Running Head: LEARNING AND LEARNING THEORY 1

Principles of Learning and Learning Theory

Portia Geter

LIS 672 Dr. Chow

University of Greensboro
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Abstract

Learning is a process that involves information, behavior, and skills. Learning begins

before birth and ends at death. It is a notion that occurs on a daily. It involves daily interactions

and personal experiences. This paper explores the basic principles of learning and learning

theories, while applying the use of the ADDIE model to instruction. The principles of learning

are explained through three major learning theories and instructional teaching using Gagne’s

nine steps of instruction.

Learning

Learning theories are a systematized set of ideologies explaining how individuals obtain,

recollect, and recall knowledge. Learning theories give a better understanding of how learning

occurs and the principles can be used as a set of guidelines for instructional design to promote

learning. The three major learning theories is behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

The theory of behaviorism states that everyone begins with a “blank slate” and operates

on the principle of stimulus-response from the environment around them. “Behaviorism

emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, the near exclusion of

innate or inherited factors” (McLeod, 1970). Environmental factors can be positive or negative

reinforcements that can result in a change of learned behavior. Most work conduct with

behaviorism started with animals and then was generalized to humans. There are various forms

of behaviorism.

The theory of cognitivism is also known as cognitive development. “Cognitivism is the

psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or intelligence as a special

endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop intellectually” ("Cognitivism", 2011).
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This theory deals with the principles of how we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism

understanding how learning, memory, problem solving, language development, cultural

differences, and academic achievements can change throughout childhood to adulthood. “Jean

Piaget theorized there are four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational,

concrete operational, and formal operational” ("Cognitivism", 2011). Each stage shows how an

individual develops learning through world interactions throughout life stages.

“Constructivism theory states that people construct their own understanding and

knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences”

(“What is constructivism?”, 2004). The learner is in control of what is learned to enable them to

create their own depiction of reality. New information gained is linked to prior knowledge

resulting in learning. “Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses

of the environment” (“Constructivism”, 2016). Instead of having a “blank slate”, an individual

contributes to learning with past experiences learned through social and everyday interactions.

Teaching

Preparation for teaching includes creating goals, objectives, and assessments. In 1965,

Robert Gagne developed a detailed nine-step instructional process. These nine steps included

gain attention, learning objective, stimulate recall of prior knowledge, present the material,

provide guidance for learning, elicit performance, provide feedback, assess performance, and

enhance retention/transfer. This instructional process has proved to be effective because many

instructors still use the nine steps when developing lesson plans. The process allows room for

improvement, growth and the ability to make sure everything will flow while planning out the

steps to an activity. The process can be considered effective because it gives an option for

formative and/or summative assessment.

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ADDIE Model

Developing an effective foundation that can create and measure learning and teaching is

essential to having effective interactions among the student and instructor. The most common

used tool is the ADDIE model, which consist on five phrases: analyze, design, develop,

implement, and evaluate. Each phrase successive and is efficacious upon the completion of the

previous phrase. This model approach is supportive to designing instructional needs and

providing the necessary feedback for improvement throughout the process. “The educational

philosophy for this application of ADDIE is that the intentional learning should be student

centered, innovative, authentic, and inspirational” (Branch, 2008, p. 2). This intentional learning

can be referred to as being guided, whereas the instructor directs the student using planned

activities to help enhance the learning process.

“The main procedures often associated with the Analyze phrase are validate the

performance gap, determine instructional goals, confirm the intended audience, identify

resources required to complete the entire ADDIE process, determine potential delivery systems,

and compose project management plan” (Branch, 2008, p. 17). The first phrase of ADDIE can

consider to be the most crucial to the process. The analysis process may become overwhelming

in that the instructor must begin researching and understanding learning objectives, what

knowledge is needed for the audience, in addition to what skills already exist for the audience.

Planning and designing will aid in staying on track while developing the instruction.

The Design phase uses a method of identifying, developing, and evaluating instruction

that is needed to obtain the overall goal. “The main procedures often associated with the Design

phrase are conducting a task inventory, compose performance objectives, generate testing

strategies, and calculate return on investment” (Branch, 2008, p. 17-18). This phase is the
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development of specifics that are needed in the implementation of the instructional design. The

next phase is Development. This phrase allows the content that was created in the Design phrase

to become learning modules and techniques. “The main procedures often associated with the

Develop phase are as follows: generate the content, select supporting media that already exist or

develop supporting media for the expressed purpose of this project, develop guidance for the

teacher, develop guidance for the student, conduct formative revisions, and conduct a pilot test”

(Branch, 2008, p. 18). This allows room for feedback that is needed for mistakes to be reviewed

and corrected.

During the Implementation phrase, the main purpose is to prepare. Preparing means the

procedures for the instructor, student, and the learning environment have been developed. The

instructor should have the curriculum, learning goals, and procedures. The student should have

been trained in everything needed for the course, such as materials that are needed or

registration. The learning environment is prepared by making sure the necessary tools are

provided and that everything is functional. The final phrase is Evaluation. “The purpose of the

Evaluate phrase is to assess the quality of the instructional products and processes, both before

and after implementation” (Branch, 2008, p. 18). This phrase can be measured through formative

and summative evaluations.

Learning and Instructional Environments

Being employed in the public library field, one can experience various learning and

instructional environments. The most common learning theory experienced in the library career

field is constructivism. The library puts the individual in control of their learning by providing

the necessary resources. They can gain new knowledge and apply to prior knowledge and
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personal experiences. Library employees are there to enhance the learning experience and teach

new ways an individual may apply to their reality.

Instruction using ADDIE: How to make Muddy Buddies

Making muddy buddies can be a fun and educational learning activity. Starting the

activity with an open conversation about the varieties of trail mixes and experiences involved

with making the snack. Preparation is key with making the trail mix; printing the instructions and

having the proper tools needed for everyone. The learning objective consist of: reading and

following a simple recipe, measuring ingredients, and teamwork to successfully make muddy

buddies. Collectively as a group, talk about the history of trail mixes and compare the different

varieties. (Geter, 2018)

An open discussion allows everyone to respond with their personal experiences and learn

from one another. The task can be completed individually or in groups. Each individual or group

will have step by step instructions that includes an ingredients list with measurements and the

proper tools to be successful. Being able to complete the task with the instructor allows for more

feedback. This makes room for errors to get corrected and answer any questions as needed. Since

every individual learns inversely, the presence of having a PowerPoint presentation with the

instructions provides a visual. The visual may also clear up any confusion on the recipe. (Geter,

2018)

At the end of the process, as a group, everyone can taste one another’s muddy buddies

and provide feedback to each other. Once this is completed, the completion of a quiz that

consisted of question about the measurements, ingredients, and recipe can gage how much was

learned about the process of making muddy buddies. Being hands-on will make great memories
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when trying to recall the steps. Provide copies of different trail mix recipes can encourage the

students to apply the skills learned in making muddy buddies to other mixes and everyday

cooking activities. (Geter, 2018)

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References

Branch, R. M. (2008). Instructional Design: The ADDIE Approach.

doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387- 09506-6

Cognitivism (2011). Retrieved February 18, 2018, from

http://teachinglearningresources.pbworks.com/w/page/31012664/Cognitivism

Constructivism. (2016, September 08). Retrieved February 18, 2018, from https://www.learning-

theories.com/constructivism.html

Geter, P. S. (2018, January 28). Weekly Discussion 3

McLeod, S. (1970, January 01). Saul McLeod. Retrieved February 18, 2018, from

https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html

What is constructivism? (2004). Retrieved February 18, 2018, from

http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/