Electronic Distance Meters (EDMs)

Distance
Measurement

Direct Indirect
(Length Measurement) (Distance Measurement)

Geometrical Electronic
(Optical) (Wave Physics)

Working Principle: = 𝒂 /
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EDM

 Electronic distance measuring instrument is a surveying instrument for

measuring distance electronically between two points through
electromagnetic waves.
 Relay on Propagation, Reflection and subsequent Reception of Electro-
magnetic Wave.
 First introduced in the late 95 ’ .
 EDM includes electronic theodolites which have optical system to scan
both horizontal and vertical circles and display them digitally on a screen.
 Modern EDMs display distance in digital form and many gains
microcomputers that calculates horizontal and vertical distance i.e. 𝐷 and
𝐷 . They also show sloped distance (𝐷𝐻 ).

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Capabilities of EDM

 Measuring elevation
 Measuring height difference
 Levelling
 Slope setting
 Setting out with horizontal distance
 Levelling of ceilings

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Advantages of EDM

 Fatigue-free observation as visual staff reading by the observer is not

required.
 User friendly menus with easy to read, digital display of results.
 Measurement of consistent precision and reliability due to automation.
 Automatic data storage eliminates booking and its associated errors.
 Automatic reduction of data to produce ground levels, thereby eliminating
arithmetical errors.
 Fast, economic surveys resulting in saving in time (up to 50% less effort has
been claimed by manufacturers)
 Data on the storage medium of the level can be downloaded to a computer
enabling quick data reduction for various purposes.
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EDM Characteristics

 750-1000 meters range

 Accurate to ± 5 mm + 5 ppm
 Operating temperature between -20 to +50 degrees centigrade
 1.5 seconds typical for computing a distance, 1 second when tracking
 Slope reduction either manual or automatic
 Some average repeated measurements
 Signal attenuation
 Battery operated and can perform between 350 and 1400 measurements

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Electromagnetic Waves
 Electromagnetic waves are energy carrying waves.
 These are created as a result of vibrations between an electric field and a
magnetic field.
 These waves require no medium for travelling. They can travel even in
vacuum.
 These waves have two components at right angles to each other and move
in the same direction.
 The Sun, Earth and other bodies radiate electromagnetic energy of varying
wavelengths that are characterized as sinusoidal waves.
 All electromagnetic waves are transverse wave.
 They travel with the speed of light which is approximately 300,000 km/s.

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Amplitude, Wavelength, Cycle and Phase Angle
of Electromagnetic Wave

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Electromagnetic Waves
 Cycle: When the wave moves through two identical points on its path,
it is said to have completed one cycle.
 Wavelength 𝝀 : It is the length traversed in x-direction by the wave
when it completes one cycle. (Unit: meters)
 Frequency : The number of cycles completed by the wave in one
second. (Unit: Hertz or Cycles per second)
 Period : It is the time taken by the wave to travel through one cycle
a distance equal to one wavelength. (Unit: seconds)
=

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Electromagnetic Waves

 An electromagnetic wave can be described by the formula

=𝑨 𝝓=𝑨 𝝎
where 𝝓 = 𝝎 and 𝝎 = 𝝅
where 𝐴 is the amplitude, 𝜔 is angular velocity (radians/sec), is time (seconds), 𝜙 is the
phase angle (radians) and is the frequency (Hertz or cycles/sec)

 The wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic waves are related as

𝝀=

where is the velocity of electromagnetic waves in a medium. is commonly referred to as the

speed of light in the medium
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

 The electromagnetic spectrum orders all electromagnetic waves

according to frequency and wavelength.
 It includes 𝛾-rays, x-rays, ultraviolet rays, light wave, infrared rays and
radio waves.
 High frequency corresponds with small wavelength.
 Visible light is a very small component of the electromagnetic
spectrum which has wavelengths between 400 nm and 700 nm.

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 Electromagnetic Spectrum

The Infrared portion of the spectrum is subdivided by wavelength into

Near Infrared (NIR) . µ – . µ ; Middle Infrared (MIR) . µ – . µ ;
Far Infrared (FIR) . µ – . µ and Extreme Infrared (XIR) . µ –

Microwaves, infrared waves and visible light waves are useful for the distance measurement.
Most modern Total Stations use electromagnetic waves in the Visible RED and NIR region of the
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electromagnetic spectrum.
Distance Measurement

 Distance measurements can be made in two ways:

1. By measurement of transit time

2. By measurement of phase difference

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Distance Measurement

Forward and reflected path of electromagnetic wave

Electromagnetic waves are

generated, modulated and then
propagated. They are reflected at
the point up to which distance is
to be measured from the
instrument station and again
received by the instrument.
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Basic Functions in Distance Measurement

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Distance Measurement (Transit Time Method)

×
𝒂 =

Time is too short – difficult to measure

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 Distance Measurement (Phase Difference Method)
No. of Completed & Uncompleted Wave is
Measured Length of Wave
Wavelength is Known = 𝝀+ 𝝀
Distances are Calculated
n = No. of wave travelled
d = Equivalent Distance when
D Received Signal Out of Phase
λ
𝝀
A B
= ∆𝝓
∆𝝓 = Phase Difference of wave
d λ transmitted & received
EDM Reflector 𝝀 = Wavelength
Transmitter

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Modulation and Demodulation

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Measuring Waves

 The electromagnetic waves whose wave lengths are suitable for measuring the
distance are called measuring waves or modulating waves.
 These corresponds to wavelengths in the range of . to and frequency in
the range of 𝑧 to . 𝑧.
 The range is selected to achieve the desired accuracy based on the limitation of the
phase comparison techniques.

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Carrier Waves

 The carrier waves are high frequency waves used for direct transmission of the
measuring waves through atmosphere by superimposing the measuring and carrier
waves electronically.
 These waves act as a medium for carrying the distance information.
 The carrier waves are of two forms:
 Visible or Infrared light waves (𝜆 = . × −6 to × −6
and
= . × 8 𝑧 to × 8 𝑧)
 Microwaves (𝜆 = × − to × −1 and = . × 𝑧 to × 𝑧)

 Waves in this part of the spectrum are least affected by atmospheric conditions
(temperature, pressure, humidity), have good dispersion properties (i.e., narrow
beams can be generated) and good reflecting properties.
 EDM instruments which use Visible or Infrared waves are called Electro-Optical
Distance Measuring (EODM) instruments and the instruments which use the
Microwaves are called Microwave Distance Measuring (MDM) instruments.

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Modulation and Demodulation

 The process of electronically superimposing the measuring wave on the carrier wave
is called modulation.
 The reverse process of modulation is demodulation.
 Modulation occurs at the transmitter end. At the receiver end, demodulation occurs
in which the measuring wave is separated from the carrier wave and the phase
difference of the measuring wave is determined.

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Methods of Modulation

There are two methods of modulation depending upon the nature of

the carrier wave
 Amplitude Modulation (AM): This is used when light waves are used
as the carrier waves.
 Frequency Modulation (FM): This is used when microwaves are used
as the carrier waves.

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Methods of Modulation (Amplitude Modulation)

 Amplitude Modulation is used

when light waves are used as the
carrier waves.
 The amplitude of the carrier wave is
varied in direct proportion to the
amplitude of the measuring wave.
 The frequency remains constant.
 The measuring wave information is
carried by the varying amplitude of
the carrier wave.

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Methods of Modulation (Frequency Modulation)
 Frequency Modulation is used
when microwaves are used as the
carrier waves.
 The frequency of the carrier wave is
varied in proportion to the frequency
of the measuring wave.
 The amplitude of the carrier wave
remains constant.
 The measuring wave information is
carried by varying the frequency of the
carrier wave.

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Classification of EDM

 On the basis of Range of Operation

 Short Range 𝑎 <
 Medium Range 𝑎 <
 Long Range 𝑎 <

 On the basis of Carrier Wave Used

 Microwave 𝑎
 Visible light 𝑖 𝑎
 Infrared ℎ 𝑎

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Classification of EDM

 On the basis of Range of Operation

Short Range Medium Range Long Range

𝒂 < 𝒂 < 𝒂 <

𝑨 𝒂 ± . 𝑨 𝒂 ± 𝑨 𝒂 ±
+ / + / + /

. . . . 𝑖 . . 𝐷𝑖 𝑎

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 Classification of EDM

 On the basis of Carrier Wave Used

Microwave Visible Light Infrared

𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
𝒂 : : :
− × ×

. . . . 𝑖 . . 𝐷𝑖 𝑎

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Operation

 Setting up: Instrument is centered over a station by means of tribrach.

Reflector are set over the remote station on tribrach.
 Aiming: Instrument is aimed at prism by using sighting device or
theodolite telescope.
 Measurement: Operator presses the measure button to record the
slope distance that displayed on LCD panel.
 Recording: Information on LCD panel can be recorded manually or
automatically.

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Geodimeter

 Geodimeter uses light radio waves and 3-4 different frequencies.

 Heavier Instrument
 It includes transmitter and receiver system.
 Can be used both at day and nights.
 During the day the range is limited upto .
 During the night the range can be − .
 At nights observations are made using tungsten filament or mercury
vapour lamps.
 The observations have to be corrected for atmospheric factors.

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Tellurometer

 Tellurometer uses high frequency radio waves.

 It is microwave based system.
 It generally uses 5 different frequencies.
 It operates with measuring frequency of 𝑧 and
carrier signal frequency of 𝑧.
 These are of two types based on the output.
 Time output
 Distance output

 These instruments have communication facilities.

 It is long range instrument of about .
 Two identical instruments are required at each end.

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Distomat

 Latest EDM instruments.

 Working and operation similar to tellurometer.
 Range is 0.02-150 Km.

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EDM Instruments

Geodimeter
 Heavier Instrument
 Observations are limited to nights only
 Instrument set up at one end & reflector
at other end
 Light Radio Waves are used
Tellurometer
 Lighter Instrument
 Observations may be made during the
day as well as during the night
 Two identical instruments at either ends
 High Frequency Radio Waves are used

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Prisms

 Prisms are used to reflect the transmitted signal.

 Made from cube corners.
 Have the property of reflecting rays back precisely in the same
direction.
 They can be tribrach-mounted and centered with an optical
plummet, or they can be attached to a range pole and held
vertical on a point with the aid of a bulls-eye level.
 The quality of the prism is determined by the flatness of the
a a la y 9 ˚ surface.

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Accuracy

 Distance is computed by

. 𝒂 𝒂 + 𝑷𝒂 𝒂 𝒂

 Standard or Random errors are described in the form of

+ 𝒂 + 𝑷𝒂

 Constant is the accuracy of converting partial wavelength to a distance

 ppm is a function of the accuracy of the length of each wavelength, and the number of
wavelengths

 Typical accuracy ± 5 mm + 5 ppm

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Errors in EDM

 Personal Errors

 Instrumental Errors

 Natural Errors

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Errors in EDM

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Errors in EDM

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Errors in EDM

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Total Station
Total Station

Total Station = Theodolite with Built in EDM ± Microprocessor

Measures & Records: Calculates:

Horizontal Angles Horizontal Distance
Vertical Angles Vertical Distance
and Azimuths of Lines
Slope Distances X,Y,Z Coordinates

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Total Station

Total station is a combination of :

 EDM
 Theodolite
 Auto Leveler
 Microprocessor with specific memory
 Battery/spare

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Advantages of Total Station over Conventional Instruments

 Traditional survey methods are laborious and time consuming

 Fully automatic electronic measurement
 Digital display of staff reading and distance
 Data storage in instrument possible
 Direct transfer to personal computer of data stored in
instruments
 Online operation through integrated interface to computer

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Disadvantages

 Total stations are dependent on batteries and electronics. The LCD

screen does not work well when it is cold.
 Battery life is also short, batteries and electronics both do not work
well when wet.
 Loss of data is an important consideration.

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Basic Principle of Total Station
 Total station measures the distances of prism poles mounted with prisms with the
help of Laser beam or Infrared rays.
 These signals are emitted by the instrument EDM and reflected back to instruments
by the prism mounted on the prism poles.
 The time interval between emission and reception helps to calculate the distance as
the speed of these signals are precisely known.

= ×
where, 𝐷 = Distance, = Total time taken and 𝑉 = Velocity

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Function of Total Station
1. It simultaneously measures angles & distances and Record
2. Correcting the measured distance with:
a. Prism constant
b. Atmospheric pressure
c. Temperature
d. Curvature of earth
e. Refraction correction
3. Computing the point elevation
4. Computing the coordinates of every point
5. Remote elevation measurement
6. Remote distance measurement
7. Area calculations
8. Data Transferring facility from instrument to S/W and S/W to instrument
9. Format of conversion of units 46
Application of Total Station

 Updating mapping
 Topographic survey
 Hydrographic survey
 Cadastral survey
 Project construction survey
 Road, Rail survey
 Mining survey

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 Operations Involved while using Total Stations

1. Establishing the site Datum: 4. Creating and Operating Job files:

a. Selecting the site Datum a. Creating a new Job file
b. Establishing North b. Opening an existing file
2. Setting up the Total station: 5. Shooting points:
a. Placing and leveling Tripod on Datum a. Identifying the important points to
b. Placing and leveling the Gun on shoot
Tripod b. Shooting points
c. Linking the data connector to Gun c. Shooting additional points
3. Data collector options and d. Noting the special features
setting: 6. Post Processing – Data
a. Main menu downloading, conversion
b. Basic settings 7. Plotting/Map generation
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Accuracy of Total Stations
More accuracy can be achieved by:
 Careful Centering
 Accurate pointing target
 Average of multiple points
 Better optical lens
 Strong Tripod
 Verticality of prism pole
 Angular accuracy is from 1 to 20 sec
 Linear accuracy is from to
per km
 Different instruments have different
accuracy
 Accuracy varies with Price

Linear Distance measure with:

Angular
With 1 Prism With 3 prisms • Single Prism - upto 2.5 km
NIKON 1 Sec + 2 mm + 1 mm • Two Prisms - 5 to 7 km
LIEKA 1 Sec + 2 mm + 1 mm • Three Prisms - 10 to 12 km
SOKKIA 1 Sec + 2 mm + 1 mm

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Limitations of Total Stations
 It is not a Rugged instrument (Sensitive)
 Prism verticality is questionable
 Visibility is must
 More Expensive
 Requires calibration at every six months
 Amount of error is greater at short distances
 Height of instrument and prism is to fed
 Awareness on battery maintenance
 To establish north-compass is required
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