Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

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 Classification of bonds by difference in electronegativity

Difference Bond Type

0 – 0.4 Covalent
0.5 ≤ and ≤ 1.7 Polar Covalent
> 1.7 Ionic

Increasing difference in electronegativity

Covalent Polar Covalent Ionic

equal sharing of e- unequal sharing of e- transfer e-

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Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract
toward itself the electrons in a chemical bond.

Electronegativity - relative, F is highest

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The Electronegativities of Common Elements

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 The Ionic Bond
Ionic bond: the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an
ionic compound.
Li + F Li+ F -
1s22s1 1s22s22p5 1s2 1s22s22p6
[He] [Ne]
Li Li+ + e-

LiF e- + F F -

Li+ + F - Li+ F -

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 Electrostatic (Lattice) Energy
Lattice energy (U) is the energy required to completely separate
one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions.
E is the potential energy
Q+ is the charge on the cation
Q+Q-
E=k Q- is the charge on the anion
r
r is the distance between the ions

Compound Lattice Energy

(kJ/mol)
Lattice energy increases Q: +2,-1
MgF2 2957
as Q increases and/or
MgO 3938 Q: +2,-2
as r decreases.

LiF 1036
r F- < r Cl-
LiCl 853 7
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A covalent bond is a chemical bond in which two or more
electrons are shared by two atoms.

Why should two atoms share electrons?

F + F F F
7e- 7e- 8e- 8e-

Lewis structure of F2

single covalent bond lone pairs F F lone pairs

single covalent bond

lone pairs F F lone pairs

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Lewis structure of water single covalent bonds

H + O + H H O H or H O H
2e- 8e- 2e-

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As the hydrogen atoms move closer together,
the electron of each atom is attracted to both
its own nucleus and the nucleus of the second
atom. The electron probability distribution
illustrates this relationship.

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Polar covalent bond or polar bond is a covalent
bond with greater electron density around one of the
two atoms

electron rich
electron poor
region
region e- poor e- rich

H F H F
d+ d-

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 Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.
Intramolecular forces hold atoms together in a molecule.

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular
• 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)
• 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra)

“Measure” of intermolecular force

Generally, intermolecular boiling point
forces are much weaker melting point
than intramolecular forces. DHvap
DHfus
DHsub 14
 Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces - the attractive forces that act

between atoms or molecules in a pure substance.

These forces are known collectively as van der Waals

forces, and they include dipole-dipole interactions,
including hydrogen bonding and dispersion forces.

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 Intermolecular Forces

Dipole-Dipole Forces

Attractive forces between polar molecules

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 Intermolecular Forces

Ion-Dipole Forces

Ion-dipole interactions are Coulombic attractions

between ions (either positive or negative) and polar
molecules.

The magnitude of ion-dipole interactions

depends on the charge and the size of
the ion, and on the dipole moment and
size of the polar molecule.

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Interaction Between Water and Cations

in solution
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 Intermolecular Forces
Dispersion Forces
Attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary
dipoles induced in atoms or molecules

ion-induced dipole interaction

dipole-induced dipole interaction 19

Intermolecular Forces

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Induced Dipoles Interacting With Each Other

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 Intermolecular Forces
Dispersion Forces Continued

Polarizability is the ease with which the electron distribution

in the atom or molecule can be distorted.

Polarizability increases with:

• greater number of electrons
• more diffuse electron cloud

Dispersion forces usually

increase with molar mass.

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Example 1
What type(s) of intermolecular forces exist between the
following pairs?

(a) HBr and H2S

(b) Cl2 and CBr4

(c) I2 and

(d) NH3 and C6H6

Example 1
Strategy Classify the species into three categories: ionic,
polar (possessing a dipole moment), and nonpolar. Keep in
mind that dispersion forces exist between all species.

Solution
(a) Both HBr and H2S are polar molecules. Therefore, the
intermolecular forces present are dipole-dipole forces, as
well as dispersion forces.
Example 1
(b) Both Cl2 and CBr4 are nonpolar, so there are only dispersion
forces between these molecules.
Example 1
(c) I2 is a homonuclear diatomic molecule and therefore
nonpolar, so the forces between it and the ion are
ion-induced dipole forces and dispersion forces.

(d) NH3 is polar, and C6H6 is nonpolar. The forces are dipole-
induced dipole forces and dispersion forces.
 Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bond
The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction
between the hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond
and an electronegative O, N, or F atom.
A H…B or A H…A
A & B are N, O, or F

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Example 2
Which of the following can form hydrogen bonds with water?

CH3OCH3

CH4

F−

HCOOH

Na+
Example 2
Strategy A species can form hydrogen bonds with water if it
contains one of the three electronegative elements (F, O, or N)
or it has a H atom bonded to one of these three elements.

Solution There are no electronegative elements (F, O, or N) in

either CH4 or Na+. Therefore, only CH3OCH3, F−, and HCOOH
can form hydrogen bonds with water.
Example 2
Check Note that HCOOH (formic acid) can form hydrogen
bonds with water in two different ways.

HCOOH forms hydrogen

bonds
with two H2O molecules.
• Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

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