AS Mathematics - Pure

Quadratic Equations

 The general quadratic equation is

 The roots of a quadratic equation can be found in three ways:

1. Factorising e.g.

2. Completing the Square e.g.

OR

3. Quadratic Formula = e.g.

Discriminant (Δ) = . The discriminant reveals what kind of roots the equation has:

 When Δ > 0, the roots are real and different

 When Δ = 0, the roots are real and equal
 When Δ < 0, the roots are not real

Parabola – the graph of a quadratic equation

Vertex – the minimum or maximum point of a parabola. It can be found by completing the square:

Functions

Function (f) – a function, f, is a rule that maps a number, x, to another single number, f(x).

Domain of a Function – the set of input numbers i.e. the set of values for x. When x ∈ℝ, x can have
any real value. If f(x) is a fraction, e.g. , then x cannot equal a number that will cause the
denominator to equal 0, so in that example x cannot equal 2.

Range of a Function – the set of output values i.e. the set of value for f(x)/ y.

Inverse Function (f-1) – the function that maps the output of f to its input. The range of f is the
domain of f-1 and the domain of f is the range of f-1. When the mapping is not one-to-one (i.e. when
one y value has two x values), the function does not have an inverse. To find the inverse of the
function you rearrange the function to make x the subject:

Composite function (gf) – when a function, g, is applied to a function, f. gf(x) is not always the same
as fg(x).

Intersections

 A linear and a quadratic equation represent a line and a curve.

 To solve a linear and quadratic equation simultaneously
o Eliminate one unknown to give a quadratic equation in the second unknown
o Substitute into the linear equation to find the values for the 1st unknown
o Solve for the 2nd unknown
 Coordinate Geometry

With straight line, AB, passing through (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), the following are true:

The length of line AB =

The midpoint, M, of line AB = ( )

The gradient, m, of line AB =

Equation of line AB =

 The standard equation of a straight line is , where m is its gradient and c its
intercept on the y-axis.
 Parallel lines have equal gradients
 Any equation of the form gives a straight line.
 Given a line with , then any perpendicular line has equation

 When two lines are perpendicular the product of their gradient is -1

Differentiation

Differentiation – the process of finding a general expression for the gradient of a curve at any point
on the curve. This general expression is called the gradient function, or the derived function or the
derivative. The derivative is denoted by or f’(x) or y’.

Second Derivative (y’’) – the second derivative is the derivative of the first derivative. When turning
point value of x is put into the second derivative:

 y’’ > 0, means the curve is concave up

 y’’ < 0, means the curve is concave down
 The Chain Rule

For composite functions with large powers:

Calculus and Curve Properties

Stationary Points – where the gradient and =0

Turning Points – points on a graph where the gradient function (the derivative) is 0 and it is changing
the sign where it is passing through this point. There are two types of turning point:

 Maximum Point – the gradient changes from positive to negative. This occurs when the
second derivative is less than 0 (y” < 0)
 Minimum Point – the gradient changes from negative to positive. This occurs when the
second derivative is greater than 0 (y” > 0)

Increasing Functions – when y becomes larger as x becomes larger. When y’ > 0, the function
increases.

Decreasing Functions – when y becomes smaller as x becomes larger. When y’ < 0, the function
decreases.

Connected Rates of Change

e.g. The equation of a curve is y = x2 – 5x. A point P is moving along the curve so that the x-coordinate
is increasing at the constant rate of 0.2 units per second. Find the rate at which the y-coordinate is
increasing when x = 4.
 Integration

Integration – the process of finding a function given from its derivative.

Inverse Chain Rule

For derivatives with large powers and the x has a power of one:

Definite Integrals

Definite Integral – the integral from point a (upper boundary) to b (lower boundary) of y with
respect to x. In doing this, the constant of integration disappears.

e.g.

Finding the Constant of Integration

 The constant of integration can be found when a point on a curve is provided

 The points can be substituted into the integral so find the value of the constant.

e.g. Find the equation of a curve, such that passes through point (1,5) on the curve.
 Finding the Area

Where a is the upper boundary and b is the lower boundary:

The area between the y-axis and a curve can be found from subtracting the area between the x-axis
and curve from the area of a rectangle.
It can also be found though making x the subject of the equation, and finding the integral from the
upper and lower boundary of the y-axis.

e.g. y Area between curve and y-axis:

9
1.

OR
1
2.
0 2x
For compound areas, the area can be found by subtracting one area from the other:

Finding the Volume

Like with the area, the volume when rotated about the y-axis can be found by making x the subject
of the equation:

Circular Measure

One Radian – the size of the angle formed at the centre of a circle by two radii which join the ends of
an arc equal in length to the radians

For a sector of angle radians of a circle of radius r:

 Trigonometry

Ratios of 30°, 45°, 60°

Sin Cos Tan

1
45°
1
2
1
30°

60° 2
1

Sine Curve

The graph of :

 Graph of has a period of and a frequency k times that of

The graph of :

 Graph of is the same shape as the graph but moved by

along the x-axis in the positive direction.
 Graph of is the same shape as the graph but moved by
along the x-axis in the negative direction
The graph of :

 For any graph of , where k is a constant, has the same shape as

but moved by k units along the y-axis.

The graph of or :

The graph of

NOTE: These facts about the graph also apply to and

 Cosine Curve

Tan Curve

 Unlike the cosine and sine curves, the tan curve is not continuous, being undefined when

 The range of values of is unlimited

 It is periodic with a period of

Trigonometric Identities
 Vectors

Magnitude of a Vector – the length of the vector. It is presented as .

Scalar Product/Dot Product – used to find the angle between two vectors

Parallel Vectors – vectors that are multiples of one another

Perpendicular Vectors – vectors that have a scalar product equal to 0

Unit Vectors – a vector of magnitude 1. It is present as .

e.g. Find the vector given that is of length 5 units and is in the direction of the vector
 Sequences and Series

Arithmetic Progression

Arithmetic Sequence – a sequence whose terms go up or down by constant steps/common

difference

For the nth term of a sequence; where a = the first term, d = the common difference:

For the sum of n terms in an arithmetic sequence; where a = the first term, l = the last (nth) term

These two formula can be combined to give:

Geometric Progression

Geometric Sequence – a sequence whose terms go up or down by a common ratio

For the nth term of a sequence; where a = the first term, r = the common ratio

For the sum of the first n terms:

For the sum to infinity of a geometric progression:

Binomial Expansion

The general term in the binomial expansion is:

 AS Mathematics - Statistics
Data Representation

Qualitative Data – consists of descriptions, using names, e.g. colours of cars, types of vehicles etc.

Quantitative Data – takes numerical values. There are two types of quantitative data: discrete and
continuous.

Discrete Data – can only take exact values e.g. the number of hits on a website

Continuous Data – cannot take exact values but can be given only within a specified range or to a
specified degree of accuracy

Mean – the most commonly used average that is calculated by dividing the sum of all the
observations by the number of observations.

Median – an average that is not influenced by extreme values. It is the ½(n+1)th term. For a set of n
numbers arranged in ascending order:

 When n is odd, the median is the middle value

 When n is even, the median is the mean of the two middle values

Mode – the value that occurs most often.

Bar Chart
Bar Chart
 There must be gaps between the bars
6
 The mode is given by the highest bar

Advantages Disadvantages 4
Different sets of data can Only useful for qualitative
2
be compared using data
comparative bar charts
0
Shows the mode clearly

Pie Chart
Stem
Pieand Leaf
Chart
Advantages Disadvantages
Shows the proportions of Has limited use with
each quantity quantitative data
Does not show frequencies

To determine the angles for each section of the pie chart:

 Vertical Line Diagram Vertical Line Diagram
14
 The height of the line gives the frequency 12
10
 The mode is given by the highest line
8
Advantages Disadvantages 6
Gives an idea of the shape Only useful for illustrating a 4
of the distribution small number of values 2
Shows the mode clearly 0

Stem and Leaf Diagrams

 A key is essential Stem and Leaf

 Equal intervals must be chosen

Advantages Disadvantages 21 5 6
It shows the shape of the It is not suitable for large
distribution amounts of data 99653 4 1345
It shows all the original data 33 3 256
The mode, median and
quartiles can be found from 1 2 9
the diagram
It is useful for comparing 1 9
two sets of data 0
Key: 1 | 2| 9 represents
Histograms
21 for Column 1 and 29 for Column 2
 There are no gaps between the bars
 Total area = total frequency
 Area of bar = frequency in that interval Histogram
 Frequency density =
5
 Interval width = upper class boundary – lower class
boundary 4
Freuqncy Density

 The modal class is represented by the highest bar

3
Advantages Disadvantages
The mean and standard The visual impact can be 2
deviation can be estimated altered by choosing
from the histogram different groups 1
It shows whether the Two distributions cannot be
0
distribution is symmetrical shown on the same
or skew diagram
It can represent groups of
different widths
Lower Quartile (Q1) – is the median of all the values before the median

Upper Quartile (Q3) – is the median of all the values after the median

Interquartile Range – upper quartile – lower quartile

Range – highest value – lowest value

Cumulative Frequency Graph

Cumulative Frequency – total frequency up to a particular

value Cumulative Frequency
 Plot cumulative frequency against upper class Graph
boundaries 10
 Join the points with a smooth curve or straight lines 9
8

Cumulative Frequency
Advantages Disadvantages 7
The median and quartiles The visual impact can be
6
can be estimated from the altered by using different
5
graph scales
Sets of data can be 4
compared by drawing 3
graphs on the same 2
diagram 1
0
Box and Whisker Plot

 The ends of the whiskers are at the maximum and

minimum values Box and Whisker Plot
 The end of the box are drawn at the lower quartile and
upper quartile Max Value
 The line in the box is drawn at the median Upper Q
Advantages Disadvantages
It is easy to see whether the It does not show
distribution is symmetrical frequencies Median
or whether there is a larger
tail in one direction Lower Q
It can be used to investigate
extreme values
It is easy to see the range
and interquartile range
Min Value
You can compare two or
more sets of data by
drawing plots on the same
diagram
 Mean and Standard Deviation

For Raw Data: For data in a Frequency Table:

x x

 When data are grouped, use the mid-interval value to represent the interval,
where mid-interval = ½ (1.c.b. + u.c.b.)
 The variance is the standard deviation squared
 When given and :
o To find the mean, you find the mean of (x – a) and then add a.
o To find the standard deviation, you find the standard deviation of (x – a); this is the
same as the standard deviation of x
 When given two sets of data:
o

Arrangements in a Line

 The number of different arrangements of n distinct objects is:

 The number of different arrangements of n items of which p are alike is:

 The number of different arrangements of n items of which p of one type are alike, q of
another type are alike, r of another type are alike and so on is:

 By definition, 0! = 1

Permutations – the number of different arrangements available in a group. In permutations, order

matters.

The number of permutations of r items taken from n distinct items is: nPr =

Combinations – a selection of some items where the order of the selected items does not matter.

The number of combinations of r items taken from n distinct items is: nCr = =
 Probability

 The probability of an event if the likelihood that it will happen

 A probability of 0 indicates that the event is impossible
 A probability of 1 indicates that the event is certain to happen
 All other events have a probability between 0 and 1

For events A and B:

For mutually exclusive events A and B:

Mutually Exclusive – events are mutually exclusive when they cannot occur at the same time

If , then A and B are independent

Discrete Random Variables

Random Variable – a quantity whose value depends on chance. The probability distribution of a
discrete random variable is a listing of the possible values of the variable and the corresponding
probabilities.

Statistical Model – uses probabilities to describe a situation and make predictions

 Binomial Distribution

Binomial Distribution – used to model a situation if the following conditions are met:

 A trial has two possible outcomes; a success (p) and a failure (q)
 The trial is repeated n times
 The trials are independent
 The probability of success (p) is constant for each trial

Normal Distribution

 Symmetrical with the mean, median and mode all at its centre
 For Standard Normal Variable, , the mean is 0 and the standard deviation 1 and
the results can be read off of the table
 For General Normal Variable, , the mean and standard deviation must be
converted back to Standard Normal Variable to record the results from the table

e.g. For  = 100,  = 5, and P(X < 110)

Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution

If X is a binomial random variable with np>5 and nq>5, then we can use the area under the normal
curve to approximate the probability of a binomial random variable.

 Use  = np, and  = as the parameters

 This will give you the General Normal Variable which must be converted back into Standard
Normal Variable
 To approximate a binomial (discrete random variable) with a normal (continuous random
variable) we add or subtract 0.5 from our discrete value to convert to a continuous value.

e.g. For find

If it were to find