Suleiman A.

Mourad

CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE:

A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON SOME ARABIC
APOPHTHEGMATA PATRUM

Islamic scholarship records a large number of accounts featuring sayings by

Christian monks (both monastics and ascetics) and their encounters with Mus-
lim ascetics and mystics. On one level, these accounts attest to the fact that the
perception of Christian monks as holy figures in the Near East survived into the
early Islamic period and that they were still acknowledged for their spiritual
authority and aura in Muslim circles, both mystical and non-mystical, well into
the fifth/eleventh century. The continuity of this recognition indicates the degree
of its diffusion among Muslim scholars. On another level, these accounts rein-
force the conclusion that encounters between Christian monks and Muslim
ascetics and early mystics must have played a role in the emergence of particular
attitudes, views and practices within Islamic ascetical and mystical traditions.

IN THE NEAR EAST OF LATE ANTIQUITY, the Christian ascetics and monas-
tics known as the desert fathers were probably unrivalled as figures of
tremendous spiritual authority. Their strict asceticism and renunciation
of the world earned them the praise of laypeople and ecclesiastics alike.
Despite the tension that existed, especially in the fourth century AD,
between the Church and monastic Christianity, ecclesiastical authorities
were often eager to obtain the endorsement of notable ascetics and
monastics and to enlist their names among the fathers of the Church.
This was done by Athanasius (d. AD 373), the bishop of Alexandria, who
wrote on the life of the great Egyptian ascetic, Antony (d. AD 356),1 and
by Theodoret (d. AD 458), the bishop of Cyrrhus, who composed works
on the lives of several renowned ascetics from Syria and Asia Minor.2
The words and deeds of these desert fathers were thus collected and
recorded, most notably, in anthologies entitled Apophthegmata Patrum or
‘Sayings of the fathers.’3 But this genre of literature contains more than

Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies 6, no. 2 (Autumn/Winter 2004) : 00-00
2 Suleiman A. Mourad

the actual words and deeds of these Christian figures: it is also a repos-
itory of ancient Near Eastern wisdom that allowed certain earlier forms
of social wisdom and religious piety and behaviour to be recycled and
relabelled as Christian. In this way, the Christian ascetic or monastic
replaced, at some level, the Greek or Near Eastern sage or philosopher
as a source of dictums that interpreted and commented upon spiritual,
social and political questions.4
The following collection of thirty-five sayings by Christian monks
(here meaning ascetics and/or monastics) found in classical Islamic liter-
ature attests to the fact that their spiritual aura and authority continued
to be recognized by Muslims in the Early Islamic Near East. Despite the
many instances of hostile Christian/Muslim religious polemics on
record,5 the Christian monk was still invoked in Muslim literature for
authoritative sayings, especially with regard to ascetical and mystical
practices and concepts. These sayings may not only be found in books
on asceticism and mysticism, but also in belles-lettres (adab) and wisdom
(¡ikma) literature, indicating the degree of their diffusion in Muslim
scholarly circles.6
To some extent, the debate over whether Islamic asceticism and mys-
ticism emerged within the confines of Islam or originated as a result of
external influences continues to rage in modern scholarship. The two
principal positions are best represented by the views of the late Euro-
pean scholars, Louis Massignon and Tor Andrae. Massignon dismisses
any possible external influenceŒbe it Christian, Iranian, or IndianŒand
asserts that Islamic mysticism is unequivocally Islamic and emanated
exclusively from the Qur¥§n.7 In his words,

the Qur¥an, through constant recitation, meditation, and practice, is the

source of Islamic mysticism, at its beginning and throughout its growth.
Complete recitals (qira¥a) and frequent ‘rereadings’ of the text, which is
considered sacred, were the foundation of Sufism, and from these activ-
ities developed its distinctive characteristics.8

Tor Andrae, however, argues that, even though the Qur¥§n played an
important role in the formulation of the ascetical and mystical vision in
Islam, one cannot dismiss a Christian influence, precisely, the influence
of Christian monasticism.9 Andrae examines a number of encounters
between Christian monks and early Muslim ascetics and mystics that are
reported in Ab¶ Nu†aym’s ⁄ilyat al-awliy§¥ (Ornament of the Muslim
saints) and concludes that the Christian monk, even though he may have
been used, in some cases, as a literary device to enhance the impact of
the sayings,10 nevertheless became an exemplar and moral teacher: thus,
his words convey “a clear Christian imprint.”11
 CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE 3

The collection presented here of anecdotes and sayings featuring

Christian monks, which are taken from Muslim sources not examined by
Andrae, indicates that Muslim ascetics and mystics interacted with
Christian monksŒor, at least, the Muslim sources present them as so
doing. As will be shown below, these Muslim ascetics and mystics were
seeking particular ascetical and mystical knowledge, and legitimization
for the emerging Islamic mystical tradition. They relate sayings by
monks that pertain directly or indirectly to ascetical and mystical con-
cepts and practices. Therefore, even if some of the factors that led to the
emergence of Islamic asceticism and mysticism might be found within
the Qur¥§n, the life of the Prophet and general Islamic tradition, the
encounters between Christian monks and Muslim ascetics and mystics
and the Muslim view of these monks as religious exemplars must also
have played a role not only in the formation of Islamic asceticism and
mysticism, but also in shaping its particular practices and views.
The positive and complimentary image of the Christian monk in
Islamic literature can be contrasted with the often negative and critical
assessment on the part of Muslim theologians and religious scholars of
Christian priests and of Christianity in general. But praise for the monk
does not necessarily translate into praise for Christianity: the monk is
never quoted for any endorsement of Christian theologyŒquite the con-
trary.
Before proceeding further, let us consider what the Qur¥§n says about
monks. The first impression is that the monk (r§hib) is a praiseworthy
figure whose humility elevates the status of his coreligionists and indi-
cates the attributes that they share with Muslims. This may be inferred
from the following verse:

You will find the nearest in affection to the believers [Muslims] those
who say, ‘We are Christians,’ for among them are priests (qiss•s•n) and
monks (ruhb§n) who are free from pride (Qur¥§n 5:82).

Yet, the Qur¥§n also criticizes some monks for their greed and obses-
sion with worldly goods:

O you who believe, there are many among the priests (a¡b§r) and monks
(ruhb§n) who defraud people of their possessions and hinder them from
the path of God (Qur¥§n 9:34).

The Qur¥§n does not, therefore, provide a conclusive endorsement of the

Christian monk. That endorsement comes primarily from the S•ra (Life) of
the Prophet Mu¡ammad, in particular, from the tale of Mu¡ammad’s
encounter with the Syrian monk, Ba¡•r§, who acknowledged him, from
4 Suleiman A. Mourad

the moment that he saw him, as the prophet whose coming Jesus had
prophesied.12 This recognition was embraced by Islamic tradition and
transformed into a discourse which was partly anti-Christian and partly
self-legitimizing. Monks became the embodiment of “true Christians”
who, as Jane McAuliffe puts it, “were those who acknowledged
[Mu¡ammad’s] prophethood and the preeminence of the revelation
accorded to him [and] whose Christianity was but a temporary, inter-
mediate stage on the way to Islam.”13 This conclusion is reinforced by the
present collection, in which the monk is often presented as the ‘true’ fol-
lower of Jesus who knows the ‘correct’ gospel (as in numbers 1, 4-6), as
opposed to the ‘falsified’ gospels, and who considers himself to be,
above all, a Muslim (as in number 4), acknowledging openly that Jesus
prophesied the coming of Mu¡ammad and Islam (as in number 5) and
contradicting the official Christian assertion that he did not.
One must also be careful that the negative characterization of Chris-
tianity in Muslim polemical literature is not taken to reflect its popular
perception among Muslims, especially in those areas where members of
the two communities lived in close proximity. For instance, the Dama-
scene scholar, Y§q¶t al-⁄amaw• (d. AD 1229), reports in his geographi-
cal lexicon, Mu†jam al-buld§n, that the monks at the monastery of Bar
Sawma, near Malatia in Anatolia, sent the Byzantine emperor a yearly
sum of 10,000 dinars14 from donations by Muslim pilgrims who came to
the monastery to fulfil their vows. A cloth-merchant named Murajj§ al-
W§si™• told Y§q¶t that he had vowed, when passing by the monastery,
to donate fifty dirhams15 if he sold for 7000 dirhams merchandise that he
had bought for 5000.16 This anecdote, included by Y§q¶t in the entry on
Dayr (Arabic for ‘monastery’) Bar Sawma, confirms popular Muslim
belief in the value of pilgrimages to Christian monasteries and shrines
for the fulfilment of all kinds of vows.
One should not be surprised to learn that Muslims visited Christian
shrines and holy places, for many Muslims in the Medieval Islamic Near
East were either converts from Christianity or in direct contact with
Christians.17 It is likely that such popular practices were as much super-
stitious as spiritual and involved vows by both Muslim men and women
looking for relief from infertility, ill-health, the evil eye and so on. Pop-
ular beliefs and practices of this sort were harshly criticized and, in fact,
banned by Muslim scholars and the Muslim religious establishment,
which reminds us that members of the Muslim public do not always
allow themselves to be guided by the strict vision of religious scholars.
Although the anecdote in Y§q¶t does not address the question of the
influence of Christian monks on Islamic asceticism and mysticism, it
does serve to establish that they were viewed as authority figures on par
with their Muslim counterparts and thus highlights the influence which
 CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE 5

they enjoyed in medieval Islam and probably still enjoy in some Muslim
countries today.
This collection of anecdotes, several of which feature encounters
between Christian monks and Muslim ascetics or mystics, gives some
indication of the symbolic value of the Christian monk for Muslims and
the purposes that such anecdotes were intended to serve. Needless to
say, many of the arguments presented here remain tentative until more
examples are assembled and analyzed to shed further light on the role
of monks in Islamic scholarship, how they were used to legitimize par-
ticular religious practices and beliefs, and their subsequent impact on
the emergence of particular trends, like Islamic asceticism and mysti-
cism.

Purpose of the Arabic Apophthegmata Patrum

The anecdotes translated below show that encounters between Christian
monks and Muslim ascetics and mystics took place throughout the Mus-
lim world, especially in Iraq and Syria and on Mount Sinai. In most
instances, they occurred in isolated places, although urban centres are
also mentioned. The names given for two monks, ⁄ass§n (see number
16) and Thawb§n (see number 7), are clearly Arabic, so at least some of
the monks were Arabs and not Copts or Syriacs. Nothing more is known
about the identity of ⁄ass§n, Thawb§n or any of the other monks in the
anecdotes below beyond what appears here. The anecdotes name three
monasteries as locations of encounters: ⁄aramla monastery (see num-
bers 2 and 6), the monastery of Bar Sawma in northern Syria (as in the
story reported by Y§q¶t) and a monastery on Mount Sinai (see number
5).
The Muslims mentioned in the anecdotes include: the famous Syrian
ascetic and quasi-mystic, Ab¶ Sulaym§n al-D§r§n• (d. AD 830 CE) (see
numbers 6, 14 and 19), and his disciple, A¡mad ibn Ab• al-⁄aw§r• (d.
AD 845 or 860) (see numbers 6 and 11); the celebrated Iraqi ascetics †Abd
al-W§¡id ibn Zayd (d. ca. AD 750) (see numbers 4, 18 and 22) and
Ibr§h•m ibn Adham (d. AD 777) (see number 12); and the well-known
mystic, Ab¶ al-Q§sim al-Junayd (d. AD 910) (see number 5). When cate-
gorizing Muslim figures as ascetics, we must remember, of course, that
asceticism means something different in Islam than it does in Christian-
ity: most Muslim ascetics have not necessarily viewed asceticism as a
complete way of life requiring total seclusion from society.18 The sayings
of the monks were also repeated by the Meccan traditionist, Sufy§n ibn
†Uyayna (d. AD 811) (see number 21) and the quasi-legendary Yemeni
chronicler, Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. ca. AD 728) (see number 23).19
In the particular case of A¡mad ibn Ab• al-⁄aw§r•, the anecdote
(number 6) shows that his encounter with the monk happened inside of
6 Suleiman A. Mourad

the ⁄aramla monastery, which suggests that he had frequented it and

had been involved in several exchanges with its monks on ascetical and
quasi-mystical topics and practices. Moreover, he reported to his men-
tor, Ab¶ Sulaym§n al-D§r§n•, what had happened to him at the
monastery and what the monk had told him, showing no hint of embar-
rassment that such an encounter had taken place. This is unsurprising
given that al-D§r§n• himself used to eavesdrop on the monks while they
prayed in order to hear what they said (see number 14). Such encounters
were not limited to these two men since we have evidence of similar
ones involving †Abd al-W§¡id ibn Zayd (numbers 4 and 18), al-Junayd
(number 5) and Ab¶ †Amr al-†Att§b• (number 17).
In these encounters, the Muslim figures are invariably seeking spiri-
tual, ascetical, or mystical knowledge from monks perceived as vessels
of wisdom and capable of sharing not only profound reflections, but also
valuable lessons with Muslim seekers. Some of the anecdotes reflect an
interest on the part of the Muslim ascetic or mystic to know something
of the particular habits and practices of the monks. For instance, Zayd al-
⁄imyar• asks Thawb§n why monks always wear black robes. Thawban
replies that it reminds them of disasters, which implies that living in the
material world is tantamount to being afflicted with calamity (see num-
ber 7). In another account, †Abd al-W§¡id ibn Zayd relates an anecdote
in which a monk is asked about the habit of carrying staffs, to which the
monk responds that it reminds his brethren that they are wayfarers in
this world, thus underlining its transience (see number 22).
In other anecdotes, the questions being asked revolve around partic-
ular ascetical and mystical practices. Weeping occurs in several of them.
Sometimes, the weeping of a monk generates a question from a Muslim
ascetic or mystic regarding the practice (see numbers 2 and 8). At other
times, it is the Muslim ascetic or mystic, like Zayd al-⁄imyar•, who
weeps when he remembers the words of a monk and, thus, his own sins
(see number 7). But the most interesting of all of the anecdotes regard-
ing this practice is the one featuring al-Junayd. A monk from a Mount
Sinai monastery informs al-Junayd and his company that their tears
upon hearing the Qur¥§n recited is described in the gospelsŒas if he is
bestowing legitimacy upon this particular Muslim mystical practice (see
number 5).
We also come across anecdotes in which monks are asked about al-
™ar•q or the way to God, al-sur¶r or true happiness, al-ri∞§ or satisfaction
with God’s decree, and al-ikhl§£ or sincerity. These four concepts have
tremendous mystical significance and it is not accidental that we find
references to them in Islamic sources. Interestingly enough, however, it
is the monk who explains them in these anecdotes. A monk who is asked
about the way (al-™ar•q), meaning the road, signals with his hand
 CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE 7

towards the sky, as if to say that God is the only road to salvation (see
number 25). Another monk is asked about the way (al-™ar•q) to God and
answers that, before knowing the way to God, one has to know Him
first (see number 13). The monk who is asked about true happiness (al-
sur¶r) replies that it is attained when one is saved from fear, referring
to the fear that overcomes a person faced not only with death, but with
the realization that the time for repentance is past: he will be judged on
the Day of Judgement according to what he has done (see number 31).
As for the monk who is asked about satisfaction with God’s decree (al-
ri∞§), he replies that it is only achieved when one reacts with the same
joy whether receiving grace or being denied it (see number 33). Finally,
the monk who is asked about sincerity (ikhl§£) answers that it is “obe-
dience without any transgressions and goodness without any wicked-
ness,” that is to say, complete purity in action and intention (see
number 34).
The anecdotes below also show the monks praising the virtues of
reflection and of renouncing this world (see numbers 19, 22-23 and 26),
of the life of celibacy (see number 29) and solitude (see numbers 4, 17,
21, 25 and 32), of remembering one’s sins (see numbers 4, 7 and 32) and
of total reliance on divine providence for one’s daily needs (see numbers
4, 12 and 35). These concepts are equally central to the lexicon of Islamic
asceticism and mysticism so it is understandable that a large number of
these anecdotes emphasize them. For instance, Sa†•d ibn Burayj asks a
monk about his monastery’s holiday and is told that it will occur when
the monks are pardoned of their sins (see number 9). Another monk, on
his way to his retreat on a mountain, is stopped by a group of people
who ask him where he is heading. The monk answers that he is seeking
the good life, meaning a life of seclusion. But the superficial crowd tells
him that the good life is in the city where one finds the best food and
dress and the fulfilment of one’s desires, not in isolation on a mountain.
The monk assures them that the “good life for us is when we enjoin our
desires to obey God and they comply,” thus underlining the distinction
between true worship and the pursuit of ephemeral worldly pleasures
(see number 21).
Sayings that give emphasis to the renunciation of the world, such as
the one in which a monk seeks seclusion because “society is corrupt”
(see number 4), may have further political implications in that they
encourage detachment, especially in times of trouble.
Many of these anecdotes do not describe an encounter between a
Christian monk and a Muslim figure. Instead, they focus upon the
words or actions of the monk as sage. These anecdotes seem to have
been taken from the rich reservoir of Near Eastern wisdom literature:
some of them may even exist, in more or less the same words, in the
8 Suleiman A. Mourad

Christian Apophthegmata Patrum. They show the monk as a spiritual exem-

plar whose words are meant to enlighten and guide. These non-ascribed
anecdotes address several of the ascetical and mystical issues mentioned
above. In addition, one also comes across some curiosities, such as the
anecdote in which a monk is asked why he has not married, to which he
replies that he is preoccupied with collecting the dowry. This may be
interpreted as meaning that his complete devotion to a life of worship and
deprivation accumulates spiritual wealth which ensures him favour in
the hereafter (see number 29). Probably one of the most fascinating anec-
dotes is the one in which the monk is asked if he knows the fate of those
who have died and replies by saying: “A group in heaven and a group in
hell” (see number 27). These enigmatic words seem to indicate that the
purpose of life is to behave in a way that ensures salvation without any
expectation of otherworldly reward. The guiding principle must be sin-
cere devotion to and fear of the CreatorŒnot greed or pride.
Clearly, some of these anecdotes were intended solely to place words
of praise for Islam and Muslims in the mouths of Christian monks.
Monks represented authoritative religious figures capable of affirming
the legitimacy and primacy of Islam, Muslim individuals or groups, and
particular ascetical and mystical practices. For instance, al-⁄asan al-
Ba£r• (d. AD 728), the celebrated and quasi-legendary ascetic and mys-
tic, is likened to Jesus by two monks coming from Syria (see number 3).
In another case mentioned above, the celebrated Baghdadi mystic, al-
Junayd, and his companions receive praise from a Mount Sinai monk,
who informs them that he read about them in the “gospel of Jesus” (see
number 5): this is an obvious endorsement of the mystical practices of al-
Junayd and his group.
Not all of the anecdotes, however, are intended to impart wisdom or
dispense praise. Some are clearly polemical. For instance, we are told
about a monk who was so disappointed with the futility of Christian rit-
uals that he ended up converting to Islam and dying in battle against the
Byzantine Christians (see number 2). Elsewhere, a monk assures the cel-
ebrated ascetic from Ba£ra, †Abd al-W§¡id ibn Zayd, that he is, in fact, a
Muslim and that he opted for a life of seclusion and solitude simply
because Jesus enjoined it (see number 4).
Certain details in some of these anecdotes were apparently edited to
reflect the Muslim world-view, especially with regard to Christianity.
Hence, we find, for example, a mention of the “gospel of Jesus” (see
number 5), instead of the gospels. But this is not systematic as we may
also note references to scripture (see numbers 4 and 6). In one case, the
anecdote is an exact quotation from the New Testament: the story of the
temptation of Jesus (see number 1); in other cases, the details do not
directly correspond to New Testament material (numbers 4-6).
 CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE 9

In summary, the preliminary collection of anecdotes reproduced

below does permit us to draw some tentative conclusions about the
function of the monk in Islamic literature. On one level, the monk is used
to endorse and bestow legitimacy upon Muslim ascetics and mystics
and, by extension, the somewhat contentious issue of Islamic asceticism
and mysticism. The monk is also an embodiment of the eternal sage
whose wisdom transcends time and religious boundaries: Muslims may
obtain knowledge and advice from him without any embarrassment
even though he is a Christian. He is an exemplar sought and visited by
Muslims deeply interested in his life, practices and beliefsŒa life
marked by seclusion, solitude and the renunciation of this world; prac-
tices involving distinctive dress, celibacy and weeping; and beliefs on
such questions as sin, the way to God and divine providence. He is the
‘true’ follower of Jesus, completely aware of the truth about Islam,
Mu¡ammad and Muslim ascetics and mystics, and thus willing to con-
vert without hesitation when he realizes the futility of his own tradition.
All of these points suggest that Islamic asceticism and mysticism could
not have originated in an entirely Muslim context. The Christian monk,
however allegorical, played a role in the formation and early develop-
ment of these movements. This does not segue, however, into an admis-
sion of Christian theological influence simply because these anecdotes
about monks say nothing about Christian theology.
A final point to be made here is that these sources never single out the
monk as the only dispenser of mystical and ascetical knowledge. Indeed,
the wisdom of the monk is generally preceded or followed by similar
anecdotes and sayings involving prominent early Muslims. Yet, the
mere fact that the Christian monk is there alongside such Muslim nota-
bles proves that he was allowed to exercise influence over Muslim read-
ers. Here, the issue of the authenticity of these anecdotes is secondary
and, for the most part, irrelevant. For even if none of these encounters
actually occurred, the fact that they were documented in Islamic schol-
arship indicates two things: first, the monk was accepted as a religious
exemplar, especially on issues relating to asceticism and mysticism; and,
second, the authors of these sources wanted to show that such encoun-
ters actually took place and that valuable lessons were contained in the
words and deeds of Christian monks.20

The anecdotes
A) Monks quoting the New Testament
1. Ab¶ al-Hudhayl said: “I heard a monk say that Satan tested Jesus,
peace be upon him, when he took him to the Temple Mount. He said to
him: ‘You claim that you can raise the dead. If you are honest, then ask
God to turn this mountain into bread.’ Jesus, peace be upon him, replied:
10 Suleiman A. Mourad

‘One does not live by bread alone.’ Again, Satan said to him: ‘If you are
who you claim to be, jump from this place, for the angels will come to
protect you.’ Jesus replied: ‘My Lord commanded me not to put myself
to the test, for I do not know whether or not he will protect me.’”21

B) Monks fighting jih§d

2. Someone said: “While travelling in Syria, I passed by the ⁄aramla
monastery. I saw a monk there whose eyes looked like the two pans of
a scale from weeping. I asked him: ‘What makes you weep?’ He replied:
‘O Muslim, I am weeping because of what I have missed in my life and
because of days passed without my labour achieving anything.’ I went
past by the monastery on another occasion and asked about him. They
answered: ‘He converted to Islam, went on jih§d and was killed in the
land of Byzantium.’”22

C) Praise for the Christian monk, Part I: Direct encounters with Muslim
ascetics and mystics
C1) The monk praising Islam and Muslims:
3. Two monks entered Ba£ra from the direction of Syria. They saw al-
⁄asan al-Ba£ri. One of them said to the other: “Let us stop by this per-
son whose appearance is like Jesus (al-Mas•¡).” They went in his
direction and found him stretched out, with his chin in his hands, and
saying: “I wonder about a group of people who were ordered to prepare
supplies and were called to depart, but were reluctant. I wish that I
knew what they are expecting!”23

4. †Abd al-W§¡id ibn Zayd said: “One day, during one of my wan-
derings, I went down a valley. I saw a monk secreting himself inside one
of the valley’s caves. I was frightened of him and shouted: ‘Are you a
human or jinni?’ He answered me: ‘Why this fear of someone other than
God! I am but a human who has been ruined by his sins, so I fled to my
Lord. I am not a jinni, but an arrogant human.’ I asked him: ‘How long
have you been here?’ He replied: ‘For thirty years.’ I asked: ‘Who keeps
you company?’ He replied: ‘The beasts.’ I asked: ‘What is your food?’ He
answered: ‘Al-ba¡r, meaning what the earth produces.’ I asked: ‘Do you
not miss people?’ He replied: ‘Actually, I ran away from them.’ I asked:
‘Are you a Muslim?’ He answered: ‘Indeed, I know no other religion, but
Jesus (al-Mas•¡), peace be upon him, enjoins, in one of the books of scrip-
ture, seclusion and the solitary life when society is corrupt.’” †Abd al-
W§¡id ibn Zayd said: “By God, I envied him his place there.”24

5. Al-Junayd was once on Mount Sinai with a group of his disciples.

A Qur¥§n reciter was with them. He was reciting and they lamented,
 CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE 11

wept and grieved. Suddenly, a monk called to them from his cell: ‘By
God, can you speak to me?’ When they had finished and stopped
lamenting, a disciple of al-Junayd said: ‘O master, this monk is calling to
us to visit him.’ Al-Junayd and his disciples went up to him in his moun-
tain cell. When they entered the cell, the monk asked them: ‘Who among
you is the master?’ They signalled toward al-Junayd. He then asked al-
Junayd: ‘O master, in your religion, does this thing that you were doing
have certain conditionsŒor can anyone do it?’ Al-Junayd answered:
‘No, it is preconditioned to some extent by the renunciation of this
world.’ The monk then said: ‘I read in the gospel of Jesus, peace be upon
him, that when a select group of the nation of Mu¡ammad, God’s praise
and peace be upon him, hears the recitation, they weep. They are the
true ascetics in this world.’ And the monk mentioned their description,
dress and some of their affairs.25

C2) The Muslim ascetic or mystic seeking knowledge from the monk:
6. A¡mad ibn Ab• al-⁄aw§r• once said: “I saw a monk in the
⁄aramla monastery. He said to me: ‘We find in our scripture that the
body of the son of man was created from earth, but his soul from
heaven. If he softens his body, provides it with drink and food, and
gives it sleep and rest, he then longs for the place from which his body
was created. Nothing will be more desirable to him than this world. But
if he accustoms it to hunger and thirst, forces it to stay up at night and
physically exhausts it, he then yearns for the place from which his soul
was created. Nothing will more desirable to him than heaven.’ I asked
him: ‘If he does that, would he receive a swift reward in this world?’ He
replied: ‘Yes, indeed. The reward would be in the form of a light that
guides him.’ I told this story to Ab¶ Sulaym§n al-D§r§n• and he was
impressed by it.26

7. Zayd al-⁄imyar• said: “I asked Thawb§n, the monk: ‘Tell me, why
do Christian monks dress in black? What does it mean?’ He replied: ‘It
is because it is the closest to the dress of people who have been struck by
disaster.’ I asked him again: ‘Have all of you monks been afflicted with
disaster?’ He replied: ‘May God have mercy on you. Is there a disaster
bigger than the disaster of sins upon the people who commit them?’”
Zayd said: “Every time I recall those words of his, I weep.”27

8. Al-†Utb• said: “Once, I passed by a monk who was weeping. I

asked him: ‘What makes you weep?’ He replied: ‘It is because of some-
thing that I became aware of, but failed to pursue; and because of a day
that passed and shortened my life, but did not diminish my hope in this
world.’”28
12 Suleiman A. Mourad

9. Sa†•d ibn Burayd al-Nabb§j• said: “I asked a monk: ‘O monk, when

is the holiday [i.e., saint’s day] of this monastery?’ He replied: ‘It is when
its dwellers are pardoned.’”29

10. Qad•m al-Daylam• said that he was told by an ascetic named Ab¶
al-⁄asan, who visited him in Bukhara, that a monk once said to him:
“Truly, those who seek God with their labour and worship are not
turned away even though they know that He can be vengeful. Truly,
their perseverance and exhaustion do not matter to them because of
their desire to enter under His protection and their aspiration to give
Him satisfaction.” Ab¶ al-⁄asan said to him: “Give me a helpful lesson.”
The monk replied: “There remain plenty of lessons for you and for us,
even if we follow all lessons.” Ab¶ al-⁄asan said: “How is that?” The
monk replied: “The disintegration of bodies and organs after their
peak.” Abu al-⁄asan said: “How does this relate to what I have asked
you?” The monk wept and said: “The constant change in a human’s con-
dition over time leads to death and the end of all actions.”30

11. Ibn Ab• al-⁄aw§r• said: “I saw a monk carrying two shoulder
bags, collecting pebbles in them. I asked him: ‘What are these?’ He
replied: ‘If I mention my Lord, I place a pebble into the bag in front. But
if I mention people, I place a pebble into the bag in back. At the end of
the day, I count the pebbles in each bag. If they are equal [in number] or
the ones in the Lord’s bag are more, then I break my fast. But if the peb-
bles in the people’s bag are more, I keep my fast until the next day.’”31

12. Ibr§h•m ibn Adham said: “I asked a monk: ‘From where do you
get your food?’ He replied: ‘I have no knowledge of this: you had better
ask my Lord from whence He feeds me.’”32

13. Ab¶ ⁄az•m said: “I asked a monk: ‘Where is the way (al-™ar•q) to
God?’ He replied: ‘If I knew Him, I would know the way to Him.’ I
asked him: ‘Do I worship someone whom I do not know?’ He replied: ‘O
⁄an•f• [that is, Muslim], do you ever disobey one whom you do not
know?’”33

C3) The Muslim ascetic or mystic reflecting on the words of the monk:
14. Ab¶ Sulaym§n al-D§r§n• said: “I heard a monk praying in his cell
and saying: ‘Praise be to He who takes no comfort from those who are
living and who is not distressed by those who have died.’”34

15. Al-†Att§b• said: “One day, while passing by a monastery, I heard a

monk calling out to me. I looked up at him and he said: ‘Woe unto you.
 CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE 13

Assuming that the sinner has been pardoned, do you not think that he
will miss out on the divine reward to the righteous?’”35

16. Al-Mufa∞∞al ibn Sa†•d said: “Once ⁄ass§n, the monk, saw me. He
said: ‘Look, do not extinguish the lamp in your house, for thieves will
enter it.’ He meant: ‘Illuminate your house through the remembrance of
God.’”36

17. Al-†Att§b• said: “While passing by a monastery, I called, ‘O monk!’

No one answered me. So I called, ‘O head of the monastery!’ At once, a
man came out and looked toward me. I asked him: ‘Why did you not
answer my first call?’ He replied: ‘Because you called me by other than
my name.’ I asked him: ‘So what is your name?’ He replied: ‘My name
is the biting dog. I locked myself up in this place so that I do not bite peo-
ple.’”37

18. †Abd al-W§¡id ibn Zayd said: “I passed by a monk sitting in his
cell. I said to my companions: ‘Stop.’ I called out to him, saying: ‘O
monk!’ He pulled aside the drape at the door of his cell and said: ‘O †Abd
al-W§¡id ibn Zayd, if you aspire to acquire the knowledge of certainty
(†ilm al-yaq•n), you need to create a wall of iron between yourself and
desires,’ and he released the drape.”38

D) Praise for the Christian monk, Part II: Religious exemplar for Mus-
lim ascetics and mystics
19. Ab¶ Sulaym§n al-D§r§n• said: “A man met a monk and asked him:
‘O monk, how do you see this world?’ He replied: ‘It creates bodies and
renews hopes, but then distances aspiration and brings death near.’ The
man asked again: ‘How do you see its people?’ The monk replied: ‘He
who wins over it is praised, but he who misses it is troubled.’ The man
asked again: ‘What liberates us from it?’ The monk replied: ‘Giving up
hope of it.’ The man said to him: ‘Which companion is the most right-
eous and trustworthy?’ The monk replied: ‘Good and pious work.’ The
man asked: ‘Is there an escape?’ The monk answered: ‘By following the
right path.’ The man said: ‘And what is that?’ The monk replied: ‘To
endeavour relentlessly and renounce rest.’ The man then said: ‘Give me
helpful advice.’ The monk replied: ‘I just did.’”39

20. ⁄ass§n ibn †A™iyya said: “It is desirable to say ‘amen’ after the
prayers of monks, for the answers to their prayers are granted to you,
but not to them.”40

21. Sufy§n ibn †Uyayna said: “A group of people saw a monk going
14 Suleiman A. Mourad

towards the mountain. They said to him: ‘Where are you going?’ He
replied: ‘I am seeking the good life.’ They said to him: ‘But you are leav-
ing the good life behind you!’ He asked them: ‘What do you consider the
good life?’ They replied: ‘Food, dress and desires.’ He said: ‘It is not like
that for us. The good life for us is when we enjoin our desires to obey
God and they comply.’”41

22. †Abd al-W§¡id ibn Zayd said: “Once a monk was asked: ‘Why do
you monks habitually carry staffs?’ He replied: ‘To remind ourselves
that we are wayfarers in this world.’”42

E) From the Arabic Apophthegmata (non-attributed sayings)

23. Wahb ibn Munabbih said: “A man came to a monk and asked him:
‘O monk, how do you see death?’ The monk replied: ‘Every step that I
take, I feel that death is about to seize me.’ The man asked him: ‘How do
you worship God?’ The monk replied: ‘I cannot see how those who have
heard of heaven and hell can ignore their prayers for a moment!’ The
man said: ‘When I pray, I do not budge until my eyes gush with heavy
tears.’ The monk said: ‘It would serve you better if you laughed instead
and admitted your guilt, rather than weeping and being arrogant about
the virtue of your worship, for the prayer of the arrogant person does
not reach God.’ The man said: ‘Give me helpful advice.’ The monk
replied: ‘My advice to you is to renounce this world and never compete
with those who seek it. Be like a bee that eats nectar and makes nectar
and, when it lands on a bud, does not damage or break it. My advice to
you is to call people to God and to be like a dog that is rewarded and
abused by his owners, but always protects them.’”43

24. Someone said: “I asked a monk: ‘Give me helpful advice.’ He

replied: ‘All advice comes down to one statement.’ I asked him: ‘What is
that?’ He replied: ‘Devote yourself to obeying Him [God] and you will
find that you have acquired all counsel and sermons.’”44

25. A group of travellers lost the road. They came across a monk who
had secluded himself. . . . They called out to him and he came out and
looked at them. They said: “We are lost. Can you show us the way (al-
™ar•q)?” He replied: “Here it is,” and signalled with his hand toward the
sky. They realized what he meant and said to him: “We would like to
ask you [some questions]. Would you answer us?” He replied: “Ask, but
be brief, for today will never come again and life will not return, and I
have affairs to attend to.” They asked him: “What will be the condition
of the people before their Lord on the Day of Judgement?” He replied:
“It will be according to their intentions.” They asked again: “What is our
 CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE 15

fate?” He replied: “What you have prepared for.” They asked again:
“Give us helpful advice.” He replied: “Take provisions appropriate to
your journey, for the best provisions are the ones that get you to your
destination.” Then he showed them the way and went back to his life of
solitude.45

26. A monk was asked: “What causes humanity to ignore God almighty
even after they come to know Him?” He replied: “What causes them to
ignore God is their love of this world, for this world is the treasure of dis-
obedient people and from it spring the wells of corruption. They can only
reach Him when they ignore it.”46

27. A monk was asked: “Do you have any knowledge about those
who died?” He replied: “Yes, a group in heaven and a group in hell.”47

28. A monk was asked: “Who is the most miserable?” He replied: “He
who leaves this world having no chance in the next world.”48

29. A monk was asked: “Why do you not marry?” He replied: “I am

collecting the dowry.”49

30. Another monk was asked: “Who is the most fortunate?” He

replied: “He who leaves this world with anything, however small, that
pleases God. And a scholar who is stubborn is better than a just person
who is ignorant.”50

31. A monk was asked: “What is true happiness (al-sur¶r)?” He

replied: “Safety from fear when one’s fate comes near.”51

32. A monk was asked: “When does a person know the way to
heaven?” He replied: “When he seeks refuge from all else in his Lord,
endeavours to obey and be satisfied with God’s decree, dwells in moun-
tains and gorges, and reminds himself constantly of his previous sins,
neither needing nor seeking anything else.”52

33. A monk was asked: “What is satisfaction with God’s decree (al-
ri∞§)?” He replied: “It is when disappointment at rejection equals the
sweetness of receiving grace.”53

34. A monk was asked: “What is sincerity (al-ikhl§£)?” He replied: “An

obedience without any transgressions and goodness without any
wickedness.”54
16 Suleiman A. Mourad

35. Someone said: “I passed by a monk and asked him: ‘From where
do you get your food?’ He replied: ‘From the threshing floor of the expe-
rienced compassionate [God], who has created the mill and provides it
with grain,’ and he signalled with his hand to his teeth [in other words,
his teeth are the mill].”55

NOTES
1
See, for example, Henry Chadwick, The Church in Ancient Society (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2001), 401.
2
See, for example, William Harmless, Desert Christians: An Introduction to the Lit-
erature of Early Monasticism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 426-27.
3
On the Apophthegmata Patrum, see Benedicta Ward, The Sayings of the Desert
Fathers (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1975); and Harmless, Desert Chris-
tians.
4
I do not mean that there were no differences between the two groups. Clearly,
the early Christian ascetic or monastic was different from the Greek and Near East-
ern sage or philosopher in that the former sought isolation from the civilized world
and thus minimized all contact with society, whereas members of the latter group are
generally perceived to have been teachers and involved in their respective societies
in that capacity. One can add, too, that Christian ascetics and monastics were pri-
marily preoccupied with religious issues. Therefore, even though all were treated as
‘dispensers’ of wisdom, the wisdom so dispensed was not necessarily the same,
although it overlapped in certain respects.
5
For an examination of Muslim polemical literature against Christians and
Christianity, see Gabriel S. Reynolds, Muslim Theologian in the Sectarian Milieu: †Abd
al- Jabbar and the Critique of Christian Origins (Leiden: Brill, 2004). For an examination
of Christian polemical literature against Islam and Muslims, see John V. Tolan, Sara-
cens: Islam and the Medieval European Imagination (New York: Columbia University
Press, 2002).
6
Obviously, Islamic scholarship also documents a large number of sayings, espe-
cially gnomologia, attributed to ancient Hellenistic figures. For an examination of
gnomic literature in Islamic scholarship, see Dimitri Gutas, Greek Wisdom Literature in
Arabic Translation: A Sudy of the Graeco-Arabic Gnomologia (New Haven, CT: American
Oriental Society, 1975).
7
Louis Massignon, Essay on the Origins of the Technical Language of Islamic Mysti-
cism, translated by Benjamin Clark (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press,
1997), 94-98. For similar assertions, see Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of
Islam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978), 23-29.
8
Massignon, Essay on the Origins, 73.
9
See Tor Andrae, In the Garden of Myrtles: Studies in Early Islamic Mysticism, trans-
lated by Birgitta Sharpe (New York: State University of New York Press, 1987), 7-32.
10
Ibid., 11.
11
See Ibid., 12.
12
On the story of Ba¡•r§, see †Abd al-Malik Ibn Hish§m, Al-S•ra al-nabawiyya,
edited by Mustafa al-Saqqa et al. (Beirut: Dar al-Khayr, 1990), 1:147-49. On Ba¡•r§, see
Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2d ed. (Leiden: Brill, 1954-2003), 1:921b-23a.
13
See Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Qur¥anic Christians: An Analysis of Classical and
Modern Exegesis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 289. McAuliffe is
not referring to exclusively Christian monks, but rather what she describes as
Qur¥anic Christians. For her examination of Christianity in the Qur¥anic exegetical
tradition, see 204-39.
 CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE 17

14
The d•n§r (from Latin denarius) was the most valuable gold coin used as currency
in the medieval Islamic world: see G. C. Miles, “Dinar,” Encyclopedia of Islam, 2d ed.,
2:297a-99a.
15
The dirham (from Greek drakhma) was the silver currency used in the medieval
Islamic world. Depending upon the period, it ranged in value from 1/10 to 1/30 of a
d•n§r: see G. C. Miles, “Dirham,” Encyclopedia of Islam, 2d ed., 2:319a-20a.
16
Y§q¶t, Mu†jam al-buld§n, 2:500. For full bibliographical information on this and
other Arabic sources for the anecdotes given in this paper, please see the list of “Pri-
mary Sources Cited” appearing after these endnotes.
17
On the issue of conversion, see Richard Bulliet, Conversion to Islam in the Medieval
Period (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979).
18
On the meaning of asceticism (zuhd) in Islam, see Leah Kinberg, “What is meant
by zuhd?,” Studia Islamica 61 (1985) : 27-44.
19
For further information on these individuals, see Alexander Knysh, Islamic Mys-
ticism: A Short History (Leiden: Brill, 2000); and their separate entries in the Ency-
clopaedia of Islam, 2d ed.
20
Obviously, once a larger number of sayings involving the Christian monk have
been collected and examined, it will be essential to undertake a fuller discussion of
their Muslim sources and the authors of these sources.
21
Ibn ⁄anbal, Kit§b al-Zuhd, 95-6 (no. 314). This is one of the earliest Arabic ver-
sions of the temptation of Jesus story, which is found in Matthew 4:1-11 and Luke 4:1-
13.
22
Ibn Qutayba, †Uy¶n al-akhb§r, 2:297; and Ibn †Abd Rabbih, Kit§b al-†iqd al-far•d,
3:167.
23
Al-Mubarrad, Al-Kit§b al-k§mil, 57; and al-Mun§w•, Al-Kaw§kib al-durriyya,
1:1:255.
24
Ab¶ Bakr al-D•nawar•, Kit§b al-muj§lasa, 2: 614-15.
25
Bernd Radtke, ed. Adab al-mul¶k, 68.
26
Ibid., 21. The reference to scripture here is not to the Bible.
27
Ibn Qutayba, †Uy¶n al-akhb§r, 2:297; Ibn †Abd Rabbih, Kit§b al-†iqd al-far•d, 3:167;
and Ab¶ Bakr al-D•nawar•, Kit§b al-muj§lasa, 2:539 (minor variations).
28
Ibn †Abd Rabbih, Kit§b al-†iqd al-far•d, 3:168.
29
Ab¶ Bakr al-D•nawar•, Kit§b al-muj§lasa, 1:209.
30
Ab¶ Nu†aym, ⁄ilyat al-awliy§¥, 10:136-7.
31
Al-⁄ak•m al-Jusham•, Kit§b al-saf•na, 4:f. 56.
32
Ibid., 4:ff. 53-4; and Warr§m, Tanb•h al-khaw§™ir, 2:109.
33
Al-⁄ak•m al-Jusham•, Kit§b al-Saf•na, 4:ff. 55-6.
34
Ab¶ Bakr al-D•nawar•, Kit§b al-Muj§lasa, 1:141-42.
35
Ibid., 1:359.
36
Ibid., 2:614.
37
Ibid., 1:359-60.
38
Ab¶ Nu†aym, ⁄ilyat al-awliya¥, 5:155.
39
Ab¶ Bakr al-D•nawar•, Kit§b al-Muj§lasa, 1:358-59; Ibn †Abd Rabbih, Kit§b al-†iqd
al-far•d, 3:173-74; and al-⁄ak•m al-Jusham•, Kit§b al-Saf•na, 4:f. 53.
40
Ab¶ Bakr al-D•nawar•, Kit§b al-Muj§lasa, 2:716.
41
Ibid., 2:613-14.
42
Ibid., 2:540. See, also, Ibid., 2:1158, and Ibn Qutayba, †Uy¶n al-akhb§r, 2:323. In the
latter, the anecdote is ascribed to a sage, which might indicate a possible transfer of
authority from the sage to the monk or vice versa.
43
Ibn ⁄anbal, Kit§b al-zuhd, 149 (no. 500).
44
Ibn Qutayba, †Uy¶n al-akhb§r, 2:368.
45
Ibid., 2:368; Ibn †Abd Rabbih, Kit§b al-†iqd al-far•d, 3:167; Ab¶ Bakr al-D•nawar•,
Kit§b al-muj§lasa, 2:540-41; and al-⁄ak•m al-Jusham•, Kit§b al-saf•na, 4:f. 56 (partial).
46
Al-⁄ak•m al-Jusham•, Kit§b al-saf•na, 4:f. 55.
18 Suleiman A. Mourad

47
Ibid., 4:f. 56.
48
Ibid.
49
Ibid.
50
Ibid.
51
Ibid., 4:f. 54.
52
Ibid.
53
Ibid., 4:f. 56.
54
Ibid.
55
I have lost the reference to the source from which I have derived this anecdote,
but I like it so much that I am including it here.

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CHRISTIAN MONKS IN ISLAMIC LITERATURE 19