5th Notes: CH 101. Applied Chemistry.

Hammad Majeed
(dyeing@gmail.com). GC University, Faisalabad,

Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation and matter.

Spectroscopic methods measure the amount of radiation produced or absorbed. Elucidation of
molecular structure. Qualitative and Quantitative Detection of inorganic and organic compounds

spectrometer (spectrophotometer, spectrograph or spectroscope) is an instrument used to

measure properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, typically
used in spectroscopic analysis to identify materials.
Nature of the interaction
Types of spectroscopy can also be distinguished by the nature of the interaction between the energy and the
material. These interactions include:[1]

 Absorption occurs when energy from the radiation source is absorbed by the material. Absorption is often
determined by measuring the fraction of energy transmitted through the material; absorption will decrease
the transmitted portion.
 Emission indicates that radiation energy is released by the material.

Ultraviolet and visible radiation interacts with matter which causes electronic
transitions (promotion of electrons from the ground state to a high energy state).
The ultraviolet region falls in the range between 190-380 nm, the visible region fall
between 380-750 nm.

The following electronic transitions are possible:

π- π* , n - π*, σ-σ* , n-σ*

and are shown in the below hypothetical energy diagram

The σ to σ* transition requires an absorption of a photon with a wavelength which
does not fall in the UV-vis range (see table 2 below). Thus, only π to π* and n to π*
transitions occur in the UV-vis region are observed.

UV-Vis analysis of Tetraphenylcyclopentadienone

The UV-vis spectrum of tetraphenyclopentadienone is given below and should be

similar to the one you obtained from lab. The "n" electrons (or the nonbonding
electrons) are the ones located on the oxygen of the carbonyl group of
tetraphenyclopentadienone. Thus, the n to π* transition corresponds to the excitation
of an electron from one of the unshared pair to the π* orbital.
A is the absorbance at a particular wavelength.
ε is the molar extinction coefficient (M–1 cm–1 ).
c is the concentration (M).
l is the path length of the sample cuvette (cm).
Note: A has no units!
Few Applications of UV-Vis Spectroscopy
Cell density
• Means of identification
• Monitor structural or chemical transitions
• Determination of concentration
• Measurement of enzyme activities

Infrared Spectroscopy
Infrared Spectroscopy is the analysis of infrared light interacting with a molecule. This can be
analyzed in three ways by measuring absorption, emission and reflection. The main use of this
technique is in organic and inorganic chemistry. It is used by chemists to determine functional
groups in molecules. IR Spectroscopy measures the vibrations of atoms, and based on this it is
possible to determine the functional groups. Generally, stronger bonds and light atoms will
vibrate at a high stretching frequency (wavenumber).

Infrared light imposed on a molecule will not create electronic transitions but it does contain
enough energy to interact with a molecule causing vibrational and rotational changes

For example, the molecule can absorb the energy contained in the incident light and the result is
a faster rotation or a more pronounced vibration. The possible rotations are around the axis of
symmetry for a given molecule or either of the two perpendicular axis'. Vibrations can be in the
form of a bend or a stretch for each bond.

Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy or Vibrational Spectroscopy) involves the interaction

of infrared radiation with matter. It covers a range of techniques, mostly based on absorption
spectroscopy. As with all spectroscopic techniques, it can be used to identify and study chemicals.
For a given sample which may be solid, liquid, or gaseous, the method or technique of infrared
spectroscopy uses an instrument called an infrared spectrometer (or spectrophotometer) to
produce an infrared spectrum. A basic IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared
light absorbance (or transmittance) on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal
axis. Typical units of frequency used in IR spectra are reciprocal centimeters (sometimes
called wave numbers), with the symbol cm−1. Units of IR wavelength are commonly given
in micrometers (formerly called "microns"), symbol μm, which are related to wave numbers in
a reciprocal way. A common laboratory instrument that uses this technique is a Fourier transform
infrared(FTIR) spectrometer. Two-dimensional IR is also possible as discussed below.
The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three re gions; the near-,
mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The higher -energy near-IR,
approximately 14000–4000 cm−1 (0.8–2.5 μm wavelength) can
excite overtone or harmonic vibrations. The mid-infrared, approximately 4000–400 cm−1(2.5–25 μm)
may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated rotational-vibrational structure. The
far-infrared, approximately 400–10 cm−1 (25–1000 μm), lying adjacent to the microwave region, has
low energy and may be used for rotational spectroscopy. The names and classifications of these sub
regions are conventions, and are only loosely based on the relative molecular or electromagnetic
properties.

Number of vibrational modes

In order for a vibrational mode in a sample to be "IR active", it must be associated with changes in
the dipole moment. A permanent dipole is not necessary, as the rule requires only a change in
dipole moment
A molecule can vibrate in many ways, and each way is called a vibrational mode. For molecules with
N number of atoms, linear molecules have 3N – 5 degrees of vibrational modes, whereas nonlinear
molecules have 3N – 6 degrees of vibrational modes (also called vibrational degrees of freedom). As
an example H2O, a non-linear molecule, will have 3 × 3 – 6 = 3 degrees of vibrational freedom, or
modes.
Simple diatomic molecules have only one bond and only one vibrational band. If the molecule is
symmetrical, e.g. N2, the band is not observed in the IR spectrum, but only in the Raman spectrum.
Asymmetrical diatomic molecules, e.g. CO, absorb in the IR spectrum. More complex molecules
have many bonds, and their vibrational spectra are correspondingly more complex, i.e. big
molecules have many peaks in their IR spectra.
The atoms in a CH2X2 group, commonly found in organic compounds and where X can represent any
other atom, can vibrate in nine different ways. Six of these vibrations involve only the CH2 portion:
symmetric and antisymmetric stretching, scissoring, rocking, wagging and twisting
IR spectroscopy is often used to identify structures because functional groups give rise to
characteristic bands both in terms of intensity and position (frequency). The positions of these bands
are summarized in correlation tables as shown below.
(Wave number is written in cm-1 )
Uses and applications
Infrared spectroscopy is a simple and reliable technique widely used in both organic and inorganic
chemistry, in research and industry. It is used in quality control, dynamic measurement, and
monitoring applications such as the long-term unattended measurement of CO 2 concentrations in
greenhouses and growth chambers by infrared gas analyzers.
It is also used in forensic analysis in both criminal and civil cases, for example in identifying polymer
degradation. It can be used in determining the blood alcohol content of a suspected drunk driver.
IR-spectroscopy has been successfully used in analysis and identification
of pigments in paintings and other art objects such as illuminated manuscripts.
A useful way of analyzing solid samples without the need for cutting samples uses ATR
or attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy. Using this approach, samples are pressed against the
face of a single crystal. The infrared radiation passes through the crystal and only interacts with the
sample at the interface between the two materials.
With increasing technology in computer filtering and manipulation of the results, samples in solution
can now be measured accurately (water produces a broad absorbance across the range of interest,
and thus renders the spectra unreadable without this computer treatment).
Some instruments will also automatically tell you what substance is being measured from a store of
thousands of reference spectra held in storage.
Infrared spectroscopy is also useful in measuring the degree of polymerization
in polymer manufacture. Changes in the character or quantity of a particular bond are assessed by
measuring at a specific frequency over time. Modern research instruments can take infrared
measurements across the range of interest as frequently as 32 times a second. This can be done
whilst simultaneous measurements are made using other techniques. This makes the observations
of chemical reactions and processes quicker and more accurate.
Infrared spectroscopy has also been successfully utilized in the field of semicon ductor
microelectronics; for example, infrared spectroscopy can be applied to semiconductors
like silicon, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, zinc selenide, amorphous silicon, silicon nitride, etc.
Another important application of Infrared Spectroscopy is in the food industry to measure
the concentration of various compounds in different food products.
The instruments are now small, and can be transported, even for use in field trials.
Infrared Spectroscopy is also used in gas leak detection devices such as the DP-IR and Eye CGAs.
These devices detect hydrocarbon gas leaks in the transportation of natural gas and crude oil.
In February 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded database, based on IR spectroscopy, for
tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. According to scientists, more than
20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible starting materials for
the formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread
throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy:

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has become the dominant method of analysis for organic
compounds, because in many cases it provides a way to determine an entire structure using one set of
analytical tests. It is also increasingly used in inorganic chemistry and biochemistry, where it also provides a lot
of valuable structural information. The medical technique of MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses the same
principles, though in that case it is used to scan for water levels in tissue.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance is a property of the nucleus of an atom, concerned with what is known as nuclear
spin (I). This is equivalent to the nucleus acting like a miniature bar magnet. Although isotopes can have a
variety of values for I (including zero), the most useful for spectroscopy are those nuclei which have I = 1/ 2.
Fortunately, this includes hydrogen 1 (1H), carbon 13, fluorine 19 and phosphorus 31, so that some of the
commonest elements in organic chemistry can be analyzed using NMR.
When a nucleus with I = 1/2 is placed in a magnetic field, it can either align itself with the field (lower energy)
or against it (higher energy). If radio waves are applied, nuclei in the lower energy state can absorb the energy
and jump to the higher energy state. We can observe either the absorption of energy, or the subsequent
release of energy as the nucleus "relaxes" back to the lower energy state. Traditionally this was done by
scanning slowly through a range of radio wave frequencies (this is called continuous wave, CW). However, this
has largely been replaced by the faster Fourier Transform (FT) method where one big, broad pulse of radio
waves is used to excite all nuclei, then the results are analyzed by computer.

 NMR spectroscopy is different from the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
In this spectroscopy the sample is subjected simultaneously with two magnetic field, one is a
stationary and another is varying at same radio frequency. The particular combination of
these two field energy is absorbed by sample and signal is obtained when electromagnetic
field is provided to the nucleus of sample. The nucleus start to spin around the nuclear axies
and generate an another magnetic field and particular combination of this two field the
energy is absorbed by nucleus this technique is called as a NMR spectroscopy. This
transition of nucleus occurs in radio frequency region. The radio waves are considered for
lowest energy and this energy is just sufficient to affect the nuclear spin of the atom in a
molecule. Hence, this is a most fundamental part of NMR spectroscopy. In general, the study
 of radio frequency radiation by nuclei is called nuclear magnetic resonance.

INDUCED MAGNETIC FIELD

In the applied magnetic field, the valence electrons around the n ucleus are cause to circulates and
they generate their own secondary magnetic field is known as induced magnetic field.

SHIELDING

The circulation of electron around the protons itself generates field in a such way that, it opposes the
applied field. The field felt by the protons is thus diminished and the proton is said to be shielded
and the absorption said to be upfield.

DESHIELDING

If the induced magnetic field reinforced the applied magnetic field ,then the field felt by the proton is
augmented and the proton is said to be deshielded and the absorption is known as downfield.
Mass spectrometry
Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique that ionizes chemical species and sorts
the ions based on their mass to charge ratio. In simpler terms, a mass spectrum measures the
masses within a sample. Mass spectrometry is used in many different fields and is applied to pure
samples as well as complex mixtures.
A mass spectrum is a plot of the ion signal as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. These spectra
are used to determine the elemental or isotopic signature of a sample, the masses of particles and
of molecules, and to elucidate the chemical structures of molecules.
In a typical MS procedure, a sample, which may be solid, liquid, or gas, is ionized, for example by
bombarding it with electrons. This may cause some of the sample's molecules to break into charged
fragments. These ions are then separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio, typically by
accelerating them and subjecting them to an electric or magnetic field: ions of the same mass -to-
charge ratio will undergo the same amount of deflection. The ions are detected by a mechanism
capable of detecting charged particles, such as an electron multiplier. Results are displayed as
spectra of the relative abundance of detected ions as a function of the mass -to-charge ratio. The
atoms or molecules in the sample can be identified by correlating known masses to the identified
masses or through a characteristic fragmentation pattern.
UV spectrum of Isoprene

IR spectrum

NMR

MS