UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND

INFORMATION ENGINEERING

SOLAR TRACKER FOR SOLAR PANEL

PROJECT INDEX: PRJ 141
BY
KENEI DAVID KIBET
F17/1434/2011

SUPERVISOR: Mr. S.A. Ahmed

EXAMINER: Dr. G Kamucha

Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

award for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical and Electronics
Engineering of the University of Nairobi 2016

Submitted on: 13th May 2016

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY
FACULTY/ SCHOOL/ INSTITUTE: Engineering
DEPARTMENT: Electrical and Information Engineering
COURSE NAME: Bachelor of Science in Electrical & Electronics Engineering
NAME OF STUDENT: Kenei David Kibet
REGISTRATION NUMBER: F17/1434/2011
COLLEGE: Architecture & Engineering
TITLE OF WORK: SOLAR TRACKER FOR SOLAR PANEL

1) I understand what plagiarism is and I am aware of the university policy in this regard.
2) I declare that this final year project report is my original work and has not been submitted
elsewhere for examination, award of a degree or publication. Where other people’s work or my
own work has been used, this has properly been acknowledged and referenced in accordance
with the University of Nairobi’s requirements.
3) I have not sought or used the services of any professional agencies to produce this work.
4) I have not allowed, and shall not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing
it off as his/her own work.
5) I understand that any false claim in respect of this work shall result in disciplinary action, in
accordance with University anti-plagiarism policy.

Signature: ……………………… Date: ………………………

Approved by:

Supervisor: Mr. S. A. Ahmed

Signature: ……………………… Date…………………………

i
DEDICATION
To my family especially my dad, Mr. Zakayo Cherono and mum, Mrs. Maria Cherono for
their relentless support in my University education.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Mr. S.A. Ahmed, who was my supervisor,
for his constant guidance in the implementation of this project. I especially thank him for
going out of his way to provide unrelenting advice and resources including the MSP430
Launchpad and solar panel together with meters, all of which were essential to the success of
this project.
I would like to express great gratitude to all the lecturers in the Electrical Engineering
department, University of Nairobi for equipping me with all the knowledge and skills that
provided enough competence to complete the project.
I would also like to acknowledge my examiner, Dr. G Kamucha for taking his time to
examine this project.
Thirdly, I would like to thank members of staff in the Electrical department including Mr.
Kinyua Wachira for his guidance and help in micro-controller programming, Mr. Rotich for
providing support in acquisition of components and Mr. Wangai of mechanical workshop for
his assistance in making of the PCB
Finally, I would like to thank my classmates & colleagues especially Caroline Jelagat,
Samuel Chege, Festus Okwado, Benson Mutuku and Tonny Silvance for their much valued
advice and great contribution towards the success of the project.

Above all, I would like to thank the almighty God for enabling me achieve this success and
showing me light at the end of the tunnel.

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 Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 2

1.1 General Background......................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Project Justification .......................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Objectives......................................................................................................................... 3

1.5 Scope of the Project.......................................................................................................... 3

1.6 Methodology .................................................................................................................... 4

1.7 Project report organization ............................................................................................... 4

Chapter 2: Literature Review.......................................................................................................... 5

2.1 The Orbit and Rotation of the Earth................................................................................. 5

2.2 Why Solar Tracking is necessary ..................................................................................... 7

2.3 Tracking the Sun .............................................................................................................. 8

2.4 Types of Solar Tracking Mechanisms............................................................................ 10

2.5 Light Sensor Theory....................................................................................................... 12

2.6 Servo- Motor Theory...................................................................................................... 15

2.7 Micro-controller Theory................................................................................................. 18

Chapter 3: Design and Implementation ........................................................................................ 24

3.1 Flowchart for the Motor Control.................................................................................... 24

3.2 Algorithm for the motor control..................................................................................... 25

3.3 Hardware Block Diagram............................................................................................... 25

3.4 Light Sensor Design ....................................................................................................... 26

3.5 The Choice of Microcontroller....................................................................................... 27

3.6 Hardware Schematic Diagram ....................................................................................... 28

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 3.7 PCB Schematic of the circuit design.............................................................................. 29

Chapter 4: Results and Analysis ................................................................................................... 30

4.1 RESULTS....................................................................................................................... 30

4.2 ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................... 34

Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations ......................................................... 37

5.1 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 37

5.2 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 38

5.3 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 38

References..................................................................................................................................... 40

APPENDIX................................................................................................................................... 42

Project Gantt Chart ................................................................................................................... 42

The code used in the micro-controller ...................................................................................... 42

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 List of Figures
Figure 1: The orbit of the earth and declination at different times of the year ............................... 6
Figure 2: Sun angles showing altitude, azimuth and hour angle .................................................... 9
Figure 3: Tilt angle of the PV array .............................................................................................. 10
Figure 4: types of solar tracking platforms ................................................................................... 11
Figure 5: A typical Light Dependent Resistor-LDR Circuit symbol .......................................... 13
Figure 7: Typical resistance vs. light intensity characteristic of a LDR ....................................... 13
Figure 8 : utilizing the photo-cell to get a voltage input............................................................... 14
Figure 9: Components of the servo-motor unit............................................................................. 15
Figure 10: Pulse Width modulation .............................................................................................. 17
Figure 11: Pulse width and corresponding angle of rotation of the servo .................................... 18
Figure 12: General block diagram of a Micro-controller.............................................................. 19
Figure 13: illustration of the Harvard architecture ....................................................................... 21
Figure 14: Von-Neumann architecture ......................................................................................... 22
Figure 15: Light Sensor Design .................................................................................................... 26
Figure 16: Msp430G2553 pinout.................................................................................................. 27
Figure 17: Hardware Schematic.................................................................................................... 28

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Results for Morning and Afternoon of 14th May 2016 .................................................. 30
Table 2: Results for 11th May 2016 ............................................................................................ 33
Table 3: Values of Efficiency of the tracked and fixed panels ..................................................... 35

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 ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ADC Analog-to-Digital converter
DAC Digital-to-Analog converter
DC Direct-current
AC Alternating Current
LDR Light Dependent Resistor
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
LED Light Emitting Diode
MCU Micro-controller Unit
LUX Luminous Flux
PV Photovoltaic
UV Ultra-violet
Vcc DC supply voltage
PCB Printed circuit Board
R Resistor
MIN Minimum
MAX Maximum
EEPROM Electrically Eraseable Programmable Read Only Memory
USB Universal Serial Bus

viii
Abstract
Although solar energy is the main energy source in the solar system, its potential as an energy source
has not been fully realized because of low efficiency of solar Photovoltaic cells. The main objective of
this project is to increase the efficiency of solar Panels by using a micro-controller based solar tracking
mechanism.
The project involved design and implementation of an automatic microcontroller based solar
tracker system expected to be used with photovoltaic solar panels. The proposed single-axis
solar tracker device functions to ensure the solar panel is optimally directed in accordance
with the real position of the sun and therefore increasing the efficiency of solar panels.
The operation of experimental model of the device was based on a servo motor which is
intelligently controlled by the pulse width modulated signals received from a microcontroller
unit (MCU). The microcontroller receives input from light sensors which measure the
intensity of the sun, and enables the motor to move the panel to a position at which it
receives optimal power.
The performance and characteristics of the solar tracker device are experimentally analyzed
in order to determine the efficiency of the fixed panel and the panel attached to the solar
tracker, hence, enabling the determination of efficiency improvement when using the single-
axis solar tracker.

1
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 General Background
Solar power is considered as a very viable potential renewable energy source because the
largest energy source available is the sun, which supplies practically limitless energy. The
energy available from the sun far exceeds any foreseeable future demand.
The sun provides energy to sustain life in our solar system. According to [2], in one hour, the
earth receives enough from the sun to meet its energy needs for a year, this is 5000 times the
input to the earth’s energy budget from all other sources.
Despite the immense energy output if the sun, harvesting solar energy has proved to be a
great challenge because of the limited efficiency of solar cells. The efficiency of solar cells
has been estimated to be between 10-20 percent. This project is based on the concept of
improving this efficiency by means of a solar tracking mechanism.
The main purpose of a solar tracking system is to track the position of the sun in order to
expose a solar panel to maximum radiation at any given time of the day, as mentioned. This
is because the position of the sun with respect to the earth changes in a cyclic manner in the
course of the year.
Solar tracking is seen to improve the efficiency of solar energy production. It has been
shown that use of solar tracking improves the efficiency of solar energy production by up to
30-40%.
There are various types of trackers that can be used for increase in the amount of energy that
can be obtained by solar panels. Dual axis trackers are among the most efficient, though this
comes with increased complexity. Dual trackers are the best option for places where the
position of the sun keeps changing during the year at different seasons. Single axis trackers
are a better option for places around the equator where there is no significant change in the
apparent position of the sun.

1.2 Problem Statement

The problem that is posed is the implementation of a solar tracking system that is capable of
enhancing the efficiency of solar power collection by photovoltaic cells by up to 30-40%.

2
 The circuit used a Micro-controller unit to control a motor which positions the solar panel
optimally.
1.3 Project Justification
The main aim of this project is to implement a solar tracking system that ensures the sun rays fall
perpendicularly on the solar PV panel and thus harness the maximum amount of solar energy
possible. In doing so, increases the efficiency of solar cells.
The project seeks to solve the problem of accurate, efficient and economical micro-controller
based solar tracking system that can be implemented within the available time and using
available resources so as to track the motion of the sun.
Motor control using pulse width modulated (PWM) signals is generated by the MSP430G2553
micro-controller is effected to move the solar panel, directing it towards the sun.
1.4 Objectives
The project was aimed at achieving the following objectives
1. To design and implement a micro-controller based solar ultra-violet light tracking
system that can direct a solar panel towards the sun
2. To show that the use of solar tracking increases the efficiency of solar panels
considerably
1.5 Scope of the Project
The design of the project was limited to single axis tracking because of two reasons, firstly, there
was the issue of cost and mechanical structure complexity. Secondly, there was the issue that
since the tracker was to be used in Kenya, which is situated within the tropics, then the sun’s
position does not vary significantly during the various seasons, in Polar Regions (North and
south), then dual axis tracking becomes a necessity because of the changing position of the sun
during various seasons.
The project also used servo motors because of the various advantages it poses, such as, low cost,
smooth rotation at low speeds, usage of no power at stand-still, and high peak torque.
Also, embedded software was programmed into the MSP430 Micro-controller IC. The
programming language used was C++ which is an object oriented language.

3
1.6 Methodology
The solar tracking system can be sub-divided into three parts. Firstly, there is the input stage
which comprised of light sensors (Light Dependent Resistors) and resistors. The two are
designed in such a way that they form a voltage divider, the voltage from the divider then is
proportional to the light intensity falling on the light sensor.
Secondly, there is the micro-controller (MSP430 IC) that takes the two analog voltages from the
sensors as input, compares them and sends out an actuating signal to move the motor
appropriately.
Thirdly, there is the servo-motor which adjusts its position appropriately, so as to direct the panel
towards the sun.
Finally, a wooden mounting is designed and constructed to hold the panel and components of the
solar tracker.
1.7 Project report organization
The project report is divided into 5 chapters;
Chapter 1: This is the introduction to the project that describes the general background and
justification for doing the project. The problem statement, objectives, methodology and scope of
the project are also described.
Chapter 2: This has the literature review that shows the material that was used during research
and shows background information relevant to the scope of the project.
Chapter 3: The chapter involves the design and implementation of the project.
Chapter 4: It involves results and analysis.
Chapter 5: This chapter has the discussion, conclusion and recommendations to improve future
versions of the project.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
As mentioned in [1] , solar power is considered as a very viable potential renewable energy
source because the largest energy source available is the sun, which supplies practically
limitless energy. The energy available from the sun far exceeds any foreseeable future
demand.
The sun provides energy to sustain life in our solar system. Possible solar-energy systems
may include home heating or power production systems, orbiting-space systems and steam-
driven electrical power systems. The position of the sun in the sky is varied both with
seasons and time of day as the sun moves across the sky.

2.1 The Orbit and Rotation of the Earth

The earth revolves around the sun once per year in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one foci.
As mentioned in [2], such distance from the sun is given by
360( − 93)
= 1.5 × 10 1 + 0.017
365
Where n represents the day of the year, with January 1st as day 1.
The earth also rotates on its own polar axis per day.
The polar axis of the earth is inclined at 23.45 degrees to the plane of the earth’s orbit around
the sun. This inclination causes the sun to be higher in the sky in the summer than in the
winter. It is also the cause of longer summer sunlight hours and shorter winter sunlight hours.
The figure below shows the orbit of the earth around the sun, and declination at different
times of the year.

5
Figure 1: The orbit of the earth and declination at different times of the year, from [3]

It is worth to note that, on the first day of northern Hemisphere summer, the sun appears
vertically above the tropic of Cancer, which is latitude 23.45 degrees north of the Equator.
Also, on the first day of spring and fall, the sun is directly above the equator. Finally, on the
first day of winter, the sun appears vertically above the tropic of Capricorn, whose latitude is
23.45 degrees south of the Equator. This is as mentioned in [2]
Hence, from the above information, we can deduce that on the first day of spring and the first
day of fall, the sun is directly above the Equator. From fall to spring, the sun is south of the
equator while from spring to fall, the sun is north of the Equator.
The angle of deviation of the sun from directly above the equator is called the angle of
declination, δ.
If angles north of the equator are considered positive and angles south of the equator are
considered negative, then at any day of the year, the angle of declination can be found from
360( − 80)
δ = 23.45 Sin
365

6
 It is also important to be able to determine the time at which solar noon occurs. Solar noon
occurs at 12 Noon time at only one longitude, L1, within any time zone.
At longitude east of L1, solar noon will occur before 12 noon, while at longitudes west of L1,
solar noon occurs after 12 noon.

2.2 Why Solar Tracking is necessary

All solar panels are rated by the DC power they produce in standard test conditions. A typical
solar panel produces about 200 Watts of electricity based on the efficiency and size of what
is installed.
The factors affecting the amount of power produced by solar panel systems are
1. Sun intensity- The power produced is directly proportional to the sun intensity
2. Solar cell efficiency- higher efficiency means higher power output
3. Solar panel size
4. The amount of sunlight directly hitting the panel
The main purpose of a solar tracking PV system is to track the position of the sun in order to
expose a solar panel to maximum radiation at any given time of the day, as mentioned in [4].
This is because the position of the sun with respect to the earth changes with respect to the
earth in a cyclic manner in the course of the year.
Solar tracking is seen to improve the efficiency of solar energy production. It has been
shown that use of solar tracking improves the efficiency of solar energy production by up to
30-40%, this is according to [5].
As mentioned in [2], approximately 50% more energy can be collected in the summer in a
dry climate such as that found in Phoenix, Arizona, by using a tracking collector. During
winter months, however, only about 20% more energy is collected using a tracker. In Seattle,
Washington, which receives somewhat more diffuse sunlight than Phoenix, a tracking
collector will collect about 35% more in the summer but only 9% more energy compared to
an optimized fixed collector in the winter. These studies show that the efficiency
improvement of tracking the sun depends on the season and the climate of the region.

7
 Despite the major benefits involved in using solar tracking systems, there are a few
limitations, which include
1. The cost of solar tracking systems including maintenance costs tend to discourage the
average consumer or small- scale power producers. In large scale applications, regular
maintenance and is necessary for performance to stay consistent, and this is economically
feasible. However, in small-scale applications this raises the question if solar trackers are
worth the extra costs and maintenance.
2. The increased complexity of the solar PV system inevitably introduces additional
possibilities for malfunction and failure. For most small-scale producers, simplicity will
yield the highest long term savings.
3. Solar trackers available are generally not programmable for location flexibility. This is an
important factor to consider when, for example, moving a system from the Northern to
the southern hemisphere, coupled with latitude and longitude position changes can result
in considerable changes in the tracker’s control circuitry.
When solar trackers are designed to be less costly, then the benefits outweigh the limitations
and having a solar-tracker system proves to be very beneficial. This is so, especially in
regions within the tropics, where single axis trackers, with simple circuitry can be
implemented effectively.
Photovoltaic (PV) or solar cells that are installed on the roof to convert photons (energy
packets) from the sun to direct current (DC) electricity that flows through an inverter where
the DC power is transformed into an alternating current (AC) power.
Hence, any shading on a Photo-voltaic cell will reduce the energy output considerably.
According to [2], even a small amount of shade on a PV module can significantly reduce the
module output current. It is thus of paramount importance to select a site for a PV system
where the PV array will remain unshaded for as much of the day as possible.
Solar trackers help to minimize the angle of incidence (the angle a ray of light makes with a
line perpendicular to the surface) between the incoming light and panel, increasing the
amount of energy that the installation produces.

2.3 Tracking the Sun

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As mentioned in [2], in order to completely specify the position of the sun, it is necessary to
specify three co-ordinates. If one assumes that the distance from the sun to the earth as
constant, then the position of the sun can be specified using two angles
1. The solar altitude, α- which refers to the angle between the horizon and the incident solar
beam in a plane determined by the zenith and the sun.
2. The Azimuth angle, ψ- This describes the angular deviation of the sun directly south.
This measures the sun’s angular position east or west of south. The Azimuth angle is zero
at solar noon and increases towards the east.
Another useful, though redundant, angle in describing the position of the sun is the angular
displacement of the sun from solar noon in the plane of apparent travel of the sun. The hour
angle is the difference between noon and the desired time of day in terms of a 360 degree
rotation in 24 hours.
These three angles are shown in the figure below,

Figure 2: Sun angles showing altitude, azimuth and hour angle, from [2]

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 According to [6], a typical solar tracking photo-voltaic system generally must be equipped
with the following two essential features
 Azimuth tracking- for adjusting the tilt angle of the surface of the PV array during the
changing seasons.
 Daily solar tracking for maximum solar radiation incident to the PV array.

Figure 3: Tilt angle of the PV array, from [5]

Solar tracking is best achieved when the tilt angle of the tracking system is synchronized
with the seasonal changes of the geographical insolation level for optimized solar tracking
during the day.
Solar tracking allows more energy to be produced because the solar array is able to remain
aligned with the sun.
2.4 Types of Solar Tracking Mechanisms
According to [5], solar tracking systems may be classified into two
1. Active solar tracking
2. Chronological solar tracking
Active solar tracking involves monitoring the sun’s position constantly and continuously
throughout the year
Chronological solar tracking is a timer based tracking system that involves adjusting the solar
PV panel in a pre-defined sequence whether the sun shines or not. The purpose of a

10
chronological tracker is to counteract the rotation of the earth by turning at the same speed as
the earth relative to the sun around an axis that is parallel to the earth’s axis.
In order to achieve this, a simple rotation mechanism is devised which enables the system to
rotate throughout the day in a predefined manner without considering whether the sun is
there or not

Figure 4: types of solar tracking platforms, from [6]

Figure 3 above illustrates the types of solar tracking platforms designs under consideration,
this is according to [7]
In a single axis tracker design, the tracking system drives the collector about a fixed axis of
rotation until the sun central ray and the aperture normal coplanar
This method is usually effective in tropical areas (preferably areas along the equator). This
is because, within the tropics, there are no significant changes in the apparent position of the
sun during the various seasons.
As mentioned in [5], single axis tracking entails monitoring the angle of altitude (angle of
tilt) of the sun along a single axis.
According to [7], there are typically three types of single axis sun tracking designs. These
include:

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 1. Horizontal axis tracker – the tracking axis I set to remain parallel to the surface of the
earth, oriented along the East-West or North-South direction.
2. Tilted axis tracker- the tracking axis is tilted from the horizon by an angle oriented along
the North-South direction. For example, latitude – tilted axis sun tracker.
3. Vertical axis tracker- in this type of tracking , the tracking axis is collinear with the
Zenith axis, also known as Azimuth sun tracker
Also from [7], two-axis or dual-axis sun trackers follow the sun in both the horizontal and the
vertical plane. Examples include, the Azimuth-elevation and the tilt- roll sun tracking
systems.
In the azimuth elevation sun tracking system, the solar collector must be free to rotate about
the azimuth and deviation axes. In these systems, the tracking angle about the azimuth axis is
referred to as the solar azimuth angle while the tracking about the elevation axis is referred to
as the solar elevation angle.
Such dual-axis tracker systems track the sun on two axes such that the sun vector is normal to
the aperture in order to attain close to 100% energy collection efficiency. This is according to
[8].

The main components of the micro-controller based solar-tracking system are

1. Photo sensors (light-sensing) elements
2. motors
3. Micro-controller

2.5 Light Sensor Theory

As defined in [9], light sensors are devices that can be used to detect the ambient light level.
Light sensors are devices which exhibit electrical characteristics that change according to the
intensity of light in the surrounding.
A light dependent resistor is a component that has a resistance that changes depending on the
light intensity falling upon it. The diagram below shows a typical LDR and the
corresponding circuit symbol.

12
Figure 5: A typical Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), from [9] Figure 6: LDR Circuit symbol

The common type of LDR has an electrical resistance that decreases with an increase in the
light intensity falling upon the device. The graph below shows the typical resistance vs. light
intensity characteristic of the Light dependent resistor.

Figure 7: Typical resistance vs. light intensity characteristic of a LDR, from [9]

According to [5], light sensors are among the most common sensor type. The simplest optical
sensor is a photo-resistor which may be a cadmium sulfide (CdS) type or a gallium arsenide
(GaAs) type [2]. The next step up in complexity is the photodiode followed by the
phototransistor
The solar tracker uses a cadmium sulfide (CdS) photocell for light sensing. This is the least
expensive and least complex type of light sensor according to [2].

13
The Light sensor is a passive component which possesses the characteristic that resistance is
inversely proportional to the amount of light intensity directed toward it.
To utilize the LDR, it is placed in series with a resistor as shown in the figure below

Figure 8 : utilizing the photo-cell to get a voltage input, from [5]

From figure 3 above, it is clear that a voltage divider is formed and the output at the junction
is determined by the two resistances.
If it is desired for the output voltage to increase as the light intensity increases, the photocell
was placed in the top position while if it is desired that the output voltage is desired to
decrease as the light intensity increases, then the photocell is placed in the lower position.
This is because the value of the output voltage is given by
1
= ×5
1+ 2
Where Vo is the output voltage.
From the above equation, it is clear that if R1 is the resistance of the photocell, which
decreases as the light intensity decreases, then the output voltage will decrease as the light
intensity increases. On the other hand, if R2 is the resistance of the photocell then as light
intensity increases, this resistance reduces causing the output voltage to increase.

14
2.6 Servo- Motor Theory

According to [10], Servomotors are motors that use feedback for closed-loop control of
systems in which work is the variable. Servos are small mechanical devices whose sole
purpose is to rotate a tiny shaft extending from the top of the servo housing.
Servo motors find their application in radio controlled (R/C) airplanes, cars, and boats.
Servo-motors are increasingly becoming popular in the field of robotics.
The servo circuitry is built inside the motor unit and comes with a shaft that is fitted with a
gear. The motor is controlled with an electric signal that determines the amount of shaft
movement.

The servo contains three main components;

 Small DC motor
 Potentiometer
 Control circuit.
Gears are used to attach the motor to the control wheel.

Figure 9: Components of the servo-motor unit, from [11]

15
As mentioned in [11], the servo-motor has various advantages which make it suitable for
various applications

1. If a heavy load is placed on the motor, the driver will increase the current to the motor
coil as it attempts to rotate the motor. Basically, there is no out-of-step condition.
(However, too heavy a load may cause an error.)
2. High-speed operation is possible.
3. They are usually smaller in size
4. They tend to be very efficient

However, also according to [12], the servo-motor has various limitations

1. Since the servomotor tries to rotate according to the command pulses, but lags behind, it
is not suitable for precision control of rotation.
2. They tend to be costly.
3. When stopped, the motor’s rotor continues to move back and forth one pulse, so that it is
not suitable if you need to prevent vibration

According to [12] , servo-motors are controlled by sending pulses of variable width to them
through the control wire. There are three parameters of these pulses

1. Minimum Pulse
2. Maximum pulse
3. Repetition Rate
Given the rotational constraints of the servo, the neutral can be defined as the position
whereby the servo is as equally likely to rotate in the clockwise direction as it is to rotate in
the anti-clockwise direction. It is worth to note that although different servos will have
different constraints on their rotation, they will always have a neutral position, and that
position is always around 1.5 milliseconds.
16
The angle is determined by the duration of the pulse applied to the control wire. This is
known as Pulse width modulation. The length of the pulse determines how far the motor
runs, for example, a 1.5 ms pulse will make the motor turn to the 90 degree (neutral)
position.

Figure 10: Pulse Width modulation, from [12]

As mentioned in [11], when these servos are commanded to move, they will move to the
position and hold that position. If an external force pushes against the servo while the servo
is holding a position, the servo will resist from moving out of that position.

The servo motor is commanded to rotate either clockwise or anti-clockwise by applying

pulses of width greater than or less than that corresponding to the neutral position. According
to [12], when a pulse of width less than 1.5ms is sent to a servo, the servo rotates to a
position and holds its output shaft some degrees anti-clockwise from the neutral position.
On the other hand, when a pulse wider than 1.5ms is applied to the servo, the opposite
occurs. The servo rotates some degrees clockwise from the neutral position and holds its
output shaft.

The minimum and maximum width of a pulse that will command the servo are functions of
each servo depending on the brand. That is, each brand will have a different maximum and
minimum. However, generally, the minimum pulse is seen to be around 1ms wide and the
maximum pulse is 2ms wide corresponding to 0degrees and 180 degrees angle of rotation as
shown in the figure below

17
 Figure 11: Pulse width and corresponding angle of rotation of the servo, from [12]

The turn rate is another parameter unique to each servo. As defined in [12], the turn rate is
the time it takes each servo to change from one position to another. The worst case turning
time is the time it takes the servo to move from the minimum rotation position to the
maximum rotation position when commanded.

The maximum amount of force that the servo motor can exert is known as the torque rating
of the servo. Servos do not hold the position for an infinite amount of time, the position pulse
must be repeated to instruct the servo to stay in the position.

2.7 Micro-controller Theory

According to [13], micro-controllers are LSI/VLSI systems which are a complete micro-
computer on a single chip. Micro-controllers are designed to control an application.
A micro-controller is a highly integrated chip, including on a single chip, all or most of the
parts needed for a controller. A controller is a device used to control some process.
18
Also as mentioned in [14], the Micro-controller typically includes the following components
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Random Access Memory(RAM)
 EPROM/ PROM/ ROM- Read only memory (Erasable/Programmable)
 I/O(Input/Output)-Serial and parallel
 Timers
 Interrupt controller
 Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) and Digital to Analog converters (DAC)
 Oscillator Circuit
All of the above components are included in a single chip as shown in the block diagram
below

Figure 12: General block diagram of a Micro-controller, from [14]

A Central Processing Unit (CPU) built in a single chip is called a micro-processor. The CPU
is the brain of the computer system. It administers all of the activity of the system and
performs all the operations on the data. The CPU continuously performs two activities, which
are fetching and executing instructions.
As mentioned in [15], the Central processing unti contains the following key components
 The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) which performs computation

19
  Registers needed for the basic operation of the CPU, such as Program Counter (PC),
stack pointer (SP) and status Register (SR).
 Further registers to hold temporary results
 Instruction decoder and other logic to control the CPU and to handle resets and
interrupts and so on

According to [13], the CPU understands and executes instructions based on a set of binary
codes called the instruction set.

Aside from the CPU, the other key components of the micro-controller have their functions
briefly described below
Memory for the program: This is non-volatile type of memory also known as read-only
memory (ROM), meaning that it retains its contents even when the power is unavailable (it is
not powered).
Memory for data: This is volatile type of memory also known as random-access memory
(RAM). It holds the temporary data for the program
Input and output ports: These provide communication with the outside world
Clock: These serve to keep the whole system synchronized. It may be generated internally or
obtained from an external source.
Timers: most microcontrollers incorporate at least one timers. This is because timers serve
the following functions
1. Recording the time at which transitions occur in an input
2. Enabling driving on and off outputs at a specified frequency. This is used in
pulse width modulation , for instance, to control the speed of a motor
3. Enable the scheduling of tasks in a program.
Watch-dog timer: This is a safety feature that resets the processor if the program becomes
stuck in an infinite loop.
Communication interfaces: These are important as they serve as a way to exchange
information with another IC or system. They include serial peripheral interface (SPI). Inter-
integrated circuit (IIC), asynchronous (such as RS232), universal serial bus (USB),
Controller area network (CAN), Ethernet, etc.
20
Non-volatile memory for data: this is used to store data whose value must be retained even
when power is removed. Such data include serial numbers for identification and network
addresses.
Flash Memory: This can be both programmed and erased electrically and is now the most
common type of memory used in microcontrollers. It has largely superseded the electrically
erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM). Most MSP430 devices use flash memory.

According to [15], the two types of memories just reviewed, volatile and non-volatile, can be
treated as either having
 Harvard architecture
 Von-Neumann architecture
Harvard Architecture
In this architecture. The volatile (data) and non-volatile (program) memories are treated as
separate systems each with its own address and data bus. This is as illustrated in the figure
below

Figure 13: illustration of the Harvard architecture, from [15]

As mentioned in [14], many microcontrollers use this architecture including Microchip PICs,
Intel 8051 and descendants, ARM9
The Harvard architecture has the following advantages
1. It allows simultaneous access to program and data memories. Hence the CPU can
access the program memory and the data memory at the same time.
2. The two systems can be separately optimized
However, the architecture has the limitation that constant data (often lookup tables) must be
stored in the program memory because it is non-volatile, hence, constant cannot be read the
same way as volatile values from the data memory.
21
Von- Neumann Architecture
In this architecture, there is only one single memory and hence one set of addresses covers
both the volatile and non-volatile memories.
This is as illustrated in the figure below

Figure 14: Von-Neumann architecture, from [15]

Microcontrollers with a Von-Neumann architecture include the MSP430, the Freescale

HC508 and the ARM7

The architecture offers various advantages:

 The system is simpler
 There is no difference between access to a constant and variable data
However, the architecture suffers from the limitation that it is intrinsically less efficient
because several memory cycles may be needed to extract a full instruction from memory.

Micro controllers provide great benefits in automation of processes because of the following
reasons
1. Since all of the functional blocks of the micro-controller are contained within a single
Integrated Circuit (IC), this results in a reduced size of the control board.
2. Micro-controllers tend to have low power consumption

22
3. They tend to provide more flexibility and ease of integration within an application
design
4. The micro-controller not only reduces the cost of automation, but also provides the
designer with more flexibility
5. The designer is relieved from the complex interfacing of external peripherals like
ADC/DAC etc. and can concentrate on applications and development aspects.

23
Chapter 3: Design and Implementation
3.1 Flowchart for the Motor Control

START

Initialize the System

Read LDR
values

Convert data from

analog to digital

Compute the difference

between the two values

Y
(S1-S2)>e Generate drive signal
for the motor

N
O
Y
(S2-S1)>e E

N
O

STOP

24
3.2 Algorithm for the motor control
The readings of the two Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) are taken as input by the micro-
controller.
The inputs are analog, they are converted to digital value in the range between 0-1023. The
larger of the two values corresponds to the direction with more light intensity.
The two digital values are compared and the difference between them is obtained. This
difference is the error that is proportional to the angle of the rotation of the servo motor.
The servo motor rotates until the difference becomes zero. That is, the two LDR voltages are
the same. The PV panel is now facing the direction with the greatest light intensity.

3.3 Hardware Block Diagram

Photo Sensors

DC Power
Supply
Microcontroller Servo Motor

25
3.4 Light Sensor Design
The input stage of the solar tracker was designed keeping in mind that the MSP430G2553
microcontroller has a low supply voltage range of 1.8V to 3.6 Volts. A voltage divider circuit
was used with the Light Dependent resistor connected to a voltage Vcc of 3.6V.

Figure 15: Light Sensor Design

The output voltage was taken from the middle of the voltage divider, it is given by the
equations
1
1=
1+ 1
Where Vo1 stands for output voltage from sensor1 and Rldr1 is the resistance of LDR1

26
 Also,
2
2=
1+ 2
Where Vo1 stands for output voltage from sensor2 and Rldr2 is the resistance of LDR2

3.5 The Choice of Microcontroller

The micro-controller chosen for the project was the MSP430G2553 from Texas Instruments.
According to [16], the MSP430G2553 is an ultra-low-power mixed signal microcontrollers
with built-in 16-bit timers, up to 24 I/O capacitive-touch enabled pins, a versatile analog
comparator, and built-in communication capability using the universal serial communication
interface. In addition the MSP430G2x53 family members have a 10-bit analog-to-digital
(A/D) converter.
These capabilities made the MSP430G2553 a suitable choice of microcontroller for use in
the project.

The pin configuration for the microcontroller is as shown below

Figure 16: Msp430G2553 pinout, from [16]

The Texas Instruments Launchpad was used to program the micro-controller through Energia
software version 0101E0017. This software tool proved very useful in programming the

27
 micro-controller as it was simple to use and enabled programming of the Msp430 micro-
controller via USB.

3.6 Hardware Schematic Diagram

Figure below shows the hardware schematic diagram of the system, simulated using the Proteus
8 software. Because the MSP430G2553 was not available in the software, a close alternative was
chosen, as shown on the schematic.
The input into the system is two LDR voltages into pins P1_1 and P1_2 of MSP430
microcontroller. The analog voltages are then converted to digital equivalents in the range 0-
1023 microcontroller ADC. The microcontroller then compares the two digital values and
generates a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) wave to drive the servo motor accordingly. The
servo motor is connected to pin of the micro-controller.

Figure 17: Hardware Schematic

28
3.7 PCB Schematic of the circuit design

29
Chapter 4: Results and Analysis
4.1 RESULTS
The results for this project were obtained from a 5watt solar panel which was connected to a
4.7ohm load, while the panel attached to the moving (tracking) panel and the secondly, when
attached to a fixed (non-tracking) panel.
These results were taken over a period of two moderately sunny days 11th May 2016 and 14th
May 2016, although the cloud cover produced a bit of challenge. Regardless, results were
obtained satisfactorily, and were as shown in the tables below

Table 1: Results for Morning and Afternoon of 14th May 2016 (Sunny with partial cloud cover)

Time of Day Voltage across the Load Current through load Power
Fixed Panel Tracking Panel Fixed Panel Tracking Panel Fixed Panel Tracking
(volts) (volts) (miliAmps) (miliAmps) (Watts) Panel
8:00 AM 0.6 1.204 117 258 0.0702 (Watts)
0.310632
9:00AM 0.67 1.29 144 268 0.09648 0.34572
10:00AM 0.974 1.31 178 270 0.173372 0.3537
11:00AM 1.498 1.601 314 328 0.470372 0.525128
12:00PM 1.58 1.67 335 347 0.5293 0.57949
1:00PM 1.67 1.76 350 358 0.5845 0.63008
2:00PM 1.41 1.58 288 330 0.40608 0.5214
3:00PM 0.92 1.31 200 280 0.184 0.3668
4:00PM 0.6 0.91 131 190 0.0786 0.1729
5:00PM 0.36 0.84 78 175 0.02808 0.147
6:00PM 0.108 0.402 6 84 0.000648 0.033768

30
 Comparison of load Voltage for Fixed Panel and
Tracking Panel
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
Voltage (volts)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
8:00 AM 9:00AM 10:00AM 11:00AM 12:00PM 1:00PM 2:00PM 3:00PM 4:00PM 5:00PM 6:00PM
Time of Day

Fixed Panel Tracking Panel

Comparison of load current when using fixed and

tracking panel
400

350

300
Current (Miliamps)

250

200

150

100

50

0
8:00 AM 9:00AM 10:00AM11:00AM12:00PM 1:00PM 2:00PM 3:00PM 4:00PM 5:00PM 6:00PM
Time of Day

Fixed Panel Tracking Panel

31
 Comparison of power output of fixed panel and
tracking panel
0.7

0.6

0.5
Power (Watts)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
8:00 AM 9:00AM 10:00AM11:00AM12:00PM 1:00PM 2:00PM 3:00PM 4:00PM 5:00PM 6:00PM
Time of Day

Fixed Panel Tracking Panel

32
Table 2: Results for 11th May 2016 (Sunny Day)

Time of Day Voltage across the Load Current through load Power
Fixed Panel Tracking Fixed Panel Tracking Fixed Tracking
(volts) Panel (miliAmps) Panel Panel Panel
(volts) (miliAmps) (Watts) (Watts)

8:00 AM 0.588 1.224 107 242 0.062916 0.296208

9:00AM 0.612 1.258 142 288 0.086904 0.362304
10:00AM 1.004 1.281 178 265 0.178712 0.339465
11:00AM 1.469 1.598 306 338 0.449514 0.540124
12:00PM 1.568 1.702 328 357 0.514304 0.607614
1:00PM 1.72 1.76 355 361 0.6106 0.63536
2:00PM 1.52 1.59 288 320 0.43776 0.5088
3:00PM 1.02 1.41 208 288 0.21216 0.40608
4:00PM 0.88 1.04 141 188 0.12408 0.19552
5:00PM 0.358 0.88 78 172 0.027924 0.15136
6:00PM 0.102 0.442 12 102 0.001224 0.045084

Comparison of load voltages of fixed and tracking

panel
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
Voltage (Volts)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
8:00 AM 9:00AM 10:00AM11:00AM12:00PM 1:00PM 2:00PM 3:00PM 4:00PM 5:00PM 6:00PM
Time of Day

Fixed Panel Tracking Panel

33
 Comparison of Load Power for different time of day
0.7

0.6
POwer Output (Watts)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
8:00 AM 9:00AM 10:00AM11:00AM12:00PM 1:00PM 2:00PM 3:00PM 4:00PM 5:00PM 6:00PM
Time of Day

Fixed Panel Tracking Panel

4.2 ANALYSIS
.
From the reading of voltage and current across the 5W 4.7 ohm load, the values of power were
calculated using the following formula
Power= Voltage x Current
Pload=VI
The values calculated using this formula are as shown in table 1 and table 2 in section 4.2
previously
Thre value of efficiency of both the tracking panel and the fixed panel was calculated with
respect to the Maximum rated output power of the solar PV panel, which was 5W

= ∗ 100%

For 14th May 2016 at 8AM the Tracking PV panel had an output Power of 0.361W and the Fixed
PV panel had an output power of 0.072W therefore, giving efficiency of
0.361
( )= ∗ 100% = 7.22%
5
.
( )= ∗ 100%= 1.44%
34
Other values of efficiency were calculated using Microsoft excel and are as shown below

Time of Day Power Efficiency

Fixed Panel Tracking Fixed Tracking Improvement
(Watts) Panel Panel Panel in Efficiency
(Watts)
8:00 AM 0.0702 0.3106 1.40% 6.21% 4.81%
9:00AM 0.09648 0.3457 1.93% 6.91% 4.98%
10:00AM 0.1734 0.3537 3.47% 7.07% 3.61%
11:00AM 0.4704 0.5251 9.41% 10.50% 1.09%
12:00PM 0.5293 0.5795 10.59% 11.59% 1.00%
1:00PM 0.5845 0.6301 11.69% 12.60% 0.91%
2:00PM 0.4061 0.5214 8.12% 10.43% 2.31%
3:00PM 0.184 0.3668 3.68% 7.34% 3.66%
4:00PM 0.0786 0.1729 1.57% 3.46% 1.89%
5:00PM 0.0281 0.147 0.56% 2.94% 2.38%
6:00PM 0.0006 0.0338 0.01% 0.68% 0.66%
Table 3: Values of Efficiency of the tracked and fixed panels

From the above, it is clear that improvement of efficiency when using the solar tracking system
was more pronounced in the morning and evening hours with the biggest improvement in
efficiency being around 5%.

35
 Improvement in efficiency
6

5
Efficiency Improvement

0
8:00 AM 9:00AM 10:00AM 11:00AM 12:00PM 1:00PM 2:00PM 3:00PM 4:00PM 5:00PM
Time of Day

36
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Discussion
From the curves of voltage, current and power output of the tracking and fixed panel, it can be
seen that the maximum power occurs at around 1PM. At this time it was seen that both the
tracking panel and fixed panel were receiving almost the same power because the azimuth angle
of the sun is approximately zero and the sun rays were striking the panel perpendicularly.
In the morning and late evening, the intensity of sunlight continually decreasing and the values
obtained are less than those obtained during the middle of the day

From the experimental results and analysis it can be seen that In terms of the power output of the
solar panels for tracking and fixed systems, it is evident that the tracking system has increased
power output when compared to the fixed panel, this is because the power generated by solar PV
panels is directly proportional to the intensity of light. The panel on the solar tracking system is
continuously facing the sun and therefore has relatively more sunlight falling on it, this means
increased power output, hence increased efficiency.
It was also noted that the greatest improvement of efficiency was evident in the morning and
evening hours where the fixed panel was receiving its least power. During hours around midday,
both the fixed and the tracking panels were receiving almost the same amount of intensity and
therefore the improvement in efficiency was small in the hours between 11-2 PM since the
power output was seen to be almost same for both panels.
The main aim of this project was to improve the efficiency of solar panels by use of a
microcontroller-based solar tracking system. The implemented solar tracking system was seen to
achieve this objective satisfactorily.
Design and implementation of the solar tracking system was achieved through the use of light
sensors (light dependent resistors), micro-controller, and a servo motor. The resistance property
of the LDRs varied depending on the amount of sunlight falling on it, this was then converted to
an analog voltage by using a voltage-divider circuit and a dc source, this analog voltage when
fed to the microcontroller (incorporated with an analog-to-digital converter) enabled the

37
microcontroller to know the direction of the sun, and thereby send control signals to the motor
moving in that direction.
The servo only stops when the two LDRs have the same reading, meaning that they receive the
same amount of light intensity and the panel is directly facing the sun. As long as the micro-
controller and the servo-motor are powered, the sun tracking is constantly done.

5.2 Conclusion
The main aim of this project was to improve the efficiency of solar PV panels by use of a
microcontroller-based solar tracking system. The designed and implemented single axis solar
tracking system proved to be sufficient and was seen to improve the efficiency sufficiently.
The project was done within the allocated time and using the available resources to produce a
low-cost but effective prototype that solves the problem at hand.

5.3 Recommendations
Although a simple and effective prototype of a solar-tracking system was implemented,
several improvements can be done on it in future works to make it even better.
1. Use of a more powerful servo-motor in order to effectively carry commercial size
solar panels. Since this was a prototype, a small servo was used due to cost
constraints.
2. Incorporating sensors at the back of the panel mounting so as to detect sunlight during
sunrise and sunset. With a few modifications to the algorithm, the solar tracking
system can be made to turn off at sunset and turn-on at sunrise. This can effectively
decrease the power consumption of the solar tracking system making it even more
efficient.
3. Improving the design of the mounting and use steel which is strong enough to support
more weight and can be made smaller, in order to allow more freedom of movement
of the panel. The mounting used in the prototype limited movement to a span less
than 120 degrees instead of the available 180 degrees allowed by the servo motor.
38
39
References

[1] D. R. P. Stephen W. Fardo, Electrical Power Systems Technology, Lilburn:

Fairmont Press, 2009.
[2] J. V. Roger A. Messenger, Photovoltaic systems Engineering, Third ed., New York:
CRC Press, 2010.
[3] N. O. a. A. Adminstration, "National Weather Service," National oceanic and
atmospheric adminstration, 26 January 2016. [Online]. Available:
http://www.weather.gov/cle/seasons.
[4] S. Roberts, Solar Electricity, A Practical guide to Designing and Installing Small
Photovoltaic Systems, Prentice Hall, 1991.
[5] B. Lane, "Solar Tracker," Cleveland State University, Cleveland Ohio, 2008.
[6] E. O. ,. B. L. W. M. S. Lakeou, "Design of a Low-cost Solar Tracking Photo-Voltaic
(PV) Module and Wind Turbine Combination System," University of Colombia.
[7] N. S. Narayan, "Solar Charging Station for light Electric vehicles, A design and
feasibility study," 2013.
[8] R. D. Gerro Prinsloo, Solar Tracking, Stellenbosch University, 2014.
[9] Handbook of Photoelectric Sensing, Second ed., Minneapolis: Banner Engineering
Corp, 1993.
[10] J. Murphy, Understanding AC induction, permanent magnet and servo-motor
Technologies, Wisconsin: Leeson Electric Co-operation.
[11] "Basics of Servo Motor Control," Nippon Pulse Motor Company Ltd, Radford,
2013.
[12] ServoCity, "servoCity.com," RobotZone, LLC, [Online]. Available:
https://www.servocity.com/html/how_do_servos_work_.html. [Accessed 2 February
2016].
[13] B. W. Gunther Gridling, Introduction to Micro-controllers, Vienna University of

40
 Technology, 2007.
[14] A. V. Deshmukh, Microcontrollers- Theory and Applications, New Delhi: McGraw
Hill, 2007.
[15] J. Davies, MSP430 Microcontroller Basics, Oxford: Newnes, 2008.
[16] T. Instruments, "MSP430G2553 Datasheet," Texas, 2013.

41
APPENDIX
Project Gantt Chart

The code used in the micro-controller

#include <Servo.h>

Servo myservo; // create servo object to control the servo

int pos = 90; // initialize the motor at an angle of 90 degrees
void setup()
{
//initial setup
pinMode(11,OUTPUT);
myservo.attach(9); // attaches the servo on pin 9 to the servo object
myservo.write(pos); // tell servo to go to position in variable 'pos'
delay(15); // waits 15ms for the servo to reach the position
}

void loop()
{

// main code to run repeatedly

int LDR1=analogRead(A3); // Read the value from LDR1

42
 int LDR2=analogRead(A4); // Read the value from LDR2

if (LDR1>LDR2 && LDR1-LDR2>30){

//compare the two LDR values
digitalWrite(11, LOW);
if(pos<135){
pos+=1;
//move the servo
myservo.write(pos); // tell servo to go to position in variable 'pos'
delay(15); // waits 15ms for the servo to reach the position
}
}
else if (LDR2>LDR1&& LDR2-LDR1>30){
//compare the two LDR values
digitalWrite(11, LOW);
if(pos>45){
pos-=1;
//move the servo
myservo.write(pos); // tell servo to go to position in variable 'pos'
delay(15); // waits 15ms for the servo to reach the position
}
}
else {

digitalWrite(11, HIGH);
}
}

43