CHAPTER 4

SAMPLING

THEORY—— In the examination of a mineral property the chemical and physical

characteristics of the ore or mineral must be determined at least as accurately as other
factors entering into the valuation, since upon these characteristics the value of the ore
depends. This determination is generally made by “sampling.”
Sampling is the process of taking a small portion of an article such that the
consistency of the portion shall be representative of the whole. In precious-metal mining
this consistency is known as “assay value” —— the value of gold, silver, and other
precious metals contained in the ore; in coal mining—— thermal units, fixed carbon,
volatile, ash, coking qualities, and any deleterious elements such sulphur; in iron
mining —— the complete analysis of the ore, including iron, manganese, silica,
alumina, lime, magnesia, phosphorus, sulphur, moisture, and also physical structure; in
general, all characteristics, physical or chemical, which may affect the value of the ore or
mineral.
The kind and amount of sampling depend upon the type of the deposits and the
degree of development —— whether the property is prospect, an exploration, or
partly or fully developed mine.
Sampling may be done at any exposed surface of the ore body, such as may be found
in outcrops, shafts, drifts, cross cut, or raises in the ore. Test pit or drill holes may be
sunk for the express purpose of obtaining samples. Because of weathering, samples taken
from outcrops are rarely representative of the unaltered ore.[Karena weathering, sampel
dari outcrop jarang mewakili ore yg diambil]
As through sampling is usually expensive, the cost of a complete job is often
unwarranted and a cheaper approximation must be substituted. The engineer should,
however, weigh the situation thoroughly before subscribing to an alternative other than
an accurate assay basis on which to build his conclusions.
The theory of sampling is that, if enough small portions of an article, properly spaced,
are taken, their average value or consistency will approximate that of the whole very
closely. Sampling should be, as nearly as possible, a mathematical-mathematical process,
a mechanical collection of, material at mathematically, a haphazard procedure.

APPLICATION —— Although, for all practical purposes, this mathematical-mechanical

process may be accomplished in the sampling of sized material during the ore-dressing,
and closely approached in the sampling from drill holes of some types of uniform
deposits, it is rarely applicable to sampling in a mine, because of the irregular distribution
of exposures from which samples may be taken; but even in this case it does apply to
each exposure sampled. From such irregular points the assembling of sample results
becomes almost entirely a question of judgment.
 The nature of the material to be sampled, its manner of occurrence, the amount of
related evidence as to the properties of ore or mineral —— these may all vary so greatly
that no set procedure can be prescribed. Each type of deposit presents an individual
problem; hence, if the engineer expects to get satisfactory results at minimum expense, he
must plan his sampling procedure with great care so as to suite conditions at the
individual property.

STANDAR PROCEDURES in some mining districts and for some type of mineral
deposits certain procedures, the result of much experience, become standardized and
procedure results of great accuracy.
For example: through years of experience and checking of results against methods, the
techniques of sampling, preparation of samples, and analysis of iron ores from the Lake
Superior District1 have been so developed and standardized that samples taken in the
mines, from diamond or churn drills, from test pits, or from stockpiles, railroad, cars, or
cargoes, check very closely in analysis.
This procedure is outlined in some detail in the example of sampling practice for iron
ore in Chapter 6.
Whenever such as a procedure has been developed for a certain type of ore or deposit, the
engineer will do well to follow it unless thoroughly satisfied that an alternative method
will be more accurate.
Current or past production in a operating property, or the experience of the district in
which the property is located, may furnish collateral evidence of type and grade of ore
that may be expected; but the engineer should bear in mind that it is the ore to be mined
which determines the value of the property, and that even in the same ore body the grade
may change laterally or at depth. In fact, in metal mining uniformity is the exception.

SUPERVISION —— The engineer making the valuation has had charge

of the sampling, he knows the limitations of the data he is using. If, however, the
sampling and analysis have not been done under his supervision, he must question every
phase of the work. It is not merely a matter of honesty, but of the technique necessary to
give accurate results. Whenever possible a sufficient number of check samples should be
taken to determine the degree of accuracy of the previous sampling. Where the sampling
has been done honestly, but with faulty technique, it may be possible to determine a
factor which, when applied to the results of such sampling, will give approximately the
correct analyses.

METHODS OF SAMPLING

Channel and chip sampling ——— Exposed ore in place either underground or in open pits is
usually sampled by channeling or chipping. Either method maybe applied to test pits,
drifts and crosscuts, raises, shafts, and backs or side of stopes. The bottom or floor of
mining openings is usually not a clean rock face and is avoided, whenever possible, as a
spot for sampling. If necessary to sample the floor, it may be trimmed to expose a fresh
face but care should be taken to clean off any fines that may have penetrated cracks in the
rock.
Channeling consists of cutting grooves of uniform section across the face, usually at
right angles to the formation. The customary size of groove is from 1 ½ to 4 inches wide
and about 1 inch deep, depending on the nature of the material. Hammer and moil are
ordinarily used to cut the sample, for in hard or mixed formations

a pick is easily deflected and is liable to chip too much of the softer material. It soft
material, however, the pick is used, because it is faster than the moil and gives better
results. The rock face should be brushed clean, or trimmed if necessary, at the point
where the channel is to be cut, and the cuttings caught on a canvas or oilcloth which is
cleaned prior to collecting each sample. If the quantity is large, it may be coned and
quartered being placed in the bag. Attention should be paid, particularly in reducing the

quantity of a sample, to the maximum size1 of the individual piece or metal particle that
may be retained in the final sample without abnormal effect on the assay. This limit
varies among ores.
Since the backs of drift and stopes are usually curved surfaces, the channel cut will be
in the form of a curved groove instead of a straight line. Fig. 1 represents a cross section
of a drift from which a relatively narrow vein, dipping at about 45•, is being sampled. The
sample of the channel A-B-C-D-E-F is cut in the exposed face of the vein and is
necessarily longer than the true thickness of the vein. In the field notes for a channel of
this type, its projected length —— the length it would have it cut on a plane face normal
to the dip ——— must be recorded, and not be curved length. Otherwise an erroneous
conception would be given of the vein thickness. When a channel of this type is being
cut, the size of groove should be varied so that an equivalent amount of sample will be
obtained from each projected foot of length.
A single sample is usually limited to about five feet of channel cut. Longer channels
are subsided in to separate samples as called for. In channeling across layer structure, the
natural breaks from one type of rock to another often offer the best dividing line between
samples. Assays are thereby correlated with the geologic structure and hardness
differences are kept separate, thus making it less difficult to cut uniform channels.
1
Richards, R.H. and Locke, C.E., “Ore Dressing,” McGraw-Hill Book Co., 2nd Ed,
1925, p. 316
Louis, H., “Mineral Valuation,” Chas. Griffin & Co., Ltd., 1923, p. 147.

The spacing of channels is highly important; the intervals must be close enough to
yield a representative part of the whole. In general, the richer and more irregular the ore,
the closer will the samples have to be spaced; and the more uniform the ore, the greater
may be the sample interval that will retain the required accuracy. Whenever possible, it is
better practice to have the channels at regular intervals, as this makes the process more
purely mathematical and eliminates on factor in the subsequent computations.
Chip sampling is used for hard or uniform ores where it is difficult to cut a channel
and where the rock fractures independently of the values. The sample is obtained by
breaking of small, equal-sized pieces from points uniformly distributed over the breast.
The distance between any two points, horizontally and vertically, should be the same on
any one face and may vary with the character of the ore.

CHANNEL SAMPLES
Source: William Peters, 1978 Exploration Mining and Geology

The basic and time-honored sampling method, but not the one in most common use, is to
cut a linear channel or slot at a uniform width and depth of several centimetres. The tools
are a hammer and moil (a pointed sub of drill steel) or a pneumatic hammer with a
pointed or chisel bit. In some mines a hand-held diamond saw has been used to cut the
sides of a uniform channel. While the sampler cuts a channel a second person collects the
fragments in a clean box or sack or on a canvas sheet.

Figure 16-1.Sampling channel in a zoned vein exposure at a mine face. Five samples are
taken, one from each distinct zone.
 Even though a precise sample can be taken from a carefully cut and measured channel
the procedure is more expensive and tedious than most situations warrant. A more
common practice, therefore, is for a sampler to take chips from a chip channel
(a somewhat broader band of about 0.5 m) with a field pick, collecting the fragments is a
sack. Chip sampling is not a haphazard technique; it is done with as much attention to
uniformity as is the deeper and more time-consuming channel sampling.
Channel and chip-channel mine samples, amounting to about 2 to 3 kg from each
separate zone or from each meter of sample length, are taken from the back, face, or ribs
of an underground working (Fig. 16-1). Samples are never (unless absolutely
unavoidable) taken in bottom of working because of probable contamination. The
channel is cut at right angle to the ore zone, if possible. In any event the attitude of the
ore zone and the location of the sample are recorded.
Provide sample recovery is acceptable, the most uniform channel sample is given by a
drill hole. At both surface and underground exposures it is often possible to drill short
holes with a light machine.

Sampling Drill Holes —— Both diamond and churn drills are used in prospecting and
exploration and are often an important factor in determining the extent and the physical
and chemical characteristics of the ore or mineral. The sampling of the core an cutting
(sludge) is of great importance. In drilling the hole, sampling is begin as soon as the ore
is reached; and thereafter, if there is no changes for each five feet of advance is retained
as a sample until the ore boundary is reached. Sampling is begun anew with each change
of material drilled.
In core drilling the core for each five feet of advance is kept separate from the
cuttings. The core may then be split longitudinally into two halves. One half is returned
to show the structure of the formation ; the other half is analyzed separately, and this
analysis is combined mathematically with the analysis of the sludge in the proportion that
each represents of the volume of the material excavated from the drill hole.
The recovery of the sludge may be made either by passing the return water through a
sluice or sludge box with suitable riffles to retain the sediment or by conducting it to
barrels where the sediment is allowed to settle and the water is either drawn off or
decanted.
Many errors are apt to creep into drill-hole sampling. In some drilling, there may be
concentration of the valuable mineral; whereas in order instance, impurities may be
washed out or lost. For instance, in the testing of gold placers by drilling, great care must
be exercised to prevent a concentrating action from taking place at the bottom of the hole.
In iron-ore prospecting, the gypsum may be dissolved out by the excess of water used in
drilling, with a resulting incorrect sulphur determination in the laboratory. In drilling, soft
or caving material from the upper part of the hole may slough off or be dislodged by the
rods and contaminate the sample being taken below. This may be avoided by reaming
and casing the hole after taking each five-foot sample.
When sludge boxes are used to collect the cuttings —— as they were in all the earlier
explorations for iron ore in the Lake Superior District—— the analysis is often seriously
affected by the impossibility of retaining all the fine, lighter material. In many cases, if
not all, a loss of silica from the sample results in a higher analysis for iron than is actually
contained in the ore body; in one case, to the writers’ knowledge, a market reduction in
phosphorus was apparently associated with the lighter material lost from the sample. This
may be avoided by conducting all of the cuttings with the water to barrels, allowing them
to settle until the water is clear, and then decanting off the water.

Grab Sampling and Decimating — the out put an operating mine may be tested by grab
sampling, which may be applied to the freshly broken ore in the stope, to the ore in the
tram cars, or to the ore in transit from the mines. The first procedure is objectionable in
that the tonnage represented by the sample cannot be accurately estimated. In the last two
the unit represented by the sample is approximately known. The method, which is the
same in all cases, consists of taking from each pile, tram car or railroad car, according to
some predetermined plan, a fixed number of equal-sized portions of each grade produced.
Standard scoops may be used, to assure that the same amount of sample is taken from
each point selected; and care must usually be exercised to have the sample contain the
same proportion of fine and lamp ore as the broken ore sampled.
When applied to units at selected intervals, are each fifth or tenth tram car, this method
is usually called decimating. A fixed number of cars, or the day’s or shift’s output, may
be combined and quartered down for analysis. In principle, both applications are entirely
similar.

SAMPLING MATERIAL OF SEGREGATED SIZES —— The sampling of stock piles

usually presents a special problem because of the segregation of the coarse and fine
material which occurs when a body of mixed material is dumped from an overhead point.
Since the segregation is due to the ability of the lumps to roll down the slopes of the pile
of the fines, the particular disposition of the coarse and the fine material in any specific
pile is dependent upon two factors :
Source: Shevyakov, Mining of Mineral Deposits

(a) Order or manner of piling.

(b) Percentage and relative size of lump in the mass.
Fig.2 shows the probable segregation of mixed material for three common methods of
stock-pilling. The dimensions of the piles and the angles of repose are approximately
those which are found in the storage of hematite iron ore. A pile 40 feet high usually has
a top width of 10 feet and a bottom width of 110 feet, with sides slightly concave ; thus
approximately the upper two-thirds of the pile has a steeper angle of repose.
These dimensions, of course, hold true only under normal conditions of weather and
average moisture content in the ore. Ore stocked in freezing temperatures will assume a
much steeper angle.
The upper sketch shows a cross section of a side-dumped stock pile in which the
dumping has been regularly alternated from one side of the trestle to the other so that the
two limbs of the pile have been kept at the same height throughout the entire piling
process.
When a trestle car is dumped, the fine material stays about where it lands, whereas the
lumps roll down the slope of the cone of the material on whichever side they happen to
fall. Some lumps are naturally prevented from rolling and remain in the pile of fine
material, but the tendency is for the lumps to segregate from the fines, and so to form a
center core of lumps between the two piles of fines and also a rimmed basin of lumps at
the bottom upon which the pile of fines rests. There is also a tendency for the lumps to be
more or less graded in size upward from the bottom of the file.
In the lower left-hand corner of fig. 2 is shown a cross section of an unevenly
distributed side-dump stock pile. In this case, the trestle cars were first dumped
continually on the right-hand side until the pile there was at nearly its full height and
were then dumped on the left side, the left-hand pile thus being formed on top of the
flank of the other. The probable segregation of the material according to size is decidedly
different from the first case cited.
The lower right-hand sketch of Fig. 2 represents a longitudinal section through an end-
dumped stock pile. Since all the material is dumped from a single line of overhead points,
only pile will be formed, and the tendency will be for the lumps to segregate entirely at
the base of pile.
The percentage of lumps contained in the run-of-mine product changes the relative
size of the segregated piles but does not appreciably affect their location, whereas the
relative size of the lumps probably affects slightly the location of the segregated piles
because of the increased distance of roll of larger pieces.
From the foregoing it is apparent that each stock pile presents an individual sampling
problem because, in sampling, accurate results can be attained only when the samples
include the proper proportion of coarse and fine material. To secure this proportion, the
choice of sampling method and the field procedure must be based on a thorough study of
the pile in question and of the run-of-mine product in order to determine the order of
piling and the percentage of lumps to be expected. Some ores disintegrate upon exposure
to air, with the result that the stock-piled ore may vary considerably in consistency from
the original run-of-mine. A certain amount of preliminary testing is often required before
a proper sampling method can be determined. In this preliminary work, trenching, test-
pitting, and drilling are sometimes resorted to. Complete cross sectioning of the pile gives
the most accurate results, but is ordinarily to expensive to be warranted.

SAMPLING ERRATIC ORES —— when the values are so erratically distributed throughout
an ore deposit that the usual methods of sampling fail, it may be necessary to take
unusually large, or “bulk” samples of many tons or even hundreds or thousands of tons
and run a mill test on each sample. This is found to be true particularly of ores of the
metallic minerals, such as gold, silver, or copper. In the Lake Superior copper mines no
method of sampling other than the mill test on a large tonnage has been found
satisfactory.
Distribution and size of the individual metal particles in the gangue are the erratic
factors that make sampling difficult. A high metal price, as with gold, accentuates the
problem, since one or a few such particles in a small sample add greatly to the assay
value per ton. Thin vein lets and rich streaks within them offer further difficulties, as the
width of the veins is small compared with the width of the drift or stope face. In sampling
such ores by the usual methods, as channel cuts or chips, it is often the number of
samples taken that gives reliability to the results rather than the accuracy of each single
sample.
Maximum permissible size of individual piece in the broken sample is a point difficult
to determine. Richards and Locke 1 have recommended limits for particle size in testing
gold ores and Henry Louis 2 has indicated maximum size of piece in relation to the
weight of the total sample as a guide for field procedure. The following graph, fig. 2 (a),
is based on the latter recommendation.
 Table 16-1. Empirical guidelines for
Reducing weight of ore sample : maximum
allowable particle size in reduced sample

Weight of Sample Size (Diameter) of Largest Piece

(Kg) (cm)
1,000 7.6
500 5.0
100 2.3
50 1.5
10 .7
5 .5
1 .2

Source : William Peters, 1978 Exploration Mining and Geology

SAMPLING RECORDS —— in any method of sampling, the records kept are fully as
important as the field practices used. Type of sample, length or size of sample, true
thickness or width of vein, intervals between samples, locations, date, and all other
relevant data must be entered upon the records in order that the assays reported shall be
of future value.
Field samples are usually put in individual canvas bags. A reference number or
identifying symbol is assigned to each sample, marked on a tag and recorded in the notes.
The tag is then placed inside bag, which is often equipped with a locking device or seal.
Tags must be resistant to moisture, dirt, and abrasion. Heavy paper, wood strips, or metal
discs are commonly used for this purpose.
As a safeguard against loss, it is well to copy sampling field notes as soon as possible
in to a permanent office record, at which time the individual entries can be arranged
according to field location and thus retained in more accessible form.
The best method of setting forth the results of sampling is by the use of assay maps.
These may be tracings or white prints of the plans, longitudinal or cross sections of the
mine. The location from which each sample is taken is indicated on the maps, and beside
its location are noted the sample number and the value (or important constituents). The
assay maps may also show the tonnage calculated for each block of ore and the average
analysis.
This subject is discussed and illustrated in more detail in the first example of sampling
practice given in chapter 6.
ERRORS IN SAMPLING —— Sampling results may go astray at any one of several points
during the process of estimating ore values, and for one or more of the following reasons:
1. “Salted” or erroneous samples.
2. Insufficient number of samples.
3. Improper location of samples.
4. Improper or “salted” chemical analysis.
5. Incorrect weighting of assays. (an exp. See chapter 5)
“Salting” is the act of raising the value of the sample above that of the ore exposure
from which it was taken. It may be intentional or unintentional. Intentional “salting”
will not be dealt with in this text except for a warning that the examining engineer must
be on his guard whenever the conditions surrounding the examination are in the least
suspicious and must take every precaution against malicious tempering with the samples
or containers. Samples should be handled promptly, storage avoided. Instances of salting
schemes and their detection are to be found throughout mining literature, and afford
interesting and worthwhile reading. One of the simplest and most practical precautions is
for the engineer himself to take check sample at various points, guard them personally,
and have them assayed by an impartial chemist.
Unintentional distortion of sample values should be closely watched for by an
estimating engineer, as it can easily creep into the sampling method. Sampling an
extensive property is large task, and the actual labour of sample cutting must necessarily
be detailed to hired help. Slovenly workers are, of course, always to be guarded against;
but over conscientious workers are source of trouble too, as they may alter the samples by
their very attempts to do the job too well. The engineer can avoid this difficulty to a large
extent by laying out the work in advance and making the operation as simple and
mechanical as possible he can so plan that most or all of samples can be cut by following
rules and he can himself mark the spots to be sampled. Thus he will minimize the chance
of a workman’s including in the sample extremely rich spots or extraneous material.
An insufficient number of samples (points sampled) for an ore body of given size and
consistency will often yield erroneous results even though the samples are taken in a
mechanical manner from points property located. Each sample, as taken, represents an
unduly large volume of ore and may not be a true specimen of the average values
contained therein. In the location of points to be sampled, particular attention should be
given to avoiding those at which the ore is obviously rich or spotty, for in valuable ores
especially, a few specks of extremely high-grade material will appreciably alter the assay.
Although it has been stated previously that sampling gives best results if done in a purely
mechanical manner, this is true only when a large number of samples are taken at
relatively close spacing. In taking fewer samples, the engineer must use his experience
and common sense as a guide for the location of sample points.
An improper analysis by an impartial laboratory is a rare occurrence and can almost
be eliminated as a source of error.
1
Richards, R. H. and Locke, C. E. “Textbook of Ore Dressing, ”McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 2nd ed., 1925, p. 316.”
2
Louis, H. “Mineral Valuation,” Griffin, London, 1923, p. 147.
Say, the assay values of three samples groove lengths W1, W2, W3 are 1.3 % Cu, 2.2 %
Cu and 1.4 % Cu, and the true width T1 = 55 cm, T2 = 40 cm and T3 = 60 cm.
The average assay of the ore body at this goove will be :

𝑇1 𝑥𝑊1 + 𝑇2 𝑥𝑊2 + 𝑇3 𝑥𝑊3

= 1.57%𝐶𝑢
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3

It is not always necessary to draw groove sample to determine the assay value. In placer
deposits, as of gold, tungsten ore, tin ore, etc, the assay value is estimated by excavating
material from the pit and evaluating the assay value of concentrates by panning, as
illustrated below.

For example material excavated from:

surface up to 1 metre depth weigh A tonnes yielding ‘a’ gm of concentrate assaying

(0-1m) 0.01 % Au

from 1 m to 1.5 m depth weigh B tonnes yielding‘b’ gm of concentrate assaying

0.02 % Au

from 1.5 m to 2.2 m depth weigh C tonnes yielding ‘c’ gm of concentrate assaying
0.03 % Au

from 2.2 m to 3.6 m depth weigh D tonnes yielding‘d’ gm of concentrate assaying

0.04 % Au

The average grade is calculated as :

𝒂 𝒂 𝑥 0.0001
For 𝑨= 𝑥 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏% 𝑨𝒖 = 𝑮𝟏 % or 𝐴 = gr per tonne of A
𝑨 𝑨

𝒃 𝒃 𝑥 0.0002
For 𝑩= 𝑥 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐% 𝑨𝒖 = 𝑮𝟐 % or 𝐵 = gr per tonne of B
𝑩 𝑩

𝒄 𝒄 𝑥 0.0003
For 𝑪= 𝑥 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑% 𝑨𝒖 = 𝑮𝟑 % or 𝐶 = gr per tonne of A
𝑪 𝑪

𝒅 𝒅 𝑥 0.0004
For 𝑫= 𝑥 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒% 𝑨𝒖 = 𝑮𝟒 % or 𝐷 = gr per tonne of A
𝑫 𝑫
 𝑨𝑮𝟏 +𝑩𝑮𝟐 +𝑪𝑮𝟑 +𝑫𝑮𝟒
The Average grade of the pit = %𝐴𝑢
𝑨+𝑩+𝑪+𝑫

= call it G % Au down to a depth of 3.6 metres