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With our sincere devotion and reverence, we dedicate this project to our
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ABSTRACT
During project work considerable efforts have been endured upon analysis and design of
prestressed concrete girder bridge. In this project work the prestressed concrete girder bridge,
already constructed near Islamabad on motorway, is selected for analysis and design work with
slight variation in data. Standard AASHTO HL-93 traffic loading is followed for the analysis of
bridge prestressed concrete girder as it is widely used for the design of prestressed concrete
girder bridges. Detailed analysis and design of prestressed concrete girder is presented in this
thesis in an organized way. The reinforced concrete deck slab has been designed by employing
imperial design method. It is expected that this design work will give a true picture of design
process the beginners and practicing engineers.
M.Nouman Amjad
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am greatly indebted to our "Project advisers" Prof. Dr. Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi
and Prof.Dr.Afzal Javed ” for providing me the most valuable guidance and
advice. Their encouragement was the main source of strength that
stimulatedme to complete the thesis in the extremely limited time available to
me.
I wish to express our thanks to Engr. Umair Saleem and Engr Hisham
Jahangir Lecturers, Civil Engineering Department, UET Lahore for their support
during the project work.
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BASICS 1
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES 2
1.2.1 BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION 2
1.2.2 BASED ON SPAN LENGTH 2
1.2.3 BASED ON STRUCTURAL FORMS 3
1.2.3.1 SLAB BRIDGES 3
1.2.3.2 PRE-STRESSED PRE-CAST GIRDER BRIDGES 3
1.2.3.3 TRUSS BRIDGES 4
1.2.3.4 RIGID FRAME BRIDGES 5
1.2.3.5 ARCH BRIDGES 5
1.2.3.6 CABLE STAYED BRIDGES 6
1.2.3.7 SUSPENSION BRIDGES 6
1.2.3.8 BOX GIRDER BRIDGES 7
1.2.4 BASED ON SPAN TYPE 8
1.2.5 BASED ON LOAD PATH 8
1.2.6 BASED ON USAGE 8
1.2.7 BASED ON POSITION 8
1.2.7.1 BASCULE BRIDGE 9
1.2.7.2 LIFT BRIDGE 9
1.2.7.3 SWING BRIDGE 9
1.3 PARTS OF BRIDGE 9
1.3.1 SUPER STRUCTURE 9
1.3.2 SUB STRUCTURE 9
1.3.3 ABUTMENTS 9
1.3.4 APPROACH ROAD 10
1.3.5 BRIDGE DECK 10
1.3.6 STRINGERS 10
1.3.7 FLOOR BEAMS 10
1.3.8 WEARING SURFACE 11
1.3.9 DIAPHRAGM 11
1.3.10 PIERS 11
1.3.11 EXPANSION JOINTS 11
1.3.12 BRIDGE BEARINGS 11
3. PRESTRESSING TECHNIQUE 18
3.1 PRESTRESSING 18
3.2 ADVANTAGES OF PRE-STRESSING 19
3.3 EFFECTS OF PRESTRESSING 19
3.4 METHODS OF PRESTRESSING 19
3.4.1 PRE-TENSIONING 20
3.4.2 POST-TENSIONING 20
3.4.2.1 BASIC OPERATION OF POST-TENSIONING 20
3.5 LOADING STAGES OF PRE-STRESSED (POST TENSIONING) CONCRETE MEMBER 21
3.6 PRESTRESSING STEEL 22
3.7 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE PRESTRESSING STEEL STRESSES 22
3.7.1 ACI MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE PRESTRESSING STEEL STRESSES (ACI 18.5.1) 22
3.7.2 AASHTO MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE PRESTRESSING STEEL STRESSES
(AASHTO 5.9.3) 22
3.8 CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION 23
3.9 PRESTRESSED FLEXURAL MEMBERS 24
3.9.1 CLASS U MEMBERS 24
3.9.2 CLASS T MEMBERS 24
3.9.1 CLASS C MEMBERS 24
3.10 ACI PERMISSIBLE CONCRETE STRESSES 24
3.10.1 ACI LIMITING STRESS VALUES FOR CLASS U MEMBERS 25
3.11 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BEHAVIOR OF PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED
CONCRETES 25
3.12 TENDON PROFILE 25
3.13 FLEXURAL STRESSES AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF LOADING 26
3.13.1 STAGE 1-A: ONLY Pi IS ACTING 26
3.13.2 STAGE 1-B: Pi AND SELF WEIGHT 26
3.13.3 STAGE 2: Pe AND SELF WEIGHT 27
3.13.4 STAGE 3: Pe, SELF WEIGHT AND SERVICE LOAD 28
3.14 LOSS OF PRESTRESS 28
3.14.1 INSTANTANEOUS LOSSES 29
3.14.1.1 LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION 29
3.14.1.2 LOSSES DUE TO ANCHORAGE SLIP 31
3.14.1.3 LOSSES DUE TO ELASTIC SHORTENING 31
3.14.2 TIME DEPENDENT LOSSES 32
3.14.2.1 LOSSES DUE TO CREEP OF CONCRETE 32
3.14.2.2 LOSSES DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE 33
3.14.2.3 LOSSES DUE TO RELAXATION OF STEEL 33
6. CONCLUSIONS 95
REFERENCES 96
STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BASICS
“A structure that spans an opening or gap, 6 m or larger, such as: a water way (river, canal
etc), a valley, another roadway or railway lines is called a bridge. Further the term bridge is
used for the structures built to continue traffic load, pedestrian traffic or utility lines across a
gap in a road way.” (Ref. AASHTO 1.2)
Communication by air
Communication by waterways
Communication by land
Communication by means of air travel is expensive and few people can afford this mean
of transportation. Also Pakistan cannot afford to have aviation facilities all over the country.
Keeping in mind Pakistan’s Geographical location, every nook and corner of our country
cannot be reached by waterways alone. This brings us to the third option of traveling on land.
Communication on land comprises essentially of 2 components:
Communication by Highways
Communication by Railways
be made continuous and this is done by the use of flyovers. Without the use of bridges and
flyovers no highway system is complete.
i. Material of Construction
ii. Span Length
iii. Structural Forms
iv. Span Type
v. Load Paths
vi. Usage
vii. Position
Following are the main types of bridges according to the material of construction.
i. Steel Bridges
ii. Reinforced Concrete Bridges
iii. Pre-Stressed Concrete Bridges
iv. Timber Bridges
v. Advanced Composite Materials
[2]
Chapter 1 Introduction
This is the simplest type of bridge where the deck slab serves as a main load
carrying member. The slab is supported directly on embankment or substructure Fig.1.1. This
type of construction is considered suitable for culverts and small bridges up to span of about 8m.
Although the thickness of slab is considerable (≈ 600 mm), the construction of this type of bridge
works out to be economical because of simple arrangement and less expensive formwork.
Where the erection of temporary form-work is prohibited and working periods are
limited, pre-cast concrete can be used with advantage. The piers and abutments are constructed
first and pre-cast concrete beams (or in some cases pre-cast concrete arch ribs) which are
[3]
Chapter 1 Introduction
generally I-beams are erected upon these. These I-beams are lifted with the help of heavy cranes
as shown in Fig. 1.2.
[4]
Chapter 1 Introduction
This type of bridge consists of number of parallel longitudinal girders (or solid
slabs) which are rigidly connected to the supporting columns or piers as shown in Fig 1.4. The
decking and the supporting substructure are normally cast together monolithically. Generally this
type of bridge is not found economical for spans less than 10 m, up to 20 m span it can be used.
For this type of bridges abutment should be strong enough to resist the thrust of
the bridge arch. This type of construction offers advantage of large head rooms for navigation
and is considered to be an aesthetically pleasing Bridge form. For very large spans the use of
girder bridges becomes uneconomical and arch bridges can be economically used. This bridge
can be economically used up to span of about 200 m. a typical truss bridge is shown in Fig. 1.5.
[5]
Chapter 1 Introduction
This type of bridge is considered suitable for spans varying from 200 m to 600 m.
The main components of the bridge are:
Towers
A number of high tensile steel cables
Deck made out of concrete or steel spanning across the stiffened girders.
In this type of bridge the deck is supported by a number of cable (provided in two parallel
planes) connected to the towers as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. The aim of using multiple cables is to
provide support to deck at closer intervals thereby resulting in closer spacing of deck girders and
hence achieving reduced depth of the decking. The cables can be arranged to meet in the form of
bunch at tower or they may meet tower at different levels.
Since the cables supporting the deck are provided above the deck, this type of bridge
needs no intermediate piers to support the deck. Thus this bridge provides obstruction free large
spans and high clearance permitting navigation of large ships. The height of tower is the most
important consideration. The ratio of height of tower to central span is generally taken as 0.2.
The towers may be constructed of steel or concrete.
This type of bridge is considered to be most suitable for spans varying between
400 to 1200 m. The main components of a suspension bridge are:
[6]
Chapter 1 Introduction
Towers
High tensile steel flexible cable
Anchorage
Suspenders made up of high tensile steel wires and
Deck of concrete or steel spanning across the stiffened girders.
In these types of bridges the cable are supported on towers and each cable is anchored to
anchorage blocks at both ends. The deck is attached to steel suspenders which transfer the load
from the deck to the cable supported on towers, when the bridge is completed; the cables acquire
more or less parabolic shape as shown in Fig. 1.7.
This type of bridge constructed for long spans where the use of ordinary
prestressed concrete girders results in an excessive depth and the area of the main reinforcement
becomes so large that it can become difficult to accommodate the bars in the main girder.
Depending upon the width of carriage way and the loading condition, the bridge can have a
single box girder or two or more box girders.
This type of bridge consists of a top slab that is normally wider than the box girder. The
box girder consists of vertical webs and bottom slab usually as broad as the out to out width of
the girder web as shown in Fig. 1.8.
[7]
Chapter 1 Introduction
These are the bridges which are constructed for airport runways, pipe lines and
conveyors.
Moveable bridges are used for roads where the bridge level is not sufficiently higher than
the water level to allow navigation through the water course. There are three types of moveable
bridges.
i. Bascule Bridge
[8]
Chapter 1 Introduction
In this type of bridge, the entire or half span opens upwards by rotaing at the end
support. These are used for shorter spans but provide maximum vertical clearance for the water
course.
This type of bridge moves as a whole in vertical direction over towers at both
ends. This type of bridge is used for larger spans but relatively lesser clearance over water
surface.
A swing bridge rotates in a horizontal plane about a centre pivot or turn table
provided over a central pier constructed within the waterway.
This is the portion of bridge above the bridge bearings. In an ordinary reinforced concrete
bridge this includes the slab, beams, and guardrails etc.
This is the part of the bridge which includes the bridge bearings and all components
below the bearings and is used to support the super structure. Sub structure includes piers,
abutments, piles and pile caps etc.
1.3.3 ABUTMENTS
This is the bridge support provided at the ends of the bridge where the opening starts.
The abutment simultaneously acts as a retaining wall to retain material at end of the gap. It
typically consists of breast wall, wing wall and footing as shown in Fig. 1.9.
[9]
Chapter 1 Introduction
Bridge seat
Wing wall
A road constructed at two ends of the bridge for smooth flow of traffic between bridge
and road to protect the bridge structure from accidental damages. A section of approach road is
shown in Fig. 1.10.
Bridge floor which supports vehicular traffic including slab, beams, guard rails and
wearing surface.
1.3.6 STRINGERS
The longitudinal beams directly supporting the bridge deck slab are called stringers.
Their orientation is parallel to traffic. If transverse floor beams are provided, the stringers rest on
them.
These are the transverse beams which support stringers and transfer load to side trusses,
plate girders, stiffening girders or suspended cables.
[10]
Chapter 1 Introduction
It is a layer of concrete or asphaltic material provided over decks to protect the structural
integrity of deck from wear and tear caused by traffic.
1.3.9 DIAPHRAGM
It is a short beam used between adjacent parallel stringers to provide them lateral stability
and to distribute loads among them.
1.3.10 PIERS
Intermediate supports provided to bridges between the abutments are called piers. These
may consist of one or more columns supporting a continuous bridge or two simple spans of a
multi span bridge.
Expansion joints consist of smaller angle sections which are anchored in concrete at the
two ends and a water-tight, compressible material is inserted in the gap as shown in Fig. 1.10.
However, this type of joint has considerable maintenance problem due to intrusion of material in
to the joint and level difference created at the joints due to passing loads.
The bridge bearings must be designed to allow length changes due to temperature
variation. Usually one end is made hinged while the other end slides. For span greater than 15 m,
provisions must be made at the bearings to allow rotation due to vertical bending of the girders.
For span less than 15 m, expansion support may be provided only by steel plates sliding against
one another. For larger span, rotations and sliding may be provided by sophisticated arrangement
of piers, rollers, rockers and curved bearing plates.
Recently for applicable spans, elastomeric pads or poly tetra fluoro ethylene (TFE)
bearings are used to provide horizontal and rotational movements. Elastomeric pads consist of
lamination of elastomers casted together with bonded steel plates in between. Horizontal
movement is provided by shearing of the pad and vertical movement is provided by differential
compressing of the elastomers.
[11]
Chapter 1 Introduction
TFE surface is made to slide against a stainless steel surface and the assembly reduces the
friction against sliding. The rotation is provided by simultaneous presence of elastomeric pads,
curved surfaces, or hinges.
Stringer
Approach road
Back wall
Bridge bearings
Breast wall
[12]
CHAPTER 2
The traffic loadings considered in this project work are given in the following sections.
Before discussing the traffic loadings for highway bridges, there are some basic definitions
which are necessary to highlight in context with the traffic loadings.
2.2.3 TANDEM
The design lane has a width equal to the lesser of 3600 mm or width of the traffic lane.
Roadway width from 6000 to 7200 mm has two design lanes each equal to one-half the roadway
width. The number of design lanes is taken as the integer part of the result when the clear
roadway width in mm between the curb is divided by 3600 mm.
The load shall occupy a width of 3000 mm transversely within a design lane and all
design lanes must be loaded simultaneously by a truck or tandem and the lane loads (without any
gap for the truck except when such gap increases the force effect).
If the lanes are more than one, reduction factor of table 2.1 is applied on the live load
force effect called Multiple Presence Factor denoted by m.
Chapter 2 Design Loading for Highway Bridges
2 1.00
3 0.65
>3 0.65
AASHTO Highway Loading (HL-93) considered for analysis of bridge super structures consists
of following three types of loads.
A standard truck consists of front axle of 35 kN, rear axle of 145 kN at 4.3 m spacing
from the front axle and trailer axle of 145 kN having a variable spacing of 4.3 to 9 m from the
truck rear axle (the spacing producing the maximum force effect must be used). The axle loads
and transverse clearances are shown in the Fig 2.1. Dynamic load allowance of 33% is to be
applied on these loads. The design truck and tandem shall be placed transversely at 300 mm from
the face of curb or railing for the design of bridge overhang and 600 mm from the edge of design
lane for the design of all other components.
14
Chapter 2 Design Loading for Highway Bridges
4.3m 4.3 to 9m
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
0.6 m in general
1.8 m 0.3 m for deck overhang
Loaded Lane 3.0 m
The design tandem consists of a pair of 110 kN axles at a longitudinal spacing of 1200
mm with the transverse c/c spacing of the wheels being 1800 mm as shown in Fig 2.2. Dynamic
load allowance of 33% is to be applied on these loads. For negative moment and reaction at the
interior supports, pair of tandem may be considered at a spacing of 8 to 12 m.
15
Chapter 2 Design Loading for Highway Bridges
1.2m
110 kN 110 kN
0.6 m in general
1.8 m 0.3 m for deck overhang
Loaded Lane 3.0 m
The design lane load is 9.3 kN/m along the length and having the width of 3000 mm as
shown in Fig 2.3, the load intensity becomes 3100 N/m2. Dynamic load allowance is not to be
applied on lane loading.
16
Chapter 2 Design Loading for Highway Bridges
9.3 kN/m
A pedestrian load of 3600 N/m2 is used on all sidewalks simultaneously with the
vehicular design live load. Separate bridges for pedestrian and bicycle traffic should be designed
for a live load of 4100 N/m2. The dynamic load allowance is not considered for these loads.
17
CHAPTER 3
PRE-STRESSING TECHNIQUE
3.1 PRE-STRESSING
Economically viable and easily constructed, these two are the most important criterions
in the construction of modern structures and this is achieved by the use of high strength materials
and the adaptation of advance designing methods. This results in reduction of cross-sectional
dimensions and consequent weight savings. Such developments are particularly important in the
field of reinforced concrete where the dead load represents a substantial part of total load.
The pre-stressing force that satisfies the particular conditions of geometry and loading of
a given element is determined from the principles of mechanics and stress--strain relationship.
Sometimes simplification is necessary, as when a pre-stressed beam is assumed to be
homogeneous and elastic.
18
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
i. Pre-tensioning
ii. Post-tensioning
[19]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
3.4.1 PRE-TENSIONING
Pre-tensioning is used in factories for the manufacturing of pre-cast structural units and
usually not used for large span girders.
The term pre-tensioned means that the tendons are tensioned to their full load before
the concrete is placed. They are held under tension by anchors beyond the ends of the pre-
stressed concrete member. After the concrete has been placed and allowed to cure to sufficient
strength, the load in the tendons is transferred from the external anchors into the newly poured
member, thus pre-stressing it. In the United States the standard tendons for pre-tensioned work
are seven-wire uncoated stress-relieved pre-stressed concrete strands.
3.4.2 POST-TENSIONING
Post-tensioning is used on large scale for the production of large span bridge girders in the
factories as well as in the field.
The term post-tensioned means that the tendons are tensioned after the concrete has
been placed and allowed to cure. Frequently the tendon is placed inside a flexible metal hose,
the entire assembly is placed in the form, and concrete is poured around it. After the concrete
has cured, the tendon is tensioned and held under load by anchor fittings at its ends. Bond
between the tendon and the concrete member is achieved by pumping the metal hose full of
grout.
i. The tendon is assembled in a flexible metal hose, and anchor fittings are attached to the
ends of the tendon.
ii. The tendon assembly is placed in the form and tied in place in the same manner as the
reinforcing bars.
iii. Concrete is poured and allowed to cure to the strength specified for tensioning.
iv. Hydraulic jacks elongate tendons, and the anchor fitting is adjusted to hold the load in
[20]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
the tendons.
v. The space around the tendon is pumped full of cement grout under pressure.
vi. Anchor fittings are covered with a protective coating.
In some cases a hole is cored in the concrete and the tendon is threaded through the
hole just before it is to be tensioned. Holes can be covered by casting in a rubber tube of the
desired shape and then withdrawing it after the concrete has set. Holes can also be co vered by
casting in a flexible metal hose. The hose becomes a permanent part of the structure. Since the
hose is not stiff enough to maintain its position while the concrete is placed, one or more steel
bars are placed inside the hose and are withdrawn after the concrete has set.
In large hollow structures such as hollow-box bridges, the tendons are threaded through the
hollow spaces and tensioned against anchor plates cast in the end block of the structure.
Galvanized strands are used in these structures, and grouting is not required.
[21]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
Strand
The term strand is used for a group of wires helically wounded. Usually a 7-wire strand is
used for the prestressing purposes as shown in Fig. 3.1
Tendon
The term tendon is used for one group of reinforcement consisting of a single wire, a
strand or a group of strands used together.
a) Stress due to Jacking Force should not exceed a stress smaller of 0.80 fpu and 0.94
fpy.
b) Stress Immediately After Prestress Transfer should not exceed a stress smaller of
0.74 fpu and 0.82 fpy
c) Stress at Anchorage Devices and Couplers, for post tensioning system, immediately
after anchorage should not exceed 0.70 fpu
The AASHTO stress limits for the prestressing tendons are given in the table 3.1.
[22]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
At Jacking (fpj):
High strength concrete, having fc′ ≥ 35 MPa, is usually used for prestressed members for
quick and efficient construction with lesser loss of prestressing force due to elastic shortening,
creep and shrinkage. The advantages of high strength concrete in prestressed construction are as
follow:
[23]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
iii. High strength concrete has much better concrete strength. This makes it easy to transfer
the prestress force at the anchorages, which may require lesser contact area of the
anchorage fittings.
iv. The bond between steel and concrete is improved when high strength concrete is used.
Prestressed stressed flexural members are classified into three classes depending upon
their behavior.
Class U members behave as un-cracked and computed extreme fiber tensile stress at
service loads (ft) is lesser than or equal to √ . Prestressed two-way slab systems are also
These are transition members between cracked and un-cracked cases and computed
extreme fiber tensile stress at service loads (ft) is greater than √ and lesser than or equal
to √ . For this class, the stresses at service loads are allowed to be computed using the un-
cracked section as for class U. deflections are calculated by behavior curve for cracked section.
These are cracked members whose behavior at service loads must be studied using
cracked sections. For these members, the computed extreme fiber tensile stress at service loads
(ft) is greater than √ . Deflections are to be calculated by using behavior curve for cracked
section.
[24]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
At Transfer Stage
Curved tendon profiles approximately following the shape of bending moment diagram
are better and easy to be placed in case of post tensioning. However, in case of pretensioning
especially for large prestressing loads having a number of members to be cast together, straight
tendons are easy to be placed. The tendon profile may be Straight, Parabolic, Draped or Harped
as shown in Fig. 3.2.
[25]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
At this stage the initial pre-stress force acting at an eccentricity ‘e’ produces a uniform
compression due to Pi and the moment Pi x e produces tension at the top and compression at the
bottom as shown in Fig. 3.3. The net result may be smaller tension at the top and larger
compression at the bottom.
fc ft
Pi Pi
fc fc fc
f1 = Stress at top =
f2 = Stress at Bottom =
The self weight causes tension at bottom and compression at the top and the net result
may be smaller compression at the top and larger compression at the bottom as shown in Fig.
3.4.
[26]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
Wo
fc ft fc
Pi Pi
fc fc ft
fc
f2 = Stress at Bottom =
At this stage, the initial pre stress force changes into effective pre stress force. The shapes
of stress diagrams are same as that of stage 1-B as shown in Fig. 3.5, but the ordinates are
changed due to replacement of Pi by Pe.
Wo
fc ft fc
Pe Pe
fc fc ft
fc
f2 = Stress at Bottom =
[27]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
The service load moments further modify the stress diagrams as shown in Fig. 3.6.
WD+L
fc ft fc
Pe Pe
fc fc ft
fc fc
ft ft
( )
f1 = Stress at top =
( )
f2 = Stress at Bottom =
It is the largest force that will act on the steel tendon to pull it to required stress level. The
jacking operation may be thought of a performance test of the tendon.
It is the force in the steel tendon after transfer and is equal to jacking force reduced due
to instantaneous shortening of the concrete.
[28]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
It is the ratio of effective prestress to the initial prestress. Usually a conservative value of
R = 0.85 may be used in place of detailed actual calculations.
It is a well-established fact that the initial pre-stressing force applied to the concrete
elements experiences a progressive process of reduction over a span of approximately 5 years.
Consequently, it is important to determine the level of pre-stressing force at each loading stage,
from the stage of transfer of pre-stressing force to the concrete, to the various stages of pre-
stressing available at service load, up to the ultimate. Essentially the reduction in the pre-
stressing force can be grouped into two categories:
i) Instantaneous Losses
These losses take place immediately after the application of jacking force. These losses
include the following:
For post tensioned members, the tendons are usually anchored at one end and
stretched with the jacks at the other end. As the steel slides through the duct, frictional resistance
is developed, with the result that the tension at the anchored end is than the tension at the jack.
Losses due to friction are usually separated into two parts for convenience namely
curvature friction and wobble friction. The first is due to intentional curvature in the tendon
profile as specified and the second due to un-intentional variation of tendon form its intended
profile. It is apparent that even a straight tendon duct will have some un-intentional
misalignment so the wobble friction should always be considered in post-tensioned works.
Usually the curvature friction is also considered.
[29]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
Δffr = fp ( Kl + μα ) (3.1)
where,
l = span of girder
K = wobble coefficient
μ = curvature coefficient
α = total angular change of tendon profile in radians from jacking end to
any point x.
= (radians)
The values of wobble coefficient (K) and curvature coefficient (μ) are given in the
table 3.2 and table 3.3 by ACI and AASHTO respectively.
Wobble Curvature
Type of Tendon
Coefficient K Coefficient μ
(1/mm) (1/rad)
[30]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
Wobble Curvature
Type of Tendons and
Coefficient K Coefficient μ
Sheathing
(1/mm) (1/rad)
In post tension construction, when the jacking force is released, the steel tension
is transferred to the concrete by special anchorages. Invariably, there is a small amount of slip at
the anchorages upon transfer, as the wedges seat themselves into the tendons, or as the anchorage
hardware deforms. The usual value of anchorage set may be 10 mm with a minimum value of 1.3
mm. These losses can be determined using the equation (3.2).
Δfanc = (3.2)
Where,
Δl = amount of slip
l = tendon length
[31]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
tensioned at once, there will be no loss due to elastic shortening. However, for the practical
purposes where multiple tendons are used , with tendons tensioned in sequence, there will
be losses. These losses can be satisfactorily determined by employing equation (3.3).
= 0.5 x np fcs
Where,
np =
fcs = compressive stress at the level of steel centroid when eccentric prestress
force plus self weight are acting in pretensioned beam.
These are the losses due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of prestressing
steel. These losses occur after the concrete has gained its specified cylindrical compressive stress
(fc′).
These losses occur due to the application of a sustained compression load on the
concrete causing it to first deform elastically and then continue to strain over an extended period
of time. These losses can be calculated through equation (3.4).
Where,
np =
fcs = compressive stress at the level of steel centroid when eccentric prestress
plus self weight are acting.
[32]
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
The ultimate concrete strains resulting from drying shrinkage may fall in the
range from about 500 x 10-6 to 1000 x 10-6. The value ultimate shrinkage strain for moist cured
concrete can be taken equal to 800 x 10-6 in the absence of specific data, and for steam-cured a
value of 730 x 10-6 can be used. These losses can be estimated by eqution (3.5).
εsh = amount of shrinkage strain occurring during the period under consideration
Here,
[33]
CHAPTER 4
The analysis of bridge superstructure is of prime importance and many factors are to be
identified for this purpose. The deck slab is continuous over pre-stressed girders, which are
supported by transom beams and the transom beams are supported on abutments and piers.
Hence various components are to be analyzed one by one starting from slab, girder, transom
beam and piers.
Following are the various methods used for the design of bridge deck.
This design method is only applicable for concrete deck slabs supported by longitudinal
beams. The concept of design is based on internal arching developed by a complex internal in-
plane or membrane forces. These membrane forces are developed due to confinement provided
by the surrounding concrete, lateral stiffness of beams and by other components like continuous
medians and curbs, etc. The slab internally acts like small dome around the wheel footprint and
the failure occurs by over straining around a perimeter as a punching shear. The flexural moment
developed is very less compared with the traditionally believed values that may be resisted by
some minimum specified amount of isotropic reinforcement. This reinforcement is also required
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
to develop adequate arching action. Tests indicate that even this design approach- provides a
factor of 8.0.
The design depth of the deck slab should not include the wearing surface. The
following conditions must be satisfied to use this method:
i) The supporting beams are of steel or concrete, made composite with the deck.
ii) The design depth of the slab should not be less than effective length divided by 18 but
should not be more than effective length divided by 6. For monolithic slabs, effective
length is the face to-face distance of the beams or walls. For slabs supported on steel or
concrete girders, the effective length is taken as the distance between the flange tips plus
the flange overhang from the web and not any fillet.
iv) The effective length as defined above should not exceed 4100 mm and the slab depth
should not be less than 175 mm. The core depth of the slab must not be lesser than 100
mm. The core depth of the slab is defined as the distance from the top edge of the top most
bars to the bottom edge of the bottom most bars.
v) The specified 28-day strength of the deck concrete is not less than 28.0 MPa.
vi) Overhang should be provided outside the centerline of the exterior girder i-e at least five
times the depth of slab or three timess depth of slab with vertical barrier.
vii) Minimum of Two shear connectors shall be placed at a spacing of 600 mm c/c between the
steel girders and the deck slab. For concrete girders, stirrups extending into the slab satisfy
this requirement.
[35]
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
i) Isotropic bottom layer steel should have a minimum area of 0.570 mm2/mm width
of slab.
ii) Isotropic top layer steel should have a minimum area of 0.380 mm2/mm width of
slab.
iii) The outermost layer of steel along the depth of the slab is to be placed in the
direction of the effective length.
This traditional method of deck slab design is only applicable if the steel is provided at
top and bottom of the deck slab throughout in the two directions.
In this method deck is divided into strips perpendicular to the supporting components.
Hence the span length of the strips is along the spacing of supporting components. The
maximum positive moment in the end panel and the maximum negative moment at the first
interior support are used for the design of all positive and negative regions respectively
1140 + X
For reinforced concrete decks, either parallel or perpendicular to the traffic, the width of primary
strip in mm is determined as:
[36]
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
When the primary span of the deck is parallel to the traffic the effective width of
strip, with or without edge beam, is equal to smaller of the following three:
1. The distance between the edge of the deck and inside face of the barrier plus 300 mm
plus half of the full strip.
3. 1800 mm.
The effective width of strip, with or without edge beam, is equal to smaller of the
following two:
1. The distance between the transverse edge of the deck and the center line of the barring
plus half of the full strip.
The main steel is determined by analyzing the equivalent interior and exterior slab
strips by determining the force effects in the slab strips per unit width of the strips.
⁄
√
⁄
√
[37]
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
In detailed analysis and design the strips are not defined and full 3-D analysis is done
for actual dimensions of slab by placing the highest axle on the slab in the position that is
giving the maximum shear and moment. Results obtained are multiplied by "" and 1.75 to
get the vales of shear and moment for LRFD.
ii. Thickness of deck slab denoted by “ts” should be between 110 and 300 mm.
iv. Number of longitudinal beams in the cross-section, Nb, should be greater than or equal
to 4.
v. The deck cross-section should be one of the standard types given in the AASHTO
specification. The width of deck should be constant.
vi. Multiple presence factors is not to be applied when using the given expressions.
However, it is always to be considered if the lever rule is used to the find the force
effects.
vii. If beam spacing exceeds 4.9 m, the live load on each beam shall be the reaction of the
loaded lanes based on the lever rule.
viii. Beams should be parallel and should have approximately the same stiffness.
ix. The roadway part of the overhang, dc, does not exceed 910 mm.
xi. The given expressions are only applicable to concrete deck on steel or concrete beams.
[38]
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
For Moment
g = 1.2 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
For Shear
g = 1.2 x * +
For Moment
g = 0.65 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
For Shear
g = 0.65 x * ( ) +
For Moment
For Shear
For Moment
g = e x gint
Where e = 0.77 + ≥1
[39]
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
For Shear
g = e x gint
Where e = 0.6 + ≥1
The dead load is transferred from slab and wearing surface to girders in addition to
the self-weight of girders. The superimposed load is different for interior and exterior girders.
The interior girder takes load from both sides whereas the load coming over the exterior
girder is calculated by applying the lever rule. The Fig 4.1 and Fig. 4.2 illustrate various dead
loads acting on interior and exterior girders respectively.
Dead Load due to
Wearing surface
0.20 m
0.22 m C
1.25 m 2.5 m
[40]
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
Live load analysis for interior and exterior girder is similar and is done using HL-93
AASHTO Live Loading. The procedure is explained with the help of diagrams below.
Maximum Moment
0.73 m
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
4.3 m 2.84 m
R = 325 kN m
17.5 m 17.5 m
RA
For maximum shear force, place the loads as shown in Fig. 4.4.
145 kN 145 kN 35 kN
4.3 m 4.3 m
L = 35 m
Fig. 4.4 Placement of Axle Loads on
Girder for Maximum Shear.
[41]
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
Maximum Moment
0.3 m
110 kN 110 kN
0.6 m
R = 220 kN
17.5 m 17.5 m
RA
Maximum Shear
Shear force is maximized by placing the tandem loads as shown in Fig. 4.6.
110 kN 110 kN
1.2 m
L = 35 m
Design of prestress concrete girder means the determination of dimensions of the cross
section and location of the prestress force such that the stresses before and after the application
of service loads remain within the ACI specified stress limits. The materials behave elastically
[42]
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
for such loads and hence straight line relationship between stresses and strains may be
considered. There are three different methods of design as under:
[43]
CHAPTER 5
fc` = 28 MPa
fy = 420 MPa
Arrangement of Girders
Consider seven girders placed at c/c spacing S as shown in Fig. 5.1. Taking the
overhang on both sides from the center line of the exterior girder as 50 % of S,
the c/c spacing S is determined as follow:
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Depth of Slab
= 2,250 mm
2. ( ) (O.K)
h
[45]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
20 % increased =
= 0.684 mm2 / mm
# 15 @ 250 mm c/c
= 0.456 mm2 / mm
# 10 @ 200 mm c/c
[46]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
No of design lanes =
g = 1.2 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
= 1.2 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
= 0.51 → Governs
g = 0.65 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
= 0.65 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
= 0.4
g = 1.2 x * ( )+
= 0.827 → Governs
g = 0.65 x * ( ) ( ) +
[47]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
= 0.65 x * ( ) ( ) +
= 0.55
DC
MDC =
= 1980 kN-m
VDC =
= 226.30 kN
DW
= 4.125 kN/m
MDW =
= 631.64 kN-m
VDW =
= 72.19 kN
Lane Load
[48]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
ML =
= 1424 kN-m
VL =
= 162.75 kN
Truck Loading
Maximum Moment
0.73 m
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
4.3 m 2.84 m
R = 325 kN
17.5 m m
17.5 m
RA
= 155.72 kN
= 2460.92 kN-m
[49]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Maximum Shear
For maximum shear force, place the loads as shown in Fig. 5.3.
145 kN 145 kN 35 kN
4.3 m 4.3 m
L = 35 m
( ) ( )
Va = 145 x 1 +
= 382 kN
Tandem Loading
Maximum Moment
0.6 m
R = 220 kN
17.5 m 17.5 m
RA
[50]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
( )
RA =
= 108.11 kN
= 1860 kN-m
Maximum Shear
Shear force is maximized by placing the tandem loads as shown in Fig. 5.5.
110 kN 110 kN
1.2 m
L = 35 m
( )
Vt = 110 x 1 +
= 216.22 kN
VLL = 382 kN
Now,
[51]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
= 2395.50 kN-m
= 554.75 kN
MD = MDC + MDW
= 1980 + 631.64
= 2612 kN-m
VD = VDC + VDW
= 226.30 + 72.19
= 298.50 kN
ML = 2395.5 kN-m
VL = 554.75 kN
No of design lanes =
Lateral distribution for the exterior girder with one design lane loaded can be
performed using lever rule as shown in Fig. 5.6.
[52]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
CC C
1.25 m 2.5 m
R = 0.4
g = 1.2 x 0.4
= 0.48 → Governs
g = e x gint
e = 0.77 + ≥1
e=1
g = e x gint
= 1 x 0.51
g = 0.51 → Governs
[53]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
g = e x gint
e = 0.77 + ≥1
de 0
e=1
g = e x gint
= 1 x 0.827
g = 0.827 → Governs
The dead loads that are coming on the exterior girder due to slab, footpath and barrier
can be determined using lever rule as shown in Fig. 5.7.
DC
R = 14.57 kN
R = 5.6 kN
[54]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Force due to
barrier Weight
0.20 m
0.22 m C
1.25 m 2.5 m
R = 6.65 kN
MDC =
= 4110 kN-m
VDC =
= 469.40 kN
DW
= 2.1 kN/m
[55]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
MDW =
= 321.56 kN-m
VDW =
= 36.75 kN
Lane Load
ML =
= 1424 kN-m
VL =
= 162.75 kN
Side Walks
MPL =
= 496.13 kN-m
VPL =
= 56.7 kN
[56]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Truck Loading
Maximum Moment
R = 325 kN
17.5 m m
17.5 m
RA
= 155.72 kN
= 2460.92 kN-m
Maximum Shear
For maximum shear force, place the loads as shown in Fig. 5.9.
( ) ( )
Va = 145 x 1 +
= 382 kN
[57]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
145 kN 145 kN 35 kN
4.3 m 4.3 m
L = 35 m
Tandem Loading
Maximum Moment
0.6 m
R = 220 kN
17.5 m 17.5 m
RA
( )
RA =
= 108.11 kN
= 1860 kN-m
[58]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Maximum Shear
Shear force is maximized by placing the tandem loads as shown in Fig. 5.11.
110 kN 110 kN
1.2 m
L = 35 m
( )
Vt = 110 x 1 +
= 216.22 kN
VLL = 382 kN
Now,
= 2892 kN-m
= 612 kN
[59]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
MD = MDC + MDW
= 4110 + 321.56
= 4432 KN-m
VD = VDC + VDW
= 469.40 + 36.75
= 506.20 KN-m
ML = 2892 KN-m
VL = 612 KN
Span of girder = L = 35 m
MD = 4432 KN-m
ML = 2892 KN-m
fc′= 35 MPa
fci′ = 28 MPa
[60]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
h ≈ 0.045 x L
= 0.045 x 35000
h = 2600 mm
= 47.32 kN/m
Mg =
= 7245.88 kN-m
The pre-stressed concrete girder section is selected based on the on the following:
The modulii of elasticity (at top & bottom) of the section are greater than or equal
to S1 & S2 (calculated below).
[61]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
The section should satisfy the ACI stress limits at various stages of loading.
( )
S1 =
( )
= x 106
( )
S2 =
( )
= x 106
Some portion of deck slab acts together with the girder to resist the applied
loading, calculate as follow:
be = xb
√
= x 1000
√
√
= x 1000
√
= 1118 mm
[62]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
1000 mm
250 mm
160 mm
1620 mm 250 mm
220 mm
350 mm
800 mm
Sectional Properties
At Transfer Stage
To determine sectional properties, we will ignore the sloping portions to get the
section as shown in Fig. 5.13.
1000 mm
250 mm
2000 mm 250 mm
350 mm
800 mm
[63]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Area of Section
A = 1000 x 250 + 800 x 350 + 1620 x 250 + 2 x x 160 x 375 + 2 x x 220 x 275
= 1055500 mm2
= 1.0555 m2
wg = 1.0555
= 24.80 kN/m
Mg =
The other sectional properties are calculated by considering the simplied section
as shown in Fig. 5.13.
Location of Centroid
y =
c1 = y = 1296.36 mm
Moment of Inertia
I=* +
* + * +
[64]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
S1 = mm3
S2 = mm3
It is the uniform stress in the concrete section if initial prestress force is applied at
the centroid of the section. It is determined as:
= 1.32 – ( )
= -7.714 MPa
Pi = Ac x fcci
= 8142 kN
fPS is lesser of
Therefore,
[65]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Aps = x 1000
= x 1000
= 5921.45 mm2
No. of Strands
N=
= 42
Therefore,
em = (fti – fcci) x +
= (1.32 + 7.714) x +
= 1213 mm
[66]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
5.3.1.4 CHECK FOR THE STRESSES AT THE TOP & BOTTOM FIBERS
At Transfer Stage
f1 = Stress at top =
f2 = Stress at bottom =
At this stage, some portion of slab acts together with the girder to resist
the applied service loads as shown in Fig. 5.14.
1118 mm
220 mm
250 mm 1000 mm
2000 mm 250 mm
350 mm
800 mm
[67]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Area of Section
Area of the section is calculated by considering the actual girder section along
with effective slab portion.
Ac = 1118 x 220 + 1000 x 250 + 800 x 350 + 1620 x 250 + 2 x x 160 x 375
+ 2 x x 220 x 275
= 1301460 mm2
= 1.30146 m2
= 1.30146
wg = 30.58 kN/m
Mg =
= 4683 kN-m
Location of Centroid
y=
c1 = 1245.26 mm
c2 = 1574.74 mm
Moment of Inertia
I= * +
* +
* + * +
[68]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
( )
f1 = Stress at top =
( )
f2 = Stress at bottom =
The path of the prestressing tendon along the length of the prestressed member is called
tendon profile and it is decided based on the shape of bending moment diagram.
To find out the ordinates of the parabolic tendons following equation of the parabola
is used.
y = a(x - h) 2 + k
where (h, k) represents the vertex of the parabola and a controls the shape and vertical
direction. The values of the ordinates of the parabolic tendon profile, both in y and z
direction are calculated at various values of x taking the midspan of the girder as origin as
shown in Fig. 5.15. The calculations are shown in table 5.1
[69]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
CL of PC Girder
1296 mm
Centroid of girder
280 mm Θ1 Cable 3
280 mm Θ2 Cable 2
Θ3
Cable 1
744 mm
559 mm
x
y = a(x - h) 2 + k (5.1)
Here,
h=0
[70]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
= slope = 2ax
Therefore,
θ3 = 1º 12’ 39”
= slope = 2ax
Therefore,
Θ2 = 3º 2’ 28”
[71]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
= slope = 2ax
Therefore,
Θ1 = 4º 52’ 2”
fc’ = 35 MPa
fy = 420 MPa
Pi = 8142 kN
Pe = 0.85 x Pi
= 6920.7 kN
[72]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
= 1628 kN
Effective Depth
It is the distance measured perpendicular to the neutral axis, between the resultant
of the tensile and compressive forces due to flexure. It is determined as:
dv is greater of
Therefore,
dv = 1872 mm
Shear design is mainly carried out for two potion of the girder as shown in Fig. 5.16.
The corresponding factored shear force values for the design portions are also shown
in the same Fig. 5.16. For the design of first portion maximum shear force is taken
and for the second portion 50 % of the maximum shear force is considered.
[73]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
C/L of girder
17.5 m 17.5 m
1628 kN
814 kN
8.75 m 8.75 m
Vn = Vc’ + Vs
Vc′= Vc + Vp
Here,
Vc = √ bv dv
= 461.50 kN
[74]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Vp = Pe sin θ
= 2306.9 kN
= 366.87 kN
Therefore,
= 828.37 kN
= 621.28 kN
ф
= 310.64 kN
As,
–ф
Vs = ф
–
Vs =
= 1342.30 kN
(Vs)max = √ ′ bv x dv
[75]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
And,
(Vs)max = √ ′ bv x dv = 1845.82 kN
As,
√ ′ bv x dv < Vs < √ ′ bv x dv
Therefore,
Smax is lesser of
i) = = 1512 mm
ii) = = 468 mm
iii) 300 mm
iv) = 170 mm
Smax = 180 mm
Vu at L/4 = 0.5 x Vu
= 0.5 x 1628
= 814 kN
[76]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Vn = Vc’ + Vs
Vc′= Vc + Vp
Here,
Vc = √ bv dv
= 461.50 kN
Vp = 0.5 x Pe sin θ
Vp = 0.5 x 366.87
= 183.44 kN
Therefore,
= 644.94 kN
= 483.70 kN
ф
= 241.85 kN
As,
[77]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
–ф
Vs = ф
–
Vs =
= 440.40 kN
(Vs)max = √ ′ bv x dv
And,
(Vs)max = √ ′ bv x dv = 1845.82 kN
As,
Vs < √ ′ bv x dv
Therefore,
Smax is lesser of
) = = 1008 mm
ii) = = 936 mm
iii) 600 mm
iv) = 390 mm
[78]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Smax = 180 mm
These losses take place immediately after the application of jacking force.
These losses include the following:
Δffr = fp ( Kl + μα )
Here,
= = 0.17 radians
Therefore,
[79]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Δfanc =
Here,
Therefore,
Δfanc =
= 33.78 MPa
For the post-tensioned beams, if all the steel is tensioned at once there
will be no loss due to elastic shortening. However, for the practical
purposes where multiple tendons are used , with tendons tensioned
in sequence, there will be losses. These losses can be satisfactorily
determined as follow:
= 0.5 x np fcs
Here,
np = =
√ ′
[80]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
= = 7.92
√
fcs = compressive stress at the level of steel centroid when eccentric prestress
force plus self weight are acting in pretensioned beam.
= 7480.77 kN
Therefore,
fcs =
= 8.60 MPa
Therefore,
= 34.10 MPa
Now, the remaining stress in the tendons at midspan after instantaneous losses is:
= 1288.10 MPa
Therefore,
[81]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
These are the losses due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and
relaxation of steel.
Δfcp = Cu np fcs
Here,
np = =
√ ′
= = 7.08
√
fcs = compressive stress at the level of steel centroid when eccentric prestress
plus self weight are acting.
= 6816.60 kN
Therefore,
fcs =
= 5.47 MPa
Therefore,
Δfcp = Cu np fcs
[82]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
= 102.63 MPa
Δfsh = Ep εsh
εsh = amount of shrinkage strain occurring during the period under consideration
Therefore,
Δfsh = Ep εsh
= 88.26 MPa
Δfrel = fpi ( )( )
Here,
tn = 5 years = 5 x 365 x 24
= 43800 hours
[83]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
fy = 1676 MPa
Therefore,
Δfrel = fpi ( )( )
= 1288.10 x ( )( )
= 130.63 MPa
Now,
= 321.52 MPa
Note: The actual time dependent stresses are coming more than the losses
assumed in the design therefore, the design should be revised but
due to shortage of time it is not revised.
= 1288.10 – 321.52
= 966.58 MPa
[84]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Now,
The lane load is 9.3 kN/m. It is present throughout the span of the girder as shown in
Fig. 5.17.
w = 9.3 kN/m
35 m
ΔL =
E = 4700 x √ ′ = 4700 x √
Therefore,
ΔL =
= 5.15 mm
[85]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
The deflection caused by axle loads is determined individually for each axle
by placing the axle loads as shown in Fig. 5.18 and then all these deflections
are added up to get the total deflection due to truck loading.
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
Here,
E = 4700 x √ ′ = 4700 x √
x = = = 17500 mm
a = 21800 mm
Therefore,
[86]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Δx1 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
= 0.81 mm
a = 17500 mm
Therefore,
Δx2 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
= 3.67 mm
a = 13200 mm
Therefore,
Δx3 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
= 3.31 mm
= 7.79 mm
[87]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
The deflections at midspan due to tandem loads can be determined by placing the
Here,
E = 4700 x √ ′ = 4700 x √
x = = = 17500 mm
a = 17500 mm
Therefore,
Δx1 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
[88]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
= 2.78 mm
a = 16300 mm
Therefore,
Δx2 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
= 2.76 mm
Δt = Δx1 + Δx2
= 2.78 + 2.76
= 5.54 mm
ΔLL = Δa + ΔL
= 7.79 + 5.15
= 12.94 mm
As the no. of design are more than one ( NL = 4) therefore, the deflection will be
[89]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Here,
g = =
= 0.57
Therefore,
ΔLL + IM, actual = 0.57 x 12.94
= 7.38 mm
The deflections due to dead loads are determined at various stages of loading due to
prestress force, self weight, service dead loads.
The deflection produced due to initial prestress force is short term deflection and can
be found based on the variation of moment along the span, making use of moment
area principles and superposition.
Here,
E = 4700 √ = 4700 x √
= Pi x em = 8142 x 745
= x
Therefore,
Self weight of the girder causes downwards deflection so the net deflection due to pi
and self weight will be:
Here,
Δo =
= 22.34 mm
Therefore,
= - 35.70 + 22.34
= - 13.36 mm
[91]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Long term deflections due to prestress occur as that force gradually reduces from
pi to pe. This can be accounted for in an approximate way by assuming that occurs
under a constant prestress force equal to the average of initial and final values.
The net deflection in the girder, when effective prestress and self weight act, can
be calculated as:
Here,
Δpe = Δpi x
= 35.70 x
= 30.35 mm
Therefore,
= -36.33 mm
Here,
[92]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Here,
w = wDC + wDW
E = 4700 √ = 4700 x √
Therefore,
Δo =
= 16 mm
Now,
= -36.33 + 16 (1 + 2.65)
= 22.07 mm
Following are the important drawings which have been prepared for the project and attached
with the thesis.
1. Plan View of the Bridge showing top view of abutments, diaphragms and girders.
[93]
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
2. Longitudinal Section of Bridge showing the side view of abutments and piers, span of
girder and position of expansion joints.
3. Cross-section of Bridge viewing the spacing between girders and width of overhang
4. Elevation View of Girder showing the profile of tendons in y direction and details of
transverse reinforcement.
8. Deck Slab Reinforcement Plan showing the reinforcement details for deck slab.
9. Barrier Details showing the typical reinforcement details of barrier and footpath.
[94]
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
This project work has been carried out according to AASHTO (LRFD) specifications
which are very helpful for the analysis and design of Pre-stressed concrete girder
bridges. In this project work, two main components of the prestressed concrete girder
bridge, the deck slab and the prestressed concrete girder, have been designed and the
details of the design work are already shown in the project thesis. The project thesis
also contains a good literature review for different type of bridges. It is also
recommended that all consulting engineering companies working on the pre-stressed
concrete bridge design should agree on single traffic loading (HL-93 or any other) to
be used for the design of highway bridges so that there is uniformity in procedures
adopted for the design of highway bridges throughout the country.
AASHTO HL-93 design traffic loading has been used for the analysis of prestressed
concrete girder bridge because, now a day, it is frequently used loading for the design
of pre-stressed concrete bridges. It is an imaginary type of loading which, to a great
deal, over designs the concrete bridges.
In America, AASHTO is only allowing LRFD Specifications to b used for the design
of concrete bridges since the year 2005. It is better that we also shift to this method of
analysis and design of bridges in order to have effective use of latest standards. This
project will guide the learners and will provide a quick reference to practicing
engineers. The detail drawings are prepared on AUTO-CAD 2007 for better
understanding.
REFERENCES
ACI, ACI 318 Building Code and Commentary, American Concrete Institute, 3rd Edition (FPS
Units), USA, 2005.
Arthur H. Nilson, David Darwin and Charles W. Dolan, Design of Concrete Structures, 13th
Edition, 2005.
LRFD, LRFD Bridge Design Manual, Texas Department of Transportation, 2nd Edition (FPS
Units), USA, 2007.
Z. A. Siddiqi, M. A. Chaudhry, M. Ashraf, Steel Stuctures, 2nd Edition, Help Civil Engineering
Publisher, Lahore, 2001.