w [LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN SOCIAL PRACTICE ‘here an ten dob at wean ea ew eof nei rs Sn ma ermped cal taney the demon oer aa aay passerines ofunon ate reste ro mrt Let ok trom th pel pit of vw a ees percmcened etwas wat ight dows nib fe danas attngnope. Are nordsin Phat Communion eed pel) sang thc mcanas whic sso thes? Cesta nt Fe anon an that hr ps i, Eu hy fe Tha ptt met efecto, nor do they sees une eet she tener Once sain ay sy tat language does 1 Tetena bere aa aes of aan of HO ream we reais @ mode of cso? Ann what ain does nt SS ce cncepon context o stanton obvious he aa om ater Seo no tetoge of peaking Bt ee a ered muon whe a phe of peopl sity re casa toner of woe ra he oss oer nnn ofthe pope ut hs ft ahi eet ep sation nl acs created he ican of oe es esi ecg nich frm onal earns, by he weet ote anterances wach make yp ory gop. The wise sca a ar appt hag Eacheranee ea seg oe tay Hever opener y ate of ome ot sentiest aan ore aguas aes ata nt 8 20 ‘eatofetcton but ar4mode of con T oud ke to a at once ht thong tbe exams disused were ena Af ie, cold among ores ext parallel 2 cae swe on fat Scand. The ining ss of wort Sea oars ahinbod weather the vera eoacomians 08 isan cm he es gg ung a 2 Fae rsporungput all bee eee ene he fant a nacnand our Sno coud v5 uly wel conde in modern eral Nate 1. Se Argon of he Wesom Pai — An Aceon of Nate Ener ad Scuba Atelier of cna New Gms by B- Maiowsts cae 2 Toward Ethnographies of Communication DELLEYMES “The term ethnoprapty of communications intended onda the nese say scope, and to encourage the doing, fstdes ethnographic nbs, an trie in hres in ofa ey i wh tho hn tr npr her ht nae ‘Aso scope: ne eno ing tke tke separate ea fom gic, prycloy,scigy thology a gic sd ce to crate them, however arta ueulsuch ork mae, fone to avea thor on Seo tn cory ranma) One neh es in oy OE nip ey he ng nt tana uate prope tospesch acy, pater a Stes of grammar, af personaly, osc suction and tele, sic seracing he pti of sph ity it ame thet Actobae oe cannot tk ing fom, a hen ode, or esaspetch ual aiming me oreerence One stake scone en ity or network of pron, investing tr Somenatve etc @ ‘hol, 0 hat any oe of anne! nd Se aks pasar prt ofthe "urs pon hich the eer de eis ot that inguin doc not have itl ae, Ansys gui pyr ender he i of gi et an iniensin th ctinoeaphic peeps. eae that ot ing, Dbatethaograpiy, not language, but communication, which aust provide the frame of weeence itn wach he lc lenge clare dey ‘rtobcamened, Thx boundrsfthe community witha wich somment Sin ete aes festa {hon ces; the mean oa purpves nd pts sketon, ter {te tad Mertty = al Cements acne the Soon ‘eomomy gop odin oe ar hy pei ngs odes within the group, butane not controled by thom The ste ngusticLa ea 2 LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN SOCIAL PRACTICE means may be made wo serve varogs ens; the same commicave ends rd, ngiily, by varios means Facts ofthe cual ie sul stations apa for, oes abd personalities, hotory nd ane cmmanty may ave toe crn a hei aig mom, ae end patter sts any aspect commit se may a ar ete on the sty of Kinship, ex, oF ole oni), tt be fond thst much st as ininge pon Kings variation ant han an engniation of sown. What seem craton snd a eo nota of igus aly uy emer 8 =~ se ram the siandpoit of te comeunicatv copay othe aoe pong whom tesa oreo speach SUC Fe ad are wil force econsdeatin, moreover oftheanlye of Ftc coke themscves Justa clement and cans of phOnO}Y dae cayin.nemghtwhon ioweditom he ogaizaton om, Sera ent an lations of parma appear in» ne ht we aa tne organization of reais (Lamb, 1964, kent and raed (og inguin code asa whole wil appear pay net ih a ae nga ofthe elements nd latons ofthe speach ce ica theneles part ofa system of commasiative 2 nt ‘hunt characteristic of eo. "To project the ethnography of communication én uch a way an if bel that tte at constittion a sond desciptve aa me tanguge i edton to, and wim) comprebenin sae ints haste that woud appeoac lengua Site # Pee aera a abstract corlate ofa community, Put asia ao putemof communeativecrents,Krwoulstedy communi, soa fon in integral retton to each er inthis wou eo de ee tng He views of Bngustcs and of what win ings SS boc linguistic orm fom context and fection, An ot st 08 ao or pats Bloons often cited remark that if Depa ye aston bein fod, ad child sye Tm buney to avoid Bong fo iran gus conrad ost wih whats the sme the Wo 2 Ferran offcr words, fom context. In cotrst, 2 nro ook 1 ata ei rapt ina wy excl complementary al one va retina oe commeniation cet nan) thet Spee ype maybe the sme (Cherry, 196; 225, Keates Ther words, fom Hingis fm. ‘Such vows ate ot the only ones tobe ound, Dut they nv been chara ean ippaneson te one Band, and sacs cence, om the other, eta excmpliit one or he ober. For etogragis of om, ao eevee aim st be not soto dive the communicative FEE ee cape for (Chetsy'ssiga-type) andcontext ofa te ies Pomerat Siaacaescee moe Seteethom arc ot pre spr adnofaicae Sn sate et Sc ieee ee Dy liagusies wo’ parular component of com bea component ef communication, but of extending or fy th ls of any of min i spp ree ann rie sine oc erg me hy Fo mye rte tf aoa, OF Py rome aes apy cy The wh ete dot ‘atone ple white prvi ch ch sa ten guy xeon the then ‘un i depron aie era i enh se tet enema mayne tt tise of Sematincrhe ipd aca, ts pa ishOn wy os hme sage, ingle pylon ids, Dt of cnosrpic nays of communicative cont and ibe cconml are conf tof compre seston ‘Fundamental Notions Among the notions wth which theory mut deal are those of speaking, Maca speaker, speech seco so speech sation, speech event, spect Ponca of pec evens and ats, ales (ations) of fone Pees pc ems nd eth es elon) of aig Way af speaning nee rincf tne howt crust te, al commamavocon: sh tin aman onstrate ph seth ter Specs takenere ventral man toned witg drumming tows) Ways of speaking cane takeno refer othe relaonsips amon ex a a han an oon tlie savas, is anna sad tli, vals, abd tudes on te oe.LE —_—E———I—I “ LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN SOCTAL PRACTICE at speaker “The wpe bly tat grammar areintnded to mod presumably is connacod wit oeny: the kid of person whose abilities ae most closely Sppronmoled is prea the Buea speaker. Ofcourse a person may ave grammatical howe ad be unable 1 sei bt th trast of i hic ms boon toward an rage of peraom who fot hs the Kaowledge Sha ic unieded in is ese (ct. Chom, 1968), The dficuy or 0 ‘Ahnogapher i that person ifr in ably, in Hf nt in grammars {Even i ope abstract rom ievidaldifleenees, community ifernces ‘isin “vcney would appes to team eliferent profes o abit in [rent commoniin, tnd indeed would seom tobe tne mos appropriate [abet sverywtere forthe slits comsdered those ofan ial speaker {Chcie), We know to ile sbout community ideals for speaers— the Tacks ret with op the complex makeup of American soviet ise Ifa too lie shot the rte of such conceptions in sequsiton of spechy in what gocs ona schools pa jbs, in ingite ehange.Communtis my Sold dfeng lal of speaking for ferent siatses and role and st ‘ome. Moreover the siensons of ealspeaking may der —"koowledge Th aach andsuch sthe cae guage now how’ to wezomplsh ‘Omething verbally; aiemoriation s tmproviaton; yea crying powst “Gutcadurance ws catin guise ves ete. Thus, ormative notions Ut aity, a eroded in ins of soaker, mst be pat of ethnography Kwtedpe of them sof core ndspeasibie background to study oft stale. Speech community Spesch communis @ neces, primary concept in shat if take ser cout posttest unt of description as social rather than ngusiy ‘ity Oe ars witha sol groups considers the entire organization “inguinc mean within he ham tart wih some one para named ‘Sreantaton of lng encans, all language Defitision a spech ommuiynerms of language isnadeauat (0 snc eundingot commune ether extraalyoitermaly. External, the Tinga and commanstiv boundaries between commas cannot be ‘Sefned by lngiti ets shoe (ct. Hyes 1968), ones of speech of the Rane dees of inguisieiflernce may be counted as dats of the ‘ne language non rogio, anda tin languages another, depo: Tngon the pital, ao igus, story ofthe eos. ‘A speach communi i define, then, tautology but radially, a 8 “community shaingknoplede of ue forthe conduct and interpretation of {poet Such sharing somes knowledge o at ast one form of speech, ‘speech, Such sharing compriacs Knowive Be 0 conditions are necemiary, [BTHINOGRAPHIES OF COMMUNICATION i Sie: btn of none maybe sare prt rom on member ‘ship in «community, an adequate theory of language requir ional ‘notion, sich as language speech field, oak at Tati contr fn es hana et ontton of sl wont thrmtrng ets ‘community, and of membership of a community, me “ Spee station Within aco eit oe rei detest may sts asa wi (or med bythe sens of sch Ssh cnet sagan once eaturalydessibed ar ceremonies, fights, hats, Se mati fights, hats, eal, ovemaking and In asacolnguitic desipton, tho, the, sneer to dea with sts, hi arin ome recopszble ny bound rina rom the sad Point of goa oil esripton they muy be tepid ms cerenonie, sings and he ike rom parti stsdpoctoey may breed sell tin sat bccn cnr nie ton of pelea, ethetic, teach secalnpisi ep they may repnded espera " Speech event Te tem eh evn wl be eel aii, ects scien tat reds goveedy ras orm hte pecs ‘cron ny como ape spc ites ‘Smorarensofsnamany strane tm bemeeterr Pie indent seen te aecpet nae Uolcet specneveat asta gece ayrtconentn cei ams os owes 4c o moa apy teteutn scot ang ey Gh en) kisah seedling ato sora roe trance ote hye peerage i ieee fap cna sme pe fecha secon of aaron Tanke ch) moon ‘coment ‘Apaoconere, changing sidesinateonsmatth pe Speech at “Tue apech ats isin erm ofthe sts dcused nage evens ate indeed Ttepesen seve die! on ese, ocd ot ei ih any angle pron mer lo gen not with segment oto pertalae rn of other levels of gram-pses 6 LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN SOCIAL-PRACTICE may deen tomar, Tata wteanc as the stats of» comand ma dpe vr pn ula (1 erty order you eave ts baling), Fron ee Gor, psn comverationa exchange (Helo atin (et op vn eons awe answering the lepone) a Finn cask otanng between he partes (os whenan ra these avi guration fle» command, when ma 9 ¢ aoe edna) In ener he ean btwece seen fms a in indo etme sete inetogne i a ee a aera a command, now atten ees ee dy auntnce tat iow toga, now deat ray an one sate me sence mayb ake 8 ao re cponing tbe nornainerpreion pve vse entet see acs may be anally extension aac eae, common elds, tne a eats sare about the sats of rans 252 owe eet and hig do th ses of inerason and etext aewel sof wanme. ‘n ch ere ety sme ene mg sch it eewme Maree ern com on iinet th ie lt ee ct ines semen Rom ote te ii ee mpc ar eat sein ls ey an or Tents tae pty atone tomy. ie tsb en sae emu ere eo ne se 2 Oh ot ic te sie ea in eee ean Scranton ee) errr eho oan sce ecco nk recht a tn e mh ea me tipper Seem ecm yom Seacoast weg te tegen om cb aa ste em a [BTHNOGRAPHIES OF COMMUNICATION ” Ethnographic materi 0 fr nvetignted indicates thet some sixteen or seventeen components have somatines to be estngished. No rls hit ‘een found that requis speciation of al simultanenany There ate ery redundancies an! vometines a rule gute expt mention of “elation between ony two, mesg form and some other (C3 gener] Principle tat ll rule involve mee form, i not by ating i hap, {ten by governing is interpretation.) Since each ofthe component ma sometimes bea factor, however each has to be recognize i he gene wn (0) Mesag form.‘ fro he mesg finden, a as teen inden, Te mont common anf a ste fet in ot ‘ports speaking probably that the meseage fom hee, ‘nes governing it cmot be recapare. A cone rhe deta tes me pay ene nati Scie importance, Su view tte an npatcace that ‘erie to bth huni aad stile parpous Ie precse the fore to unite form and content thesope fing cso ty that eter enerstnng the hams aby tsps sb hat ‘tise nany stems tosnae the gine of Savor. Content Categorie, ierrlv caloric, sons do nt sate, ta tn, but ene ogni rescarch, ht how something sai fut of hare Norcan ne presi advance the os eo ‘lt sna The ar oy of Speating has becom sae and mesninga within onp, be re HGytturaucsl onsite secant ‘nt painstaking alist mowage form —ow things ares — ots ide peri nce from the itn of er Sry crime ale he pth and adoeny oe cpa of ‘hat is alk. * ‘retinas (ease cnn, On ne ting mae om mess ome woul" eyed, sig” (ing ese iim} He pape at ewe gel opr cnet oa Content naif of aliperhaps ea question ofp and ‘of ehngs of ope Member of soup now what ing talked ‘ow tnd when whats led shut hat charge, and manag ma tenance nd change of tops Ths sis re parts of he coms ‘mae comptes partion ech ‘Message form and messge content ar central the speech et sid the foc ofits 'synace strstr hey are tg interdpen ‘enti thy nb es pny eanpopo too |(mnemonically, A). m es: cancun a uTRAC S008 RATE "si settee Ceara main ut ee sos mt ea toa ines Econ et es wee se ce ie ones eae ieaped x eppopio napoli 0 see cant nse, fers, may De Mie 8 IO samt each Oe, se print, hpy or sakapy nlm ec oe, Fe te ee complain about the weather to that of dam nis fat station ‘Suing and sane may be Hake a compose of ct sunt (suit. snc ene hes aye an ana of roa eg” probly i tobe prefered asthe informal, Crmaried erm theo. (6) Speaker, sender (6 Adéresor. (0) Hewrer, or eever, or audience. Oey mntereencene sional On ce sv an la ot Vener, where the earl see vet of be soe, Ws Sherrer acre bcc dates vie sane se seis ect ona juss in nteoducing the rina (aalaodby Fake, 1972) dferentated into leek asoeng fegreement pate) a ou nae valegal ruling). at fo pricaroncoe, dean, seen pone gto (0) rfc nt He sat set raat issue weed “anes an event from 3 comunity et the purposes of ose i [BTHNOORAPUIES OF COMMUNICATION » (01) Key. Key is ineoducud to prove forthe te, manner, epi in which a acts done Itcrrespond roughly o modality song rae. Ital categories. Acts thers the mea eps ting. pari ‘amt, message form, and the hike may diferin key, ae between ‘mock: serious or perfctr: painstaking Key is ten conventionally scribed 19a insane of some oer component tt ttibute; seriousness, for example, may be the fxpetted concomitant of «scene, participant, ac, code, oF gente (Gay, a church, judge, a vow, we of Latin, obsequls). Yet there ays the possi that hore a conventionally undertod way of svbstuting an alternative key. (This possiblity coespords tothe ‘enerlpostiity of chosing oe speech se or register spat foe.) this espect, tual ems always afore, Knowing what should happen next oe til cam ato t the way whi happens ‘The sgianee of key i undertined by the feta, when tis in cont ith the over content ofan et, itofen overt the ater Cs in saeasm). The sgnaling of Key tay bo nonverbal ax with a wok, setae, posure, sje of dress, muscal eccompaniment, ti ‘commonly involves conveational unis of speech os ten erpanded in eainary tage mlys, sachs English apistion snd yowel Tength to signa emphasis. Such feature are oen termed expres, tare beter dud style sine they need not all dept onthe smoodat their wer (12) Chants. By choice of channel i undertod shrce of or, writen {elepiphic, semaphore, oe other medium af warsmission of pce ‘uh regu to chanel, one must frter distinguish mods of we ‘Theol channel eg. maybe wed ting hu, whistle, or chant en tures of speech ells 10 peak them, (13) Fomtofspech Eater discon ofthe spcch community dea wh thedstinton between he rovenans fing resourses the ‘mata nei, andthe tse, of some organized set of them. ‘Where common provenance of «stock of lest snd gama ‘lei iin goto one cn coy stint speak ag rte: Where al neti ringustion whether dco Slferen provenance oto deivation by aon, ceito, suai tion, permutation fom a common seo sore, the elm cde toc eprops itsuggetdeooig and inligiy. Where se inqueton the em sary as come ity welled Fp son & Gumpee, 1), expel for commbnyve wes O a ‘lation obroad domains for station speci tu, te Brith fxm aera hae ae somalia forPe » [LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN SOCIAL PRACTICE (18) Nort of interaction. Alles governing peaking, of coun heve 2 Seater: Wha nent ae be peaiiebtavns aa erat anach~tatone ms trop fr a0 seta ety do vost normal wee soul 0 Be oe, et hc shel nhs (ier) ht Senet te soci etn way. Noms er. eee Re mpl ana of oc Mc end cal ‘ions geealy, 0 nomi (05) Norms of tnerpreain. A wsoun of worms aeration may ai eave open te nterpettion tbe placed upon them, espesaly whe vee ferent commaniis ar in commnicaton. Ths i Meath Arabic and American students fer om series of itr ‘Tot nouns: Ava coufont each her more det (lace 4s) ‘tht convening st dose eschofe, ae morelikelyttoucheach ‘ier, ook each otber more squarely in dhe eye, and convene more RHY (vaso & Graves, 196! 976-7) Me investigators Who rept than dings themgsve Tee open the meanings ofthese nor 19 the pantcpans (94) “the proben of mors of interpretations amin rom he se ment conmmucatons (om other goverement nd ations eal eG fe aten ook or endiness in lessened degre overt ost ir Relates between groupe win a country re often flected by ‘Rhadortanings on thi sere. For white middleclass Americas rane aonmal hestaton Behar valves file athe pot Weeketg ae). For many tacks, x normal pater so evee ‘ete bethnngof in aterance perhpmore than once) Tslick rane htegeted by wes not sa different norm ot #8 3 ‘etee Noms of texpretationimpate the bebe system of a com- mua (6) Genes, By genes ace msaotemegoris such 8 poe, myth, tle, Cran, de, curse, payer, orton, leer, commer for Re ero ok ow ve stein te aniyss of speech into st eens of apeech it artanes of geores Te ation of Ate Mean eaky pouty of entying formal chareteisis tainly een istearsial important to proceeds houghallpsech ‘ov tormal characteris of some sort az manestation of Bee end Ftmay wel tv (on genres, ee Bet Amo, 1959) “Genres often coincide with speech evets, bul mst eat 3 ansvteay independent offen They may ssc (Or) der TERN tema asa gente tpn Menta with certain pase Sr ebareh sevice, but ts propertis maybe invoked, For serious oF "ETINOGRAPHILS OF COMMUNICATION a Rates (elaons) of speaking In mera he feast of peaking ceria familar guises setter od One as seme oa nono fens ‘tment, though sever prt ques Asi in ay the som tonne of sping say mark the pence ofa ule (rset el {once fem noma! one of ret mie, tora Engh fo ‘Sang, oreo pase, embsrrasment, ra another evasive ‘pons oapeesmn inate he on or compen ofa Inemorone can nk olan age na component poten ct {orappbxon for songs sommutason est Whe wt cn trstitany, present? ‘The heuristics of components shoulde used ngatively ax well as pos tively ifs component som ielvan o celia tof genre, tit shoulbeascrted, nd the consequences of the esserion checked. Many generations about rls of speaking wil take he for of vil ket form fsa ‘mens oeationshpumong componcits. 1st yet deta there ay yn pe rr come inch stench Se ‘oneca lat presen, ny componente) be aken string po tieoter viene meson ot When dalsocetes hatte rel tbo, Merrcis of pecedate among components wl ey BL Sess ound fr fom case oes. Such eens hse sy amps il hn spn rt of the ony Soaetingust stems, For one group, fsa pein tude for acts pray pant fs era tolope Functionsatspech caesar toss yun satemiagctatemnccmoment Sian scar eeeant ana ees selene canta meget chee ‘ie tin ge sal ton te heya eto2 [LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN SOCIAL PRACTICE References gr wn a te oe Leen — hie Mammen atemp rh TM, soe eames eet a et game, cen fepee Avastin ry Tee pet eee name nites Poh eon eager eames ye Be oe ee ta) tigation. 181. J. oa pan enn iin Suna Weg ertteanatatien” Hy, ee) Lagi pots ding te one of Tn Te oe as tate sue netgaomr Lamb, S. 6h The een apron 0 structural semantics, American Amira: CEE t,t se So ar a EEE EET 3 Language as Social Semiotic M.A.K. HALLIDAY 1 Introductory Socolngistis sometimes appears tobe a earch fr answers which ave so questions. Leu therefore enumerate st hixpataomeof the questions {at dosoum to need answering. m " (Mo do pe der te lysed was rey ‘pc yale ag €@) Mow do pope eve eta an mean none ii woah ae yin bot het! nt wo Mea noramnesetontloansnttecanagtepost (6) Hondopepccne hc ochlemertots Inge ten eer Sacer ay ae cnn Ft woe my @tow and wy do oop of stereot eit ts oot sea ere ey ae el ca noes Eran (Mowe dit socl popes ent ‘pats enn st ee oe ‘etn len pes ee (6 Honky cea arn acters en ot Oeics (Nims ite, toe onon owe agsinercton a tay pc gece nye ba pat eee Io eco a Env a ane Soa 2 Elements of Socosemiotic Theory of Language “There arecortaia general concep whichscem tobe sent npedints in asociowemioti theory of language. These are the text, he situation, the