SPC (2001)
MICS 2000. The Philippines – 1990 and 2000 Census of Population and Housing and 1994 Functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey,
National Statistics Office. Singapore – population census. Thailand – 1990 and 2000 Population and Housing Census, National Statistical Office (NSO)
and 1994 Literacy Survey, NSO and NSO webpage <http://www.nso.go.th/eng/THA_Indicat/THA_Indicat2003.pdf>. Viet Nam – MICS 2000.

Educational 221
ASEAN in Figures 2003

Adult Literacy Rate by Sex

The general target of all countries, obviously, is 100% adult literacy. While all countries reporting
here still fall short in this, most have made consistent improvements in adult literacy over the years,
reaching overall adult literacy rates of around 90% or better in later years, except for Cambodia, and
possibly Indonesia. Most ASEAN countries report literacy for population 15 years and older. Malaysia
reports for ages 10-64. This should be noted in viewing table 6.8 and figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10
Literacy Rate of Adults 15 Years Old, both Sexes, %

Out of nine countries reporting adult literacy rates, data by sex were available for seven. For the
reporting countries, though females and males share the same pattern of trends in literacy, female
literacy is consistently lower than that of males except in the Philippines where the rates are practically
identical. The gap is largest in Cambodia with a difference of around 20 percentage points throughout,
while Myanmar seems to have closed a previously existing gender gap by 1999.

222 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Figure 6.11
Literacy Rate of Adults 15 Years Old and Over, Males and Females, %

The adult literacy is generally the cumulative effect of formal primary education system as well as
adult literacy programmes in the past. Its attainment would take up a time horizon much longer than
that for the literacy rates of 15-24 years old.
A comparison of the literacy rates reveals that the proportion of youths who are literate is higher than
that for adults. In 2000 where five of the ASEAN member countries reported both literacy rates, the
difference in the proportion ranges from at least 3 percentage points (the Philippines and Thailand) to
as high as almost 10 percentage points in the case of Indonesia.

Educational 223
ASEAN in Figures 2003

Table 6.8
Literacy Rate of Adults 15 Years Old and Over by Sex
Definition: Literacy is the ability to read and write with understanding a short simple statement related to one’s everyday life. Literacy rate
of a particular age group is the number of literate persons of that age group expressed as a percentage of the corresponding
population.
Unit of measurement: %

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Both Sexes
Brunei Darussalam – 88.0 – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – – – 62.5 68.7 – 67.3 71.2 – –
Indonesia 81.5 – 81.5 – 85.2 84.1 85.3 87.4 87.9 88.2 88.6 87.8
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – – –
Malaysia – 88.6 – – – – – – – – 93.5 –
Myanmar 83.6 84.7 85.7 86.7 84.5 85.8 87.1 88.4 89.7 91.0 – –
The Philippines 93.5 – – – 93.9 – – – – – 92.6 –
Singapore 89.1 89.4 89.8 90.1 90.5 90.8 91.2 91.5 91.9 92.2 92.5 93.2
Thailand 93.0 – 93.8 93.6 93.5 93.8 – 94.7 95.0 – 95.0 –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – – 90.2 – –

Male
Brunei Darussalam – 92.0 – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – – – 77.9 81.8 – 79.5 82.9 – –
Indonesia – – – – – 90.0 90.8 92.2 92.5 92.8 93.0 92.3
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – – –
Malaysia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Myanmar – – – – 87.5 88.2 89.0 89.8 90.6 91.4 – –
The Philippines 93.7 – – – 93.7 – – – – – 92.5 –
Singapore 95.1 95.2 95.4 95.5 95.7 95.8 96.0 96.1 96.3 96.4 96.6 96.8
Thailand 94.8 – 96.0 95.9 95.6 96.0 – – 96.9 – – –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – – 94.0 – –

Female
Brunei Darussalam – 82.0 – – – – – – – – – –
Cambodia – – – – – 49.5 58.0 – 57.0 61.1 – –
Indonesia – – – – – 78.4 80.2 82.8 83.4 83.8 84.3 83.4
Lao PDR – – – – – – – – – – – –
Malaysia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Myanmar – – – – 81.5 83.3 85.1 86.9 88.7 90.6 – –
The Philippines 93.4 – – – 94.0 – – – – – 92.7 –
Singapore 83.0 83.6 84.2 84.7 85.3 85.8 86.4 87.0 87.5 88.1 88.6 89.7
Thailand 91.3 – 92.0 91.4 90.7 91.6 – – 93.2 – – –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – – 87.0 – –
Notes: Malaysia – ages 10-64. Singapore – resident population only.
Sources: Brunei Darussalam – Ministry of Education through Survey of ‘Educational Institutions’ public and private school started 1997. Cambodia – Socio-Economic
Survey; 1996 Demographic Survey and General Population Census of 1998. Indonesia – Child Indicator, National Socio Economic Survey. Malaysia
– Population census 1991, 2000. Asian Development Bank Poverty Database. Myanmar – Handbook on Human Resources Development Indicators;
Department of Education Planning and Training. The Philippines – 1990 and 2000 Census of Population and Housing and 1994 Functional Literacy,
Education and Mass Media Survey. National Statistics Office. Singapore – population census 1990, 2000; intercensal estimates. Viet Nam – Population
Census 1999.

224 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Ratio of Literate Females to Males 15-24 Years Old

The literate female-male ratio indicator focuses on measuring progress towards gender equality in
literacy and the level of learning opportunities available for women in relation to those available to
men. It is also an indicator of the empowerment of women in society.

To measure the disparity between female and male literacy, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Lao
PDR, the Philippines, Singapore and Viet Nam used the ratio of female and male literacy rates. Other
countries have not specified the method used.

The data indicate that disparity in literacy between females and males of 15-24 years of age is marked
by consistently lower literacy of females throughout or lowering of female literacy at the second half
of the reporting period in the six reporting countries. Despite possible differences in definitions as
noted above, the overall impression is that the disparity is not drastic. Most of the countries appear to
stay around 95% equality or better towards 2001, except for Cambodia, as indicated by data from table
6.9, where the disparity is still substantial.

Figure 6.12
Ratio of Literate Females to Literate Males, 15-24 Years Old

Educational 225
ASEAN in Figures 2003

Table 6.9
Ratio of Literate Females to Males, 15-24 Years Old
Definition: Ratio of the female literacy rate to male literacy rate (Literacy Gender Parity Index) in the 15-24 year age group.
Unit of measurement: Units.

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Brunei Darussalam – 1.12 – – – – – 0.92 0.92 0.95 0.93 0.95
Cambodia – – – 0.67 – – 0.71 – 0.72 0.88 – –
Indonesia – – – 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.99 1.00
Lao PDR – – – – – 0.81 – – – – 0.95 –
Malaysia – – – – – – – – – – – –
Myanmar – – – – – – – – – – – –
The Philippines 1.01 – – – 1.02 – – – – – 1.01 –
Singapore 1.00 – – – – – – – – – 1.00 –
Thailand 1.00 – – – 0.99 – – – – – 0.97 –
Viet Nam – – – – – – – – – – 0.98 –
Notes: Brunei Darussalam – Literacy Gender Parity Index. Lao PDR – ratio of women’s literacy rate to men’s literacy rate. Singapore – ratio of resident female
literacy ed.
Sources: Brunei Darussalam – Ministry of Education through Survey of ‘Educational Institutions’ public and private school started 1997. Lao PDR – Census 1995
and SPC (2001) MIC II 2000. The Philippines – ratio derived from the literacy rates generated from the 1990 and 2000 Census Population and Housing
and the 1994 Functional Literacy, Education and Mass media Survey. National Statistics Office. Singapore – Population census. Thailand – Population
and Housing Census 1990 & 2000, 1994 Report of the Literacy Survey.

226 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Technical Notes

This section provides some material on more technical aspects of the indicators of this chapter. Most
of the material below is taken from UNESCO publications and UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS)
website at http://www.uis.unesco.org (accessed, October 2002).

Public Current Expenditure in Primary Education (a) as a Percentage of GDP, and

(b) per Pupil, as a Percentage of GDP per Capita

Methodology: (a) Divide public current expenditure on primary education in a given year by the GDP
for the same year and multiply by 100. (b) Divide per pupil public current expenditure on primary
education in a given year by the GDP per capita for the same year and multiply by 100. These two
indicators should be based on consistent data on public current expenditure that covers central,
provincial and local government spending on all public primary schools and subsidies to private
educational institutions, teachers and pupils.

Characteristics: A high level of spending per pupil could simply reflect low enrolment rather than
increased spending by government. Per pupil expenditure as a percentage of GDP per capita should
therefore be viewed in conjunction with enrolment ratios. Low expenditure per pupil and low
enrolment in primary education when compared to high expenditure and/or low enrolment in tertiary
education suggests a need to reconsider resource allocations within the education sector, especially if
universal primary education is being given priority.

The use of this indicator must take into account the coverage of public current expenditure for primary
education and the extent to which the GDP estimates represent the true level of national economic
production. The fact that fiscal year and school year budget periods may be different should also be
taken into consideration.

Gross Enrolment Ratios

Methodology: Divide the number of pupils (or students) enrolled in a given level of education regardless
of age by the population of the age-group which officially corresponds to the given level of education,
and multiply the result by 100. Data sources consist of school register, school survey or census for data
on enrolment by level of education; population censuses and population projections for school-age

Educational 227
ASEAN in Figures 2003

population. Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at each level of education should be based on total enrolment
in all types of schools and education institutions, including public, private and all other institutions
that provide organized educational programmes.

Characteristics: A high GER generally indicates a high degree of participation, whether the pupils belong
to the official age-group or not. GER can be over 100% due to the inclusion of over-aged and under-
aged pupils/students because of early or late entrants, and grade repetition. In this case, a rigorous
interpretation of GER needs additional information to assess the extent of repetition, late entrants,
etc.

Net Enrolment Ratios

Methodology: A net enrolment ratio (NER) is obtained by dividing the number of pupils (or students)
enrolled who are of the official age-group for a given level of education by the population for the same
age-group and expressing as a percentage. Enrolment data by single years of age for a given level of
education and population of the age-group corresponding to the given level of education is required.
Usual data sources are school register, school survey or census for data on enrolment by age. School-
age population is normally obtained from the population census data or from estimates by Central
Statistical Office or similar source. NER at each level of education should be based on total enrolment
in all types of schools and education institutions, including public, private and all other institutions
that provide organized educational programmes.

Characteristics: The theoretical maximum value is 100%. If the NER is below 100%, then the difference
with 100% provides a measure of the proportion of children not enrolled at the specified level of
education. Since some of these children/youth could be enrolled at other levels of education, this
difference may not correctly indicate the percentage of students not enrolled.

For tertiary education, this indicator is not suitable because of the difficulties in determining
an appropriate age-group due to the wide variations in the duration of programmes at this level of
education. For primary and secondary education, there could be some difficulties in calculating the
NER for countries where the net enrolment ratios should be of the order of 100%.
• when the reference date for entry to primary education does not coincide with the birthdays of
all of the cohorts eligible to enroll at this level of education.
• when an important part of the population starts primary school earlier than the prescribed age
and consequently finishes earlier as well.
• when there is an increase in the entrance age to primary education with the durations
unchanged.

228 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Although the NER cannot exceed 100%, according to UNESCO, values up to 105% were seen. In such
cases there are inconsistencies in the enrolment and/or population data.

It should be noted that net and gross enrolment ratios, indicators derived from them, as well as related
indicators are usually based on school data. Enrolments do not always equate to school attendance.
Surveys such as DHS and MICS conducted in some ASEAN countries as well as in many other
developing countries produce indicators related to school attendance rather than enrolment. Care is
needed in comparing data series with a mix of enrolment and attendance concepts.

Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Education

Methodology: For comparing girls’ and boys’ participation in formal education, UNESCO suggests the
following options:
“If we choose a simple indicator of school participation, the gross enrolment ratio (GER), we can study: i) the
current female enrolment ratio as compared with the male enrolment ratio; ii) the implied, absolute, gender
gap (introduced in the preceding section with respect to illiteracy rates); it is here the difference between the
male and the female enrolment ratios; iii) the gender ratio, here defined as the ratio between the female and
the male enrolment ratios, and designated as the gender parity index (GPI).”

In the Millennium Development Goals section of the World Development Indicators 2002, World
Bank used “the ratio of the number of female students enrolled in primary and secondary school to the
number of male students”.

Characteristics: If all girls and boys of official primary school age were enrolled in primary school the
simple ratio of the enrolments will not give 100% as signifying gender equality, unless the girl and boy
populations are identical. GPI should give better indication of equality as it is comparing two relative
magnitudes (GERs). But because the primary enrolment will include repeaters who are of official age
for secondary education, early starters not yet of primary school age, and those who are of primary
school age but already enrolled in secondary school. These would also make the ratio of girl and boy
GERs different from 100%.

Gross enrolment ratio in general is defined by UNESCO as “Total enrolment in a specific level
of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the official school-age population
corresponding to the same level of education in given school-year”. In World Education Report 2000,
UNESCO defines tertiary level GER as “Total enrolment in tertiary education regardless of age, expressed
as a percentage of the population in the five-year age group following on from the secondary-school
leaving age”. It is therefore not entirely consistent with the GERs for primary and secondary which
have well defined official school ages. It will have the same problem of determining an appropriate
age-group as was the reason for UNESCO considering tertiary level NER unsuitable as noted earlier.

Educational 229
ASEAN in Figures 2003

Survival Rate to Grade 5 (Percentage of a Pupil Cohort Actually Reaching

Grade 5)

Methodology: The ideal way to assess the survival rate to grade 5 would be to use the true cohort student
flow method. It involves either a longitudinal study in monitoring the progress of a selected cohort
of pupils through the educational cycle, or through retrospective study of school records in order to
retrace the flows of pupils through the grades in past years. This method, however, is very demanding
in terms of methodology and resources, and therefore, rarely tried in practice.

In the apparent cohort method the enrolment in grade 1 in a particular year is compared with enrolment in
successive grades during successive years. It is assumed that the decrease from each grade to the next
gives the number of dropouts. Its main weakness is that it assumes that pupils are either promoted or
else drop-out of the school system. Repetition is ignored. This method is, therefore, only appropriate
for countries applying automatic promotion.

A better and more commonly used method is the reconstructed cohort method. This method needs data
on enrolment by grade for two consecutive years and on repeaters by grade from the first to second
year to enable the estimation of promotion, repetition and drop out rates. Then, they are used in a
reconstructed pupil-cohort flow to estimate survival to grade 5 and other indicators of internal
efficiency. A full explanation of this method is available at the UNESCO website.

Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) also produces this indicator through school attendance and
grade data for current and last year collected through household interviews. However, the Philippines
in its MICS 1999 report noted that “The 1999 MICS, however, was not designed to ascertain the cohort
survival rate or the number of children who eventually reach grade five”. It was not clear whether the
report hinted the shortcomings of the Philippines MICS in this area in particular, or questioned the
validity of the MICS’s methodology generally in this context.

Characteristics: Survival rate to grade 5 of primary education is of particular interest because the
completion of at least four years of schooling is commonly considered a pre-requisite for a sustainable
level of literacy. The distinction between survival rate with and without repetition is necessary to
determine the extent of wastage due to drop-out and to repetition. Given that this indicator is usually
estimated using cohort analysis models that are based on a number of assumptions, care is needed in
making comparisons across countries. Since the calculation of this indicator is based on pupil-flow
rates, the reliability of the survival rate to grade 5 depends on the consistency of data on enrolment
and repeaters in terms of coverage over time and across grades.

Literacy Rate of 15-24 Years Old

Methodology: Divide the number of people aged 15 to 24 who are literate by the total population in the
same age group and multiply by 100. Main data sources are population censuses and household and/or
labour force surveys.

230 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

Characteristics: The literacy rate of the 15 to 24 years old has a special significance in reflecting the
recent outcomes of the basic education process. Changes in this group’s literacy rate can serve as a
proxy measure of the effectiveness of the formal schooling system over the previous decade, as well as
an indicator of the expansion or contraction of the pool of illiterate adults in the long-run. The literacy
rate cannot exceed 100 per cent. It is useful to align measurements of literacy with the standard
international definition and to administer literacy tests on a sample basis to verify and improve the
quality of literacy statistics.

Adult Literacy Rate: Percentage of the Population Aged 15 Years Old and Over
that is Literate

Methodology: Divide the number of literate adults aged 15 years and over by the corresponding age-
group population and multiply the result by 100. Main data sources are population censuses and
household and/or labour force surveys.

Characteristics: A high adult literacy rate suggests the existence of an effective primary education
system and/or adult literacy programmes that have enabled a large proportion of the population to
acquire the ability of using the written word (and making simple arithmetic calculations) in daily life.
It is common practice to present and analyze literacy rates together with the absolute numbers of
adult illiterates, because improvements in literacy rates may sometimes be accompanied nevertheless
by increases in the illiterate population, due to the changing demographic structure. The adult literacy
rate cannot exceed 100 per cent. It is important to align measurements of literacy with the standard
international definition given above and, where possible, to administer literacy tests on a sample basis
to verify and improve the quality of literacy statistics.

Literacy Gender Parity Index: Ratio of Female to Male Literacy Rates

Methodology: Divide the female literacy rate by the male literacy rate. Main data sources are population
censuses and household and/or labour force surveys.

Characteristics: The ratio of the female to male adult literacy rates measures progress towards gender
equity in literacy and the level of learning opportunities available for women in relation to those
available to men. It serves also as a significant indicator of the empowerment of women in society.
The value of the gender parity index may be affected by differences in the life expectancy between
men and women, especially for the older age-groups in countries where women on average live longer
than men. In such cases, one should derive literacy gender parity indices by age groups.

Educational 231
ASEAN in Figures 2003

232 Educational
 ASEAN in Figures 2003

References

UNESCO Division of Statistics. Gender-sensitive education statistics and indicators. A practical guide.
Paris, 1997. <http://www.uis.unesco.org/en/pub/pub0.htm>

UNESCO (1998). Education for All: The Year 2000 Assessment, Technical Guidelines. EFA Forum
Secretariat, UNESCO, Paris, August 1998. <http://www.education.unesco.org/efa>

UNESCO (2000). Appendix III. World Education Indicators, explanatory notes. In World education
report 2000. <http://www.unesco.org/education/information/wer/WEBtables/explnotes.xls>

UNICEF. MICS2 National reports, the Philippines.

<http://childinfo.org/newreports/philippines/philippines.htm> (22 October 2002).

United Nations (2001). Indicators of sustainable development: guidelines and methodologies.

September 2001, second edition.

World Bank (2002). World Development Indicators 2002.

UN Statistics Division. Millennium Development Goals website.

<http://www.millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi>

Educational 233
ASEAN in Figures 2003

234 Educational