Concrete Buildings
A guide to the design of buildings combining in-situ
and precast concrete
A cement and concrete industry publication
R. Whittle MA (Cantab) CEng MICEgtgtrgrvrfgvgrgg
H. Taylor FREng, BSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FIStructE
Published by The Concrete Centre
the design of buildings combining in-situ
and precast concrete
A cement and concrete industry publication
R. Whittle MA (Cantab) CEng MICE
H. Taylor FREng, BSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FIStructE
Published by The Concrete Centresss
the design of buildings combining in-situ
and precast concrete
A cement and concrete industry publication
R. Whittle MA (Cantab) CEng MICE
H. Taylor FREng, BSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FIStructE
Published by The Concrete Centre
Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB
Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800 Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801gfgg
www.concretecentre.com
CCIP-030
asdasdada at www.concretebookshop.com
Tel: +44 (0)7004 607777
All advice or information from The Concrete Centre is only intended for use in the UK by those who will evaluate the signifi
cance
and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability(including that for negligence)
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loss resulting from such advice or information is accepted by The Concrete Centre or their subcontractors, suppliers or
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Readers should note that the publications from The Concrete Centre are subject to revision from time to time and should
therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
fafafafa
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
John Stehle Laing O’Rourke
Graham Hardwick John Doyle Construction Ltd
Peter Kelly Bison Concrete Products Ltd
Alex Davie Consultant
David Appleton Hanson Concrete Products
Kevin Laney Strongforce Engin are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Arup
The contributions and comments from the Concrete Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
are in possession of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by fnfgnfnf
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Aru[[‘of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
Ian Feltham Aru[[‘of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
Ian Feltham Aru[[‘of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
rhrhrhr
Acknowledgements
Ian Feltham Aru[[‘of the latest version.
Cover photo: Courtesy of Outinord International Ltd.
Printed by Information Press Ltd, Eynsham, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would particularly like to thank the following people for their support in the development of this
design guide:
Tony Jones Arup
Ian Feltham Arupxczczc Society Design Group and also from the following
people are gratefully acknowledged:
ring Plc
Hybrid Concrete
Norman Brown hjjghjghjg
Buildings
Contents
1. Introduction 5
1.1 Single point of responsibility 5
1.2 Design considerations 6
1.3 Best practice procurement guidance 6
2. Overview of hybrid solutions 7
2.1 Type 1: Precast twin wall and lattice girder slab with in-situ concrete
7
2.2 Type 2: Precast column with in-situ fl oor slab 9
2.3 Type 3: Precast column and fl oor units with cast in-situ beams 10
2.4 Type 4: In-situ columns or walls and beams with precast fl oor units 12
2.5 Type 5: In-situ column and structural topping with precast beams and
fl oor units 13
2.6 Type 6: In-situ columns with lattice girder slabs with optional
spherical
void formers 14
3. Overall structural design 15
3.1 Robustness 15
3.2 Stability 18
3.3 Diaphragm action 18
3.4 Shear at interface of concrete cast at different times 19
3.5 Interface shear 22
3.6 Shear and torsion design 25
3.7 Long-line prestressing system 26
3.8 Secondary effects of prestressing and the equivalent load method 29
3.9 Temperature effects 29
3.10 Differential shrinkage 29
3.11 Designing for construction 33
4. Bearings and movement joints 34
4.1 Horizontal forces at bearings 34
4.2 Restrained bearings 35
4.3 Movement joints 36
4.4 Actions and restraints 36
4.5 Design considerations 37
4.6 Allowance for anchorage of reinforcement at supports 37
4.7 Bearings that allow limited movement 38
4.8 Connections between precast fl oors and in-situ concrete beams 42
5. Structural elements and connections 43
5.1 Twin wall construction (type 1) 43
5.2 Precast columns, edge beams and in-situ slabs (type 2) 52
5.3 Biaxial voided slabs 55
5.4 Prestressed hollowcore units 58
5.5 Double tee beams 68
5.6 Stairs 74
5.7 Corbels, nibs and half joints 82
6. Construction issues 87
6.1 Method of construction 87
6.2 Composite action between precast units and in-situ structural topping
89
6.3 Specially shaped standard units 89
6.4 Long and short units adjacent to each other 89
6.5 Differences of camber in double tees 91
6.6 Method of de-tensioning double tee units 91
6.7 Checking strand or wire pull-in for hollowcore units 91
6.8 Placing hollowcore units into the correct position 91
6.9 Production tolerances 92
7. Special structures - case studies 93
7.1 Lloyd’s of London 93
7.2 Bracken House 100
References 104
List of worked examples
Worked example 1 Hollowcore fl oor acting as a diaphragm 20
Worked example 2 Interface shear between hollowcore slab and edge beam 23
Worked example 3 Upwards camber on slab due to temperature gradient 30
Worked example 4 Differential shrinkage 31
Worked example 5 Bearing of a hollowcore unit 41
Worked example 6 Vertical tie 56
Worked example 7 Anchorage length of longitudinal tie bar 65
Worked example 8 Dowel bar for connection of precast stairs 80
Worked example 9 Corbel design 84
1. Introduction
Hybrid construction allows the most appropriate use of different materials and methods
of construction to produce a pleasing and effective form of structure. The search for
greater economy, in terms of material costs and reduced construction time, has resulted
in innovative approaches that seek to combine construction materials and methods to
optimum effect. Hybrid concrete construction (HCC) is one such development that
combines in-situ and precast concrete to maximise the benefi ts of both forms of concrete
construction. Further guidance on the benefi ts of HCC is given in Section 2.1.
This design guide is aimed at the designer and considers a range of hybrid concepts and
the overall structural aspects. It provides design and detailing information for some of
the
common systems used and structural elements involved. Where applicable the information
is in accordance with BS EN 1992-1-1 1, together with the UK National Annex (Eurocode 2
is used to refer to BS EN 1992-1-1 throughout this guide unless noted otherwise). This
incorporates a section on the design of members by strut and tie methods, which is
particularly useful when considering ‘hybrid’ design details. This guide also considers
and
refers to the following European Concrete Product Standards for precast concrete elements:
BS EN 133692 Common Rules for Precast Concrete Products
BS EN 11683 Precast Concrete Products – Hollowcore Slabs
BS EN 137474 Precast Concrete Products – Floor Plates for Floor Systems
BS EN 132245 Precast Concrete Products – Ribbed Floor Elements
BS EN 132256 Precast Concrete Products – Linear Structural Elements
BS EN 149927 Precast Concrete Products – Wall Elements
BS EN 148438 Precast Concrete Products – Stairs
The use of precast and in-situ concrete may well lead to the design of the individual
elements by designers working for different companies. Therefore, it is essential that
there should be a single named designer or engineer who retains overall responsibility
for the stability of the structure and the compatibility of the design and details of the
parts and components, even where some or all of the design, including details, of those
parts and components are not carried out by this engineer. This is particularly important
for the design of hybrid structures where misunderstandings as to who is responsible have
occurred.
It is the responsibility of the designer, before incorporating any proprietary system as
part
of the structure, to ensure that the assumptions made in the design and construction of
such are compatible with the design of the whole structure. This should include:
an adequate specification for that part.
ensuring that any standard product designed and detailed by the precast
manufacturer, is suitable for that particular structure.
the design of any such part is reviewed by the designer to ensure that it satisfies the
design intent and is compatible with the rest of the structure.
1.1 Single point of
responsibility
Introduction 1
6
The design of each component should include consideration of:
its performance in the permanent condition
the construction method and loading
any temporary supports required during construction.
The design should be carried out following the requirement of Eurocode 2, Cl. 1.3, which
assumes:
Structures are designed by appropriately qualified and experienced personnel.
Adequate supervision and quality control is provided in factories, in plants and on
site.
Construction is carried out by personnel having the appropriate skill and experience.
The construction materials and products are used as specified in Eurocode 2 or in the
relevant material or product specifications.
The structure will be adequately maintained.
The structure will be used in accordance with the design brief.
The requirements for execution and workmanship given in EN 136709 are complied with.
The design assumptions should generally include the following construction related
information:
sequence of construction
exposure requirements
pour sizes assumed (if appropriate)
concrete strength at time of striking formwork and back-propping requirements
breakdown of loading including allowance for construction loads
loading history assumed.
It should be noted that some of the advice given in this design guide is a result of
failures
that have occurred on completed structures.
Best Practice Guidance for Hybrid Concrete Construction10 looks at the procurement
process from concept stages through to design and construction, suggesting processes
that allow the capture of best practice. It is supported by a number of case studies. The
guidance explains the benefi ts that result from:
early involvement of specialist contractors
using a lead frame contractor
using best value philosophy
holding planned workshops
measuring performance
trust
close cooperation – with an emphasis on partnering.
It is recommended that this guidance document is used to maximise the advantages of
using HCC.
1.2 Design considerations
1.3 Best practice
procurement guidance
1 Introduction
7
This is a similar form to type 3 discussed above, the key difference being that the
columns
are cast in-situ rather than being precast, see Figure 2.4.
The advantage of this form of construction over a fully in-situ concrete structure is the
ability to use long spans (up to 16 m) precast fl oor units, e.g. hollowcore slabs, double
tees.
These obviate the need for slab formwork and provide a relatively lightweight fl oor. This
construction system does not require the involvement of a specialist subcontractor beyond
the manufacture and supply of the standard precast units.
2.4 Type 4: In-situ columns
or walls and beams with
precast fl oor units
Advantages:
Precast floor structure can be erected quickly.
Quality finish for soffits (although this is not always possible with hollowcore units).
Short lead time for standard precast products.
Disadvantages:
Precast flooring must be temporarily propped.
Sealing between precast units is required.
13
Peripheral ties
The peripheral tie should be capable of resisting a design tensile force:
Ftie,per = (20 + 4n0) ≤ 60 kN
where
n0 = number of storeys
Internal ties
The internal tie should be capable of resisting a design tensile force:
Ftie,int = [(qk + gk)/7.5](lr /5)(Ft) ≥ Ft kN/m
where
(qk + gk) = sum of the average permanent and variable floor loads (in kN/m 2)
lr = greater of the distances (in metres) between the centres of the columns,
frames or walls supporting any two adjacent floor spans in the direction of
the tie under consideration, and
Ft = (20 + 4n0) ≤ 60 kN
Maximum spacing of internal ties = 1.5 lr
17
One sasc 3
BS EN 1168, Precast Concrete Products – Hollowcore Slabs3 has an informative annex that
gives some advice on the design of horizontal diaphragms to carry lateral loads, usually
wind
loading. This, in turn, refers to Eurocode 2, Cl. 10.9.3 where the maximum longitudinal
shear stress for grouted connections vRdi is limited to 0.15 MPa for smooth and rough
surfaces, as found at the edges of hollowcore, and 0.1 MPa for very smooth surfaces as
found in the ex-mould fi nish of bounding edge beams, see Figure 3.2.
A considerable amount of test work has also been carried out on hollowcore diaphragms
and is discussed by Elliott23.
Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.5 also covers the design approach for shear at the interface between
concrete cast at different times. A design example (worked example 1) is included here to
illustrate the process, as it is required in many areas of hybrid design where precast and
in-situ concretes are combined to produce composite sections. The example using
hollowcore without structural topping is a useful one as it is more critical than
diaphragms
with any topping.
A further consideration is the shear connection between the hollowcore units and also
between the end unit and the bounding beam. In this case, the connection to the main
support beams and the longitudinal steel in the support beams is usually suffi cient to
ensure that the hollowcore units cannot move apart and so the structural model used in
worked example 1 remains valid.
3.4 Shear at interface of
concrete cast at different
times
20
Worked example 1
Hollowcore floor acting as a diaphragm
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Check the design of the hollowcore diaphragm, without structural topping, carrying wind load to
walls at each end, as shown below.
Plan: 15 m x 9 m with 250 mm thick hollowcore unit
Section A - A
vs - Very smooth surface
s - Smooth surface
vs
s
vs
vs vs
s
A
A
Edge beam
Hollowcore
unit
KEY
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Worked example 1
Hollowcore floor acting as a diaphragm
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Wind load: 2 kN/m2 (A high wind load)
Assume a 3 m high storey, calculate maximum moment, MEd, from the diaphragm edge wind load/m
run.
wd = 1.5 x 3 x 2 = 9 kN/m γQ is taken as 1.5
MEd = 9 x 152/8 = 253 kNm
Calculate shear reaction at the diaphragm edges, VEd.
VEd = 9 x 15/2= 67.5 kN
Assume 2 No. hairpins (U bars), 12 mm diameter, in each 1.2 m wide hollowcore unit.
Check shear at interface: vEdi < vRdi
gives:
vEdi = β VEd/(z bi)
where
β =1
VEd = 67.5 kN at end of diaphragm
d = 0.83 h and z = 0.67 h (assuming elastic stress distribution)
Hence:
z = 0.67 x 9 = 6 m
bi = 250 – 50 (say) = 200 mm
∴ vEdi = 67.5 x 1000/(6000 x 200 ) = 0.056 MPa
rRdi is limited to 0.10 MPa (> 0.056 MPa → OK)
Check vRdi (which is unlikely to control); for this example the first and second terms are small and
may be ignored as a first estimate.
vRdi = ρfyd (μ sin α + cos α) ≤ 0.5 υ fcd
where
ρ = As/Ai
μ = 0.5 (very smooth surface)
fyd = the design yield strength of reinforcement
As = the area of reinforcement crossing the interface
Ai = the area of the joint
α = 90 for reinforcement perpendicular to the joint
υ = 0.6 (1 – fck/250)
Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.5
Eurocode 2, Exp.(6.24)
Eurocode 2, Figure 6.8
Eurocode 2, Cl.10.9.3(12)
Eurocode 2, Exp.(6.25)
Eurocode 2, Cl.6.2.5 (2)
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3 Overall structural design
Project details
Worked example 1
Hollowcore floor acting as a diaphragm
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
For this example:
As = 2 x 2 x 113 = 452 mm 2
Ai = 1200 x 200 = 240 000 mm2
Hence:
ρ = 452/240 000 = 0.00188
and:
vRdi = 0.00188 x 500 x (0.5 x 1 + 0)/1.15 ≤ 0.5 x 0.6(1 - 25/250) x 1 x 25/1.5
= 0.41 ≤ 4.5 MPa
Use 2 No. hairpins (U bars) - 12 mm diameter
This check demonstrates that Exp. (6.25) is not usually a limiting control.
The design would now normally continue to calculate the tensile steel required in the edge beam to
carry the diaphragm tensile boom force, taking into account that this calculation must also
consider the other actions for the appropriate combination of actions.
For many beams in HCC there is an interface between concrete cast at different times. The
interface may be between precast and in-situ, two precast elements or in-situ concrete
with
a construction joint. All interfaces and critical sections in the composite section must
be
considered in accordance with Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.4 and 6.2.5 (see example in Section
3.4).
Typical interfaces are shown in the Figure 3.5, and typical calculations are presented in
worked example 2.
3.5 Interface shear
Interface 3 Interface 2
Interface 1
Interface 4
Figure 3.5
Typical interfaces between precast and in-situ
joints.
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Worked example 2
Interface shear between hollowcore slab
and edge beam
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Consider Example 13.7 in the Precast Eurocode 2: Design Manual24. Interface shear check is
between
the edge beam and in-situ concrete provided in the joint (see figure). In this example the contribution
of the horizontal surface is ignored. The shear resistance of the interface between the upstand of
the precast unit and the main body below should also be checked.
The flange over each hollowcore is cut out and therefore the units should be temporarily propped.
1 No. H16 U-bar is placed in each void to interlock with projecting reinforcement in the edge beam
as shown.
Assume that the compression flange of the edge beam is 600 + 175 + 110 = 885 mm wide.
Check shear at interface according to Eurocode 2, Cl. 6.2.5.
fck = 35 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Maximum sagging moment, MEd = 267 kNm
Maximum design shear, VEd = 223 kN
bi = 200 mm
d = 540 mm
MEd/bd2fck = 267 x 1000000/(885 x 5402 x 35) = 0.0296
600 175 110
200
In-situ concrete
Shear interface
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Worked example 2
Interface shear between hollowcore slab
and edge beam
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
From Figure B1 of the Precast Eurocode 2: Design Manual24 find value of z (alternatively find z by
calculation or with any suitable design aid):
z = 0.97
vEdi = βVEd /z bi
where
β = ratio of the longitudinal force in the new concrete and the total
longitudinal force
= width of new concrete/total flange width
= 775/885 = 0.88
bi = 200 mm
Hence:
vEdi = 0.88 x 223 x 1000/(0.97 x 540 x 200) = 1.87 MPa
vRdi = c fctd + μ σn + ρfyd (μ sinα + cosα) ≤ 0.5 υfcd
where
c = 0.35 and μ = 0.6 for a smooth surface
σn = 0
α = 90º
fctd = 1 x 2.2/1.5 = 1.47 MPa
υ = 0.6(1 – 35/250) = 0.52
vRdi = 0.35 x 1.47 + 0 + ρ x 0.6 x 500/1.15 ≤ 0.5 x 0.52 x 1 x 35/1.5 (= 6.07 MPa)
vEdi ≤ vRdi ≤ 0.515 + 260.9 ρ
Hence:
ρ ≥ (1.87 – 0.515)/260.9 = 0.005
Now:
ρ = As /Ai
∴ As,req = ρ Ai = 0.005 x 1200 x 200 = 1200 mm 2
Using 3 No. voids each containing 1 No. H16 U bar.
As,prov = 3 x 2 x 162 π/4 = 1210 mm 2 OK
Eurocode 2, Exp (6.24)
Eurocode 2, Exp (6.25)
Eurocode 2, Exp (6.6N)
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Worked example 3
Upwards camber on slab due to
temperature gradient
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Calculate the upwards deflection of a 16 m span 300 mm deep simply supported floor resulting from
a temperature gradient of 20ºC with the upper surface being the hotter. Assume that the gradient
is linear and steady state, and that the temperature coefficient for concrete, α, is 10 x 10-6.
The curvature, φ, from this temperature gradient is
= 20 x α/300
= 20 x 10 x 10-6/300
= 0.67 x 10-6
The curvature is constant along the length of the unit.
From the second moment area theorem, the mid-span deflection:
δ = φ x l2/8
= 0.67 x 8000 x 4000/1000000
= 21.4 mm
Force equilibrium:
εi Ei Ai = εp Ep Ap (1)
εp = εi Ei Ai /Ep Ap
Section equilibrium (φEI = M):
φ (Ei Ii + Ep Ip) = εi Ei Ai ( yi,b + yp,t) (2)
Strain equilibrium:
εfds = εi + εci + εcp + εp = εi + φ yi,b + φ yp,t + εp
φ = (εfds - (εi + εp))/(yi,b + yp,t)
φ = (εfds - (εi + εi Ei Ai /Ep Ap))/(yi,b + yp,t) (3)
In-situ
Precast
yp,t
yi,b
εfds
εcp
εp
εci
εi
φ
Figure 3.12
The effect of differential shrinkage across a
section.
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Worked example 4
Differential shrinkage
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Calculate the effect of differential shrinkage in a beam constructed in two stages as shown below.
The element is simply supported and 20 m span. The free differential shrinkage strain is 0.0002.
B785 fabric in in-situ concrete
B283 fabric in precast concrete flange
2 x 2 No. 7.9 mm super strand in precast rib
In-situ concrete
Precast concrete
150
1000
100
50
300
B785 mesh
B283 mesh
2 x 2 No 7.9 super strand
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Worked example 4
Differential shrinkage
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
In-situ concrete
fck,in = 25 MPa, fcm,in = 33 MPa, creep coefficient, ϕ = 1.5
Ec,in,long = 22 [fcm,in/10]0.3/(1 + ϕ)
= 22 x (33/10)0.3/(1 + 1.5)
= 12.59 GPa
Section properties, including the reinforcement, are as follows:
Ain = 112 x 103 mm2
Iin = bd3/12 = 1000 x 1003/12
= 87.5 x 106 mm4
yinbar,b = 52.1 mm
zin,b = 1680 x 103 mm3
Precast concrete
fck,p = 50 MPa, fcm,p = 58 MPa, Creep coeficient, ϕ = 1
Ec,p,long = 22 x (58/10)0.3/(1 + 1)
= 18.64 GPa
Section properties, including the tendons and reinforcement, are as follows:
Ap = 101.5 x 103 mm2
Ip = 1220 x 106 mm4
ypbar,b = 237.4 mm
ypbar,t = 112.6 mm
zp,t = 10900 x 103 mm3
Curvature
Using expression (4) above:
Curvature:
φ =
1000 x 0.0002
52.1 + 112.6 + (12.59 x 87.5 x 106 + 18.64 x 1.22 x 109) x (1/(12.6 x 112 x 103) + 1/(18.6 x 101.5 x 103))
50 + 112.6
= 0.00058/m
Defl ection
Deflection from differential shrinkage
δ = φ l 2/8
= 0.00058 x 202/8
= 29 mm
Eurocode 2, Table 3.1
and Cl.3.1.4
Eurocode 2, Table 3.1
and Cl.3.1.4
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2)
where
a1 = net bearing length with regard to bearing stress = FEd /(b1fRd) but not less
than the values in Table 4.2
FEd = design value of the support reaction
b1 = net bearing width
fRd = design value of the bearing strength
= 0.85fcd
a2 = distance assumed ineffective beyond outer end of supporting member
(see Table 4.3)
a3 = distance assumed ineffective beyond outer end of supporting member
(see Table 4.4)
Δa2 = allowance for distance between supporting members (see Table 4.5)
Δa3 = allowance for deviation of the length of the supported member
= ln /2500
ln = length of member in mm
b1
a1
> a + a 2 3
a a 3 3 +
a1
a
a a 2 2 +
Figure 4.3
Critical dimensions for bearings.
Relative bearing stress, σEd
a/fcd ≤ 0.15 0.15 to 0.4 > 0.4
Line supports (fl oors and roofs) 25 30 40
Ribbed fl oors and purlins 55 70 80
Concentrated supports (beams) 90 110 140
Key:
a σEd is the design bearing stress
Table 4.2
Minimum value of a1 (mm).
40
Worked example 5
Bearing of a hollowcore unit
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
A 1.2 m wide hollowcore slab seated on an in-situ concrete nib, treated as a non-isolated member.
The length of hollowcore unit is 9 m. The in-situ concrete beam is class C35/45 concrete.
Actions
Self weight = 3.33 kN/m 2
Variable load = 4 kN/m 2
Partitions = 1 kN/m2
Finishes = 0.7 kN/m2
Bearing stress
FEd = 9 x 1.2 x {1.35 (3.33 + 0.7) + 1.5(4 + 1)}/2 = 69.9 kN
Assume a 30 mm wide neoprene bearing.
σEd = 69.9 x 1000/(30 x 1200) = 1.94 MPa
σEd/fcd = 1.94/(0.85 x 35/1.5) = 0.098
Geometry
Minimum value of a1 from Table 4.1 for a line support is 25 mm.
Hence:
a1 = 30 mm OK
a2 = 5 mm
a3 = 5 mm
Δa2 = 15 mm
Δa3 = 9000/2500 = 4 mm say 5 mm
The reinforcement in the in-situ concrete nib is assumed to be 20 mm vertically bent with a
nominal cover of 20 mm.
d2 = c2 + Δa2 + r2
= 20 + 15 + 3.5 x 20 = 105 mm
a2 + Δa2 ≥ d2
∴ a2 + Δa2 = 105 mm
Allowance for clearance at end of unit
Δa2 + Δa3 ≥ 15 + 4 mm = 19 mm say 20 mm
The bearing stress should also be checked for the hollowcore unit.
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
20
10 30 105
20
H20 bar
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The panels are supplied to site, erected and then fi lled with in-situ concrete to form a
solid concrete wall. The trusses, therefore, also act to hold the skins together against
the
pressure exerted by the in-situ concrete before this has cured. A typical layout is shown
in
Figure 5.2. The precast skins function as permanent formwork.
The precast skins contain the main horizontal and vertical reinforcement for the wall, in
the form of a cross-sectional area of fabric or bars, which can be specifi ed by the
designer.
However, starter bars and continuity reinforcement must be provided within the in-situ
concrete.
The precast skins are
connected and spaced
by steel lattice
Main horizontal and
vertical reinforcement
for the wall is fitted
within the precast skins
Figure 5.2
Simple layout of a twin wall system.
44
Worked example 6
Vertical tie
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Consider a 9 m x 9 m flat slab floor 300 mm thick with imposed variable load of 3 kN/m 2 and
finishes of 1 kN/m2.
Actions
The total design force in vertical tie
FEd = Gk + Ad
= 9 x 9 x {(25 x 0.3 + 1.0) + (0.5 x 4) = 851 kN.
Resistance
Using a column shoe system: 4 No 25 mm bars will provide a resistance of
FRd = γs fyk As
= 1.0 x 500 x 252 x 4 x π/4/1000 = 981 kN
FRd > FEd → OK
Use 4 No 25 mm bars
Eurocode, Table NA.A1.3
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Initial sizing can be determined from manufacturers literature. The manufacturer
literature
will also advise the size of the spheres available, the spacing requirements and the
general
confi guration of the slab.
The benefi t of the reduced self-weight should be taken into account in the design. The
design may assume a fl at slab model, which has been demonstrated as appropriate through
testing of the slabs. A check should be carried out to ensure that the concrete
compression
zone remains outside of the depth of spherical void formers. Where this is not the case,
as
in heavily loaded slabs, the manufacturers will be able to offer appropriate guidance on
determining the permissible compression zone that can be used in the calculation of the
fl exural strength.
Testing has been carried out to determine the shear strength of this type of slab,
alongside a
theoretical assessment of the reduction in the shear plane due to the inclusion of the
voids.
The manufacturers recommend that shear strength of a solid slab of the same depth should
be reduced by a factor of between 0.55 and 0.6 to obtain the design shear resistance for
the voided slab, see Figure 5.16.
For punching shear it is recommended that the void formers are left out where the design
shear stress exceeds the reduced shear resistance of a voided slab, see Figure 5.16.
Punching
shear checks may then be carried out on the solid slab areas around the columns.
5.3.1 Slab geometry
5.3.2 Flexural design
5.3.3 Shear design
5 Structural elements and connections
57
Figure 5.16
Typical layout with fi nal reinforcement in
place.
Photo: Cobiax Technologies Ltd
Manufacturers have carried out testing to determine the reduced stiffness of the slabs due
to the voids. Conservatively, the stiffness of the voided slab may be taken as 0.87 times
the stiffness of a solid slab, although in some confi gurations the factor may be
increased
to 0.96. The manufacturers have data available to take advantage of these situations.
When using a fi nite element analysis, the stiffness of the slab (by adjusting the modulus
elasticity) can be reduced accordingly. The use of the span-to-effective depth rules of
Eurocode 2 is not valid for this form of construction since it is not clear how the slab
stiffness is incorporated in the manufacturers design expressions.
Splice bars are used across the panel joints so that the slab may be designed as a
continuous
member. Figure 5.16 shows a typical layout including the fi nal reinforcement.
Buoyancy of voids
Whilst the concrete is being place and vibrated, the buoyancy force can reach the
displaced
weight. The void formers are held in place by:
firm tying of the void former to the lower and upper reinforcement
casting of concrete in several stages (normally two, but three may be required where
the voids are larger than 360 mm).
Slab edges
Voids are not normally provided near slab edges to ensure a robust and continuous edge
detail.
5.3.4 Defl ection control
5.3.5 General considerations
Structural elements and connections 5
58
Prestressed hollowcore units are produced by an extrusion or slipform process with a
typical width of 1200 mm, in lengths of up to 200 m. Each length is prestressed before
casting. After curing, the units are sawn to the required length. Figure 5.17 shows a
typical
production layout.
It should be noted that where the only reinforcement in the units is the prestressing
strands, as is common, it makes the support zone particularly vulnerable since this is
where the maximum stresses due to bearing, shear and anchorage occur. The design
should be in accordance with Eurocode 2.
5.4 Prestressed hollowcore
units
Figure 5.17
Typical hollowcore unit production.
Hollowcore units have lateral edges provided with a longitudinal profi le in order to make
a shear key for transfer of vertical shear through joints between contiguous elements. For
diaphragm action these joints are designed to resist horizontal shear.
Hollowcore units are often specifi ed from manufacturers’ tables rather than designed
from
fi rst principles. These tables are based on assumed loading, support and reinforcement
details, and where the actual situation varies from that assumed in the tables, e.g. the
existence of concentrated loads or different fi re rating, detailed calculations should be
made to verify such units are appropriate.
BS EN 11683 describes the requirements and the basic performance criteria and specifi es
minimum values where appropriate. It covers terminology, performance criteria, tolerances,
relevant physical properties, special test methods and special aspects of transport and
erection. Reference should also be made to Precast Prestressed Hollowcore Floors28.
An example of the design of a hollowcore unit is given in Precast Eurocode 2: Worked
Examples29.
Resistance at the end of the hollowcore unit relies on the interaction of shear and bond,
therefore it is very important to understand the end prestressing conditions of hollowcore
units. Figure 5.18 shows how the stress in the prestressing wires or strands and the
moment
of resistance, builds up from the end of a unit and further guidance is given in Eurocode
2,
Cl. 8.10.2.2.
5.4.1 Anchorage of
prestressing tendons
5 Structural elements and connections
59
The transmission length, lpt, for the prestressing wires or strands is that length required
to
transmit the full prestress, σp. lpt is defi ned in Eurocode 2, Cl. 8.10.2.3 where σpt1 and
lpt1
are the values at ‘transfer’ and σpt2 and lpt2 are the values after all losses (as shown
in
Figure 5.18). The ultimate design strength of the tendon requires further anchorage
length.
The slope of the line between σpt2 and σpd is less than that for the transmission length,
lpt2,
because the tendon reduces in size as it is stressed. The reverse is true within the
transmission
length over which there is a wedging effect. One reason for assuming a linear build-up of
stress is because any fl exural stress in this region will tend to reduce the section size
and
nullify the wedge effects.
5.4.2 Transmission length
Tendon stress
Distance from
end of unit
Ipt1
Ipt2
Ibpd
pd
pt1
pt2
Figure 5.18
Build-up of stress in prestressing wires or
strands from end of unit.
The cracking length, lcr, is the distance from the end of the unit to the point where the
bottom fi bre stress resulting from all actions (bending, prestress and horizontal forces
at
the bearings) equals fctd. Figure 5.18 shows the components of actions and the net effect
on
the bottom fi bre stress. Note that if lcr is less than lpt2, the prestress is reduced.
Figure 5.19 indicates the results from the example given in the Precast Eurocode 2: Worked
Examples29.
The following points are of particular note:
Consider all action effects to determine where the unit is likely to crack.
Where dry or mortar bearings are used large horizontal forces may arise from
temperature and shrinkage effects.
In this example the horizontal force at the bearing may cause cracking close to the end
of the unit, before lcr is reached, see Figure 5.19(d).
If cracking does occur close to the support, the shear resistance is likely to be
exceeded.
5.4.3 Cracking length
σ
σ
σ
Worked example 7
Anchorage length of longitudinal tie bar
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Consider the use of 20 mm size straight bars with C30/37 grout.
lcr = 1080 + 10 x 20 = 1280 mm
Minimum length of 10φ = 10 x 20 = 200 mm.
Use anchorage length = 1280 mm
For example 10 of
Precast Eurocode 2:
Worked Examples29
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Minimum dimensions
The minimum dimensions given in Table 5.3 should apply.
Dimension Minimum dimension (mm)
Thickness of a step or landing 45a
Thickness of a wall 80
Thickness of a parapet 60
Wall thickness of a hollow element 45
Plan dimension of a column 120
Key:
a Special care should be taken to ensure the correct position of the reinforcement
Where precast stair fl ights are used supported on in-situ landings, the landings should
be
cast against the precast fl ight. This avoids the problems of tolerances where precast fl
ights
are placed on in-situ landings previously cast. Temporary propping will also be required
for
the precast stairs, see Figure 5.37. Figure 5.38 shows alternative preferred arrangements
of the reinforcement at the joints.
Table 5.2
Tolerances for stairs.
Table 5.3
Minimum dimensions for stairs.
Dowel connection
To provide suffi cient room for a dowel hole the dimensions of the nib need to be as shown
in Figure 5.41.
Figure 5.42 shows the preferred layout of reinforcement for dowel connections, and
worked example 8 shows a typical calculation.
Figure 5.41
Dimensions to allow for dowel hole.
Figure 5.42
Reinforcement arrangement for dowel
connection.
Worked example 8
Dowel bar for connection of precast stairs
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Consider a 1.5 m wide stair flight spanning 4 m, with a vertical spacing between precast units of 10
mm
and using a 20 mm diameter bar for the dowel. The tying force, FEd required should be at least the
permanent action of the stair flight.
Actions
Assume average vertical thickness of stair flight is (150 + 100)√2 = 350 mm
Self weight of stair flight
FEd = 25 x 0.35 x 1.5 x 4 = 52.5 kN
Resistance
It can be shown that the maximum dowel force, FRd, is
FRd = φb
2.√(fcd.fyd).{√(1 + ε2) - ε}
Worked example 9
Corbel design
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Design ultimate load FEd = 300 kN, fck = 40 MPa, distance to the centre of the tension reinforcement
is assumed to be 45 mm. The width of the corbel is 300 mm, other details are as shown below.
Actions
HEd = 0.2 FEd = 0.2 x 300 = 60 kN
Geometry
y = 175 + 60/300 x 45 = 184 mm
z = √(1842 + 6052) = 632.4 mm
α = sin -1 (120/(2 x 632.4)) = 5.44º
β = tan -1 (184/605) = 16.92º
γ = 90 – 5.44 – 16.92 = 67.6º
z0/d = (184 tan 67.6)/605 = 0.73 < 0.75 ➝ OK
Strut design
Maximum stress in the strut is:
σRd,max = 0.34 fck(1-(fck 250)) = 0.34 x 40 x (1 – 40/250) = 11.4 MPa
For an angle of strut to the horizontal of 67.6º and strut force is:
FEd = 300/sin 67.6º = 325 kN
Hence the stress:
σEd = 326 x 1000/(120 x 300) = 9.1 MPa
σRd,max > σEd ➝ OK
Note: Further iteration could be carried out to maximise the strut efficiency.
Eurocode 2, Exp.(6.56)
300 kN
175
160
60 kN
bc = 300
45
650
400
300
x = 120
Z0
Ftd
67.64
o 605
a) Chosen solution b) Geometry of solution
605
x/2 y
Z
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Worked example 9
Corbel design
Calculated by Job No.
Checked by Sheet No.
Client Date
Reinforcement
The tension force in the reinforcement:
Ftd = Ftd’ + HEd = 300 cot 67.6º + 60 = 183 kN
Area of reinforcement required:
As,req = 183 x 1000/(500/1.15) = 421 mm 2
Try H20 bars:
No. req’d = 421/(π x 202/4) = 1.34
Use 2 H20 bars
Area of secondary links required = 421/2 = 211 mm 2
Try H8 links:
No. req’d = 211/(82 x π/4) = 5.2
Use 5 H8 links
See the figure below for layout of reinforcement in accordance with The Standard Method of
Detailing Structural Concrete32.
2 H20 bars
H32 bar
5 No
H8 links
Construction issues 6
6. Construction issues
The performance of an HCC structure may be affected signifi cantly by the construction
method. In order to achieve consistency between design and construction of structures it
is
important for the designer to include a method statement as part of the project specifi
cation
indicating the assumptions regarding construction. This will bring clarity to the project
and set a benchmark for pricing. The contractor is, of course, free to submit an
alternative
price based on different assumptions, if any, from the original design. In this process,
the
performance criteria agreed with the client should not be compromised.
Although precast elements generally require less propping than in-situ elements, it is
important to note that the forces in the props are also generally higher and therefore
more care is required when considering the temporary works.
Static equilibrium during construction
BS EN 1991-1-6 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures – Part 1-6: General Actions – Actions
during Execution33 and BS 5975, Code of Practice for Formwork34 provide information on
the design of temporary works. The designer should also consider transient situations, for
example the effect of temporary overturning forces during construction. BS EN 1990,
Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design22, Table A1.2(A) describes the load factors that should
be used. Figure 6.1 shows the single arrangement that includes both equilibrium (EQU)
and structural resistance (STR).
6.1 Method of construction
Overturning 1.35* G + 1.5 Q k,f k, c
Resisting 1.15* Gk,b
Gk,b
Qk,c Construction
Gk,f floor
Resistance
beam
* Check that using a factor of 1.0 for both favourable and unfavourable
does not give a more unfavourable effect
Figure 6.1
Temporary loading during construction.
88
6 Construction issues
For type 5 form of construction (see Figure 2.1) the in-situ concrete is used to knit the
precast fl oor and beams together. The support of the precast fl oor should be designed as
a
bearing in the temporary case and, even though the bearing will eventually be part of an
integral system, it will benefi t from neoprene pads beneath the fl oor elements. The
outer
edge of the supporting beam should include a chamfer to eliminate spalling when the
fl oor is loaded onto the precast beam and the full load comes onto the combined system.
The chamfer also gives a visually clean edge to the joint between the precast and in-situ
concrete if the precast unit is ribbed – a double tee for example. The support and
restraint
of the beam onto the column should also be considered in the temporary situation, as
this connection may not be fully made before the in-situ composite concrete is placed.
For construction types 3 and 4, see Figure 2.1, the precast fl oor is supported on some
form of propped system before the in-situ edge beam is poured. The props should be
designed for the construction loading and a means to gradually release the supported load
onto the composite fl oor should be devised with back propping if necessary to support
the fl oors above.
The defl ection of the shuttering of the in-situ edge beam during casting should be
considered.
If the fl oor and edge beam shuttering are supported from separate propping systems
during the pouring of the in-situ concrete the support struts of the in-situ area will
take
up load and may shorten slightly. The fl oor is on a different set of props and will not
shorten as no extra load is applied to it. This can result in cracking of the top of the
fl oor
near to the support as the moment from the wet concrete is applied. To avoid this risk
entirely, the same support system should be used for the fl oor and edge beam shutter,
see Figure 6.2.
A neat lower end to an embedded fl oor unit can be achieved by forming a small groove
in the in-situ concrete. This allows the edge of the in-situ to fi ll properly, avoids the
likelihood of spalling and masks any slight difference in the soffi t level, see Figure
6.3.
a) Separate support systems can cause cracking in precast unit. b) Common support of precast floor and insitu beam.
Figure 6.2
Support for connection.
89
Construction joint
Groove detail
Figure 6.3
In-situ/precast joint showing groove detail.
The preparation of the base is of paramount importance. The surface of the precast units
should be left rough during production and contained shot blasting equipment (which will
avoid damaging the unit) used to prepare the surface, unless it can be shown that there
will be adequate bond. All loose debris should be removed. Where required, the joints
between the units should be grouted at least one day before the screed is placed.
Hollowcore units are manufactured to a 1200 mm module and double tees are normally to
a 2400 mm module. It is possible to introduce narrow units into a layout or units tapered
in plan if the building layout requires it. In the case of hollowcore, these are cut after
manufacture,
but double tees are cast to the required dimensions. In such cases, the manufacturer
will be able to advise on how to detail the special units so that they are suffi ciently
robust
to be delivered and incorporated into the building successfully and to ensure that exposed
soffi ts look acceptable. In the case of long span units, for example, it may be
preferable
to take up a required taper in the last two units rather than have the last unit tapering
excessively. Double tees can also be cast as single tees allowing a greater taper in plan
than can be provided in a double tee unit, see Figure 6.4.
In situations where long and short units are side by side, for example where lift and
stair
cores shorten spans, differential cambers can produce diffi culties. This is particularly
the
case with long span double tees, for example in car parks. A clear span double tee car
park
unit may have a camber of 30 mm whereas the unit next to it, spanning from a common
bearing position at one end to a ramp or stair core, may be 12 m long and have a camber
of 10 mm. This difference in level is usually accommodated in practice by bearing the
non-common end of the shorter span at a higher level than the long span unit, as shown
in Figure 6.5. The designer should consult with the manufacturer to obtain an estimate of
these cambers and mark the drawings accordingly.
6.2 Composite action
between precast units and
in-situ structural topping
6.3 Specially shaped
standard units
Construction issues 6
6.4 Long and short units
adjacent to each other
90
Web
beneath
Key
Figure 6.4
Specially shaped standard units.
6 Construction issues
15 mm camber
30 mm camber
Outer supports at same level
Inner supports set approx. 15 mm
higher to reduce camber step
between long and shorter unit
Figure 6.5
Long and short unit adjacent to each other.
91
Construction issues 6
In some countries, it is considered good practice to jack double tee fl anges at mid-span
to
even out camber differences. This is sometimes carried out by casting loops of
reinforcement
that protrude from the fl anges, vertically at mid-span, which are then used as purchase
points for a crowbar or jack. While the built-in stresses from this process do not affect
the
ultimate strength of the structural system because of plasticity at the ultimate limit
state, it
is not recommended, as it can induce local cracking in the fl anges, see also Section
5.5.4.
Double tee units should always be de-tensioned using release jacks that release all of the
tendons simultaneously and gradually. This is standard practice in the UK, but not
throughout
the world. Engineers should be aware of the different practices and ensure that gradual
release is specifi ed and carried out. Otherwise bond checks should be carried out.
Hollowcore units are almost unique in that they are manufactured in a continuous length
and are sawn to the required length only after the concrete has reached the appropriate
strength. The de-tensioning process only de-tensions the strands at each end gradually
whereas at the saw cuts a gradual release of tendon stress is not possible. The integrity
of
the anchorage bond of the tendons can be checked by examining the ‘pull-in’ of the
strands
at the ends of the unit. Assuming that the anchorage length is in the order of 1000 mm
and that the build-up of strain is linear in that length, as stated in Eurocode 2, a pull-
in
design value of 2 mm can be calculated. However, this does not allow for the thickness of
the saw-cut and in practice the measured pull-in is normally less than 1 mm. Manufacturers
should check pull-in on units routinely and reject any with excessive pull-ins.
On site, hollowcore units are often lifted into their fi nal position using clamp lifting
devices
that clamp onto the sides of the unit near to each end. The clamp arms are of such a width
that a unit cannot be placed exactly next to an already erected adjoining unit; thus, when
the lifting device is removed, the unit has to be moved laterally to close up the gap.
This
is often accomplished by moving the unit, or ‘barring’ it with a crowbar. While this may
not cause damage to a short span light unit, there is a risk of breaking a corner of a
long
span unit.
Manufacturers recognise that barring of long span and heavy units is not good practice and
provide other means of lifting hollowcore units for this situation, e.g. ‘L’ shaped
lifting
arms or lifting loops cast into the hollowcore units. Lifting loops should be used for the
last unit that has to fi t into an exact space. If lifting clamps are used, the unit would
have
to be placed at an angle, resting on the edge of the previously placed unit, while the
clamps
are removed and then barred until it drops into place.
Guidance on the safe practice of barring is given in Code of Practice: For the Safe Erection
of Precast Concrete Flooring and Associated Components 35.
6.5 Differences of camber
in double tees
6.6 Method of de-tensioning
double tee units
6.7 Checking strand or wire
pull-in for hollowcore units
6.8 Placing hollowcore
units into the correct
position
92
6 Construction issues
Production tolerances are specifi ed in BS EN 13369, Common Rules for Precast Concrete
Products2, Cl. 4.3.1.1. For cross–sectional dimensions L, the permitted deviation is ΔL,
and
for position of reinforcing steel, prestressing steel and for the design cover c the
permitted
deviation is Δc. The permitted deviations of cross-sections for structural elements are
reproduced in Table 6.1.
Target dimension of the cross-section in the direction
to be checked
ΔL
(mm)
Δc
(mm)
L ≤ 150 mm + 10
- 5
} 5
L = 400 mm } 15 + 15
- 10
L ≥ 2500 mm } 30 + 30
- 10
Notes:
1. Linear interpolation may be used for intermediate values.
2. ΔL and the positive values of Δc (upper permitted deviation) are given to ensure that deviations in cross-sectional dimensions and in position
of the reinforcement do not exceed values covered by the relevant safety factors in the Eurocodes.
3. The negative values of Δc (lower permitted deviation) are given for durability purposes.
4. In particular, functional specifi cities of the products may require tighter tolerances.
5. The given values may be modifi ed by product standards.
The upper permitted deviation for the location of the reinforcement may be determined as
the mean value of the bars or strands in a cross-section over 1 m in width, e.g. slabs and
walls.
The design cover c of the reinforcement shall be at least the minimum cover, cmin, plus
the permitted deviation , Δcdev, or the producer’s guaranteed deviation, whichever is
lower.
For principal dimensions other than cross-sectional dimensions:
ΔL = } (10 + L/1000) ≤ } 40 mm
where
L is the target size of the linear measure expressed in millimetres
Other types of tolerances may be given by product standards together with the values of
the related permitted deviations, e.g. camber of beams. These values will not include the
deformation effects of any applied load or of prestressing. In the verifi cation of the
measured
deviations, such deviations shall be taken into account by computing their value for the
test situation, including all the relevant time-related effects.
6.9 Production tolerances
Table 6.1
Permitted deviations of cross-section.
93
The soffi t of the slab is above the soffi t of the beam and this zone is used for false
ceiling,
sprinklers, lighting, and the extract air plenum, see Figure 7.12. The zone above the 150
mm
slab is used for the fl oor-based air supply, electrical power and communications. The
raised
fl oor is 300 mm above the beam.
Figure 7.13 shows the fl oor layout during construction.
Floor finish
False ceiling
Lighting, sprinkers and air extraction
Precast concrete radial beams
Air supply, electrical services and communications
950
300
150 650
250
In-situ concrete slab on metal decking
Figure 7.12
Typical section through fl oor zone.
103
References
References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1992-1-1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures-
Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings, BSI, 2005.
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13369, Common rules for precast concrete products,
BSI, 2004.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1168, Precast concrete products - Hollowcore slabs,
BSI, 2005.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13747, Precast concrete products - Floor plates for
fl oor systems, BSI, 2005.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13224, Precast concrete products - Ribbed fl oor
elements, BSI, 2004.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13225, Precast concrete products – Linear structural
elements, BSI, 2004.
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 14992, Precast concrete products – Wall elements:
Production properties and performances, BSI, 2007.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 14843, Precast concrete products – Stairs, BSI, 2006.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 13670, Execution of concrete structures, BSI, due 2008.
10 GOODCHILD, C. and Glass, J. Best practice guidance for hybrid concrete construction. The Concrete
Centre, 2002, Ref. TCC/03/09.
11 THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Hybrid concrete construction. The Concrete Centre, 2005, Ref. TCC/03/010.
12 THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Precast concrete in buildings. The Concrete Centre, 2007, Ref. TCC/03/031.
13 THE CONCRETE CENTRE. Concrete framed buildings. The Concrete Centre, 2006, Ref. TCC/03/024.
14 GOODCHILD, C.H. Economic concrete frame elements. The Concrete Centre, 2008, Ref. CCIP-025.
15 WILFORD, M. and YOUNG, P. A design guide for footfall induced vibration of structures. The Concrete
Centre, 2006, Ref CCIP-016.
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