Animal feed is food given to domestic animals in the course of animal husbandry.

There are two basic

types: fodder and forage. Used alone, the word "feed" more often refers to fodder.
Fodder, a type of animal feed, is any agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such
as cattle, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. ""Fodder" refers particularly to foods or forages given to the
animals (including plants cut and carried to them), rather than that which they forage for themselves. It
includes hay, straw, silage, compressed and pelleted feeds, oils and mixed rations, and sprouted grains
and legumes. Feed grains are the most important source of animal feed globally. The amount of grain used to
produce the same unit of meat varies substantially. According to an estimate reported by the BBC in 2008,
"Cows and sheep need 8kg of grain for every 1kg of meat they produce, pigs about 4kg. The most efficient
poultry units need a mere 1.6kg of feed to produce 1kg of chicken." Farmed fish can also be fed on grain, and
use even less than poultry. The two most important feed grains are maize and soyabean, and the United
States is by far the largest exporter of both, averaging about half of the global maize trade and 40% of the
global soya trade in the years leading up the 2012 drought. Other feed grains include wheat, oats, barley,
and rice, among many others.

Traditional sources of animal feed include household food scraps and the byproducts of food
processing industries such as milling and brewing. Material remaining from milling oil crops like peanuts, soy,
and corn are important sources of fodder. Scraps fed to pigs are called slop, and those fed to chicken are
called chicken scratch. Brewer's spent grain is a byproduct of beer making that is widely used as animal feed.

 Conserved forage
plants: hay and silage
 Compound
feed and premixes, often
called pellets, nuts or
(cattle) cake
 Crop
residues: stover, copra, stra
w, chaff, sugar beet waste
 Fish meal
 Freshly cut grass and other
forage plants
Types of fodder
 Meat and bone meal (now
illegal in cattle and sheep
feeds in many areas due to
risk of BSE)
 Molasses
 Oligosaccharides
 Seaweed
 Seeds and grains, either
whole or prepared by
crushing, milling, etc.
 Sprouted grains and
legumes
 Yeast extract (brewer's
yeast residue)
 Native green grass
 Bran
 Concentrate mix
 Oilseed press cake
(cottonseed, safflower, sunf
lower, soybean, peanut or
groundnut)
 Green maize
 Green sorghum
 Horse gram
 Leaves from certain species
of trees
 Grass/lawn clipping waste

Feed and types of feed

The Washington State Department of Agriculture defines feed as a mix of whole or processed grains,
concentrates, and commercial feeds for all species of animals to include customer formula and labeled feeds,
and pet feed.] These feed are now commercially produced for the livestock, poultry, swine, and fish industries.
The commercial production of feed is governed by state and national laws. For example, in Texas, whole or
processed grains, concentrates, and commercial feeds with the purpose of feeding wildlife and pets should be
duly described in words or animation for distribution by sellers.[2] Most State and Federal codes have clearly
stated that commercial feeds should not be adulterated.[2][not in citation given] Animal feeds have been broadly
classified as follows:
 concentrates: High in energy, contains mainly cereal grains and their byproducts, or is prepared from high-
protein oil meals or cakes, and byproducts resulting from sugar beetsand sugarcane processing.[citation needed]
 roughages: grass pastures, or plant parts like hay, silage, root crops, straw, and stover. Diets given to
different species are all not the same. For example, livestock animals are fed on a diet that consists mainly
of roughages, while poultry, swine, and fish are fed with concentrates. Livestock in a feedlot may be fed
with energy feeds which usually comes from grains, supplied alone or as part of a total mixed ration.

Feed formulation for swine

Feed makes up approximately 60% to 80% of the total cost of producing hogs. Manufactured feeds are not
merely for satiety but also must provide animals the nutrients required for healthy growth. Formulating a swine
ration considers the required nutrients at various growth stages in creating an appropriate feed. Three basic
methods are used to formulate swine diets: Pearson square, algebraic equations and linear programs
(computers). In recent times, microcomputer programs are available that will balance a diet for many nutrients
and assist with economic decisions.
The basic nutrients required are crude protein, metabolizable energy, minerals, vitamins and water. The
formulation procedure has both fixed and variable portions. Swine rations are generally based on a ground
cereal grain as a carbohydrate source, soybean meal as a protein source, minerals like calcium and phosphorus
are added, and vitamins. The feed can be fortified with byproducts of milk, meat by-products, cereal grains; and
"specialty products." Antibiotics may also be added to fortify the feed and help the animal’s health and growth.

Feed formulation for fish

Farmed fish eat specially formulated pellet feeds containing the required nutrients for both fish health and the
health of humans who eat fish. A fish feed should be nutritionally well-balanced and provide a good energy
source for better growth. Commercially farmed fish are broadly classified into herbivorous fish, which eat
mostly plant proteins like soy or corn, vegetable oils, minerals, and vitamins; and carnivorous fish, which are
given fish oils and proteins. Carnivorous fish feed contains 30-50% fish meal and oil, but recent research
suggests finding alternatives to fish meal in aquaculture diets. Among the various feeds investigated, soybean
meal appears to be a better alternative to fishmeal Soybean meal prepared for the fish industry is heavily
dependent on the particle sizes contained in the feed pellets. Particle size influences feed digestibility. The
particle sizes of fish pellet feed are influenced by both grain properties and the milling process. Properties of
the grain include hardness and moisture content. The milling process affects particle size based on the mill
equipment type used, and some properties of the mill equipment (for example corrugations, gap, speed, and
energy consumption)

Feed formulation for poultry

As reports have indicated, feeding make-up the major cost in raising poultry animals as birds in general require
feeding more than any other animals did particularly due to their faster growth rate and high rate of
productivity. Feeding efficiency is reflected on the birds’ performance and its products. According to National
Research Council (1994), poultry required at least 38% components in their feed. The ration of each feed
components, although differ for each different stage of birds, must include carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
minerals and vitamins. Carbohydrates which is usually supply by grains including corn, wheat, barley, etc. serve
as major energy source in poultry feeds. Fats usually from tallow, lard or vegetables oil are essentially required
to provide important fatty acid in poultry feed for membrane integrity and hormone synthesis. Proteins are
important to supply the essential amino acids for the development of body tissues like muscles, nerves,
cartilage, etc. Meals from soybean, canola, and corn gluten are the major source of plant protein in poultry
diets. Supplementations of minerals are often required because grains, which is the main components of
commercial feed contain very little amount of those. Calcium, phosphorus, chlorine, magnesium, potassium,
and sodium are required in larger amounts by poultry. Vitamins, such as vitamin A, B, C, D, E, and K on the other
hand are the component that required in lower amount by poultry animals.

Feed formulation for livestock

Livestock include beef cattle, dairy cattle, horses, goats, sheep and llamas. There is no specific requirement of
feed intake for each livestock because their feed continuously varies based on the animals’ age, sex, breed,
environment, etc. However basic nutrient requirement of a livestock’s feed must consist of protein,
carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. Dairy cattle need more energy in their feed than other type of cattle.
Studies have shown that energy supplied by feed is provided by various carbohydrate sources include non-fiber
carbohydrates (NFC) such as fermentable feeds or neutral detergent fiber (NDF) such as forage. Feeds with high
NDF is good for rumen health, however provides less energy and vice versa. Fats are added in the livestock feed
to increase energy concentration, especially when the NFC content is already too high since excessive NFC
lessens the NDF fraction, affecting the rumen digestion. In ruminants, most proteins consumed are breakdown
by microorganisms and the microorganism later get digested by the small intestine

Feed manufacturing process

Figure 1
Depending on the type of feed, the manufacturing process usually start with the grinding process. Figure 1
illustrates the workflow for general feed manufacturing process. Grinding of selected raw material is to produce
particle sizes to be optimally and easily accepted by the animals. Depending on the formulation, feed could
contain up to 10 different components including carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, minerals and additives. The
feed ration can be pelleted by proportionally homogenizing the specific compositions. Pelleting is achieved by
various methods, but the most common means is by extrusion. A hygienic environment is important during the
entire process of the feed production to ensure quality feed.

Grain milling for feed preparations

Corn, sorghum, wheat and barley are the most used cereals in the preparation of feed for the livestock, poultry,
swine, and fish industry. Roller and hammer mills are the two types of processing equipment generally used to
grind grains into smaller particle sizes. Milling cereal grains by mechanical action involves several forces like
compression, shearing, crushing, cutting, friction and collision. The particle size of the ground cereal is very
important in the animal feed production; smaller particle sizes increase the number of particles and the surface
area per unit volume which increase access to digestive enzymes
Manufacturers use different processing method namely:
Cold processing
Feeds are processed at or lower than the ambient temperature. These processes include grinding in the
hammer mill, size reduction, soaking and reconstitution of dried feeds. These processes mostly influence the
physical appearance of the feeds but less or no, modification on the chemical properties of the feeds. Feeds
under these categories are the mash forms.
Hot processing
Heat treatment is applied to animal feeds to improve hygiene, nutritional quality and physic-chemical
properties. Thermal energy is applied to either dry or wet ingredients such as soybeans or cereals. The aim here
is to soften the seeds, modify the starch or denature the anti-nutrients such as trypsin inhibitors.
This procedure is common in steam rolling, roasting and steam flaking methods of feed processing. Steam
flaking differs from steam rolling because of the high moisture content applied and the higher contact time.
This process has been seen to increase starch digestibility from 22.7-51.2 per cent. These feeds therefore,
increase the performance of the reared animals.
Popping: It is a dry hot feed processing method that is applied to the seeds. This process causes sudden rapture
of the endosperm. The seeds are then rolled before being fed to the animals.
Pelletisation: It is another hot processing method. It involves grinding and formulating feed and then forcing it
through a thick, spinning die with the use of rollers. The feeds can be made in different diameters, length and
hardness. This process alters the physic-chemical properties of the feeds due to the high pressure used. Losses
are minimal during feeding and transportation because the pellets do not easily break. Pelleting increases
growth rate and feed efficiency by 6.6 to 7.9 per cent respectively.
Extrusion processing
This recent technology operates on three principles: steam conditioning, high temperature cooking and high
shear pressure. The process starts by formulation and tempering the mixture to about 30 per cent moisture
content. Steam conditioning is the first step in this method. The aim of this step is to facilitate die lubrication
and feed particle adhesion.
This increases pellet durability index and gelatinise starch. Broilers fed extruded pellets have a higher feed
intake, this, therefore, increases live weight gain compared to those fed the mash.
Extrusion combines three parameters of moisture, high temperature and pressure to modify the starch and
protein enhancing their digestibility.
There has been better performance in swine, fish and poultry fed on extruded pellets than those fed on the
mash. The better performance can be attributed
Pollutants

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS

A wide range of organic and inorganic compounds may occur in feedstuffs, including pesticides, industrial
pollutants, radionuclides and heavy metals. Pesticides that may contaminate feeds originate from most of the
major groups, including organochlorine, organophosphate and pyrethroid compounds (van Barneveld, 1999). A
recent survey indicated that 21 percent of feeds in the United Kingdom contain pesticide residues. Pirimiphos-
methyl, an insecticide used in grain stores, was detected with the highest frequency. Although pesticides are
potentially toxic to farm livestock, the primary focus of concern centres on residues in animal products destined
for human consumption. Dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are examples of industrial pollutants that
may contaminate feeds, particularly herbage.

BACTERIAL CONTAMINANTS

There is currently considerable interest in the occurrence of Escherichia coli in animal feeds following the
association of the O157 type of these bacteria with human illness. In a recent United States study (Lynn et al.,
1998), 30 percent of cattle feed samples obtained from commercial sources and farms contained E. coli,
although none of the tests for E. coli O157 were positive. Replication of faecal E. coli, including the O157 type,
was demonstrated in a variety of feeds under conditions likely to occur on cattle farms in the summer months.
Since faecal contamination of feeds is widespread on farms, it is an important route for exposure of cattle to E.
coli and other organisms. The potential for exposure to bacteria also exists when poultry litters are fed to cattle
(in California, for example, two such poultry waste products are commercially available for use as cattle feed).
However, providing the products are adequately heat-processed prior to distribution, the risks of contamination
with E. coli, Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. are likely to be minimized or even eliminated (Jeffrey et al.,
1998). Nevertheless, it is worth noting that S. enterica commonly occurs in cattle feeds in the United States,
Europe and South Africa, with contamination rates ranging from 5 to 19 percent (Krytenburg et al., 1998).
Listeria monocytogenes tends to occur in poor-quality silages and big-bale silage. When grass is ensiled under
anaerobic conditions, the low pH regime ensures that Listeria is excluded from the resulting silage. However, in
big-bale silage a degree of aerobic fermentation may occur, raising pH levels and allowing the growth
of Listeria. These bacteria also survive at low temperatures and in silages with high levels of dry matter.
Contamination of silage with Listeria is important as it causes abortion, meningitis, encephalitis and septicaemia
in animals and humans. The incidence of various forms of listeriosis has been increasing in recent years.

FUNGAL CONTAMINANTS

There are consistent reports of worldwide contamination of feeds with fungi and their spores. In the
tropics, Aspergillus is the predominant genus in dairy and other feeds (Dhand, Joshi and Jand, 1998). Other
species include Penicillium, Fusarium and Alternaria, which are also important contaminants of cereal grains
(D'Mello, Macdonald and Cochrane, 1993). Fungal contamination is undesirable because of the potential for
mycotoxin production (see next section). However, spores from mouldy hay, silage, brewers' grain and sugar-
beet pulp may be inhaled or consumed by animals with deleterious effects termed "mycosis". Common
examples of such conditions include ringworm and mycotic abortion. The latter may occur in cattle as a result of
systemic transmission and subsequent proliferation in placental and foetal tissues.

MYCOTOXINS

Mycotoxins are those secondary metabolites of fungi that have the capacity to impair animal health and
productivity (D'Mello and Macdonald, 1998). The diverse effects precipitated by these compounds are
conventionally considered under the generic term "mycotoxicosis", and include distinct syndromes as well as
non-specific conditions. A list of the principal mycotoxins occurring in feeds and forages is given in Table 1,
which also indicates the fungal species associated with the production of these contaminants.

ANIMAL TOXINS

Of the diverse types of naturally occurring animal toxins, the prion proteins of mammalian meat- and bone-
meal have recently emerged as important feed contaminants necessitating statutory control. Prion proteins are
harmless animal tissue components with the capacity to transform themselves into agents causing fatal
neurological lesions in a wide range of species. The significance of prions has been highlighted following the
emergence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) as a major disease of cattle in the United Kingdom.

UNDECLARED ADDITIVES

Animal products are frequently contaminated with drug residues administered through the feed. Such feed
additives may be used for disease control and the enhancement of livestock performance. Residues may also
arise through contamination of animal feeds with undeclared drugs. The occurrence of these drugs is mostly
due to cross-contamination in feed mills (Lynas et al., 1998). For example, medicated feed residues may be
retained within equipment and then contaminate subsequent batches of feed. Under these conditions, levels of
contamination may be low but sufficient to cause detectable residues in animal products. Lynas et al. (1998)
examined the extent of feed contamination with undeclared antimicrobial additives in Northern Ireland. Of 247
medicated feeds, 35 percent were found to contain undeclared antimicrobials; and of 161 unmedicated feeds,
44 percent were shown to contain antimicrobials. The contaminants most frequently identified included
chlortetracycline, sulphonamides, penicillin and ionophores.

CONCLUSIONS

Animal feed, including herbage, may be contaminated with organic and inorganic compounds as well as with
particulates. Organic chemicals comprise the largest group and include plant toxins, mycotoxins, antibiotics,
prion proteins and pesticides. Inorganic compounds include heavy metals and radionuclides. Particulates such
as weed seeds and certain bacterial pathogens are common contaminants of feed. The effects of feed
contaminants and toxins range from reduced intake to reproductive dysfunction and increased incidence of
bacterial diseases. Residues transferred to edible animal products represents another reason for concern.
Comprehensive legislation is in place for the control of several of these chemical compounds and pathogens in
feed. However, in many developing countries, particularly in Africa, statutory control of contaminants is at best
rudimentary. The scope for decontamination of feeds is limited and generally uneconomic, and prevention is
the most effective practical strategy.