Lab Experiments Instructions 2017 18

PHYSICS DEPARMENT
FACULTY OF SCIENCE

Physics Laboratory Experiments
for a Degree in Biology
from University of A Coruña

ACADEMIC YEAR 2017/2018

Contents
Experiments for group A: Experiments for group B:
A.1. Specific heat of a liquid. B.1. Specific heat of a solid.
A.2. Elasticity of a spring. B.2. Simple pendulum.
A.3. Pycnometer. B.3. Hydrostatic balance.
A.4. The Boyle‐Mariotte law. B.4. Gas thermometer.
A.5. Series and parallel circuits. B.5. Series and parallel circuits.

Physics Laboratory Experiments for a Bachelor’s Degree in Biology from University of A Coruña
A.1. Specific heat of a liquid.
OBJECTIVES: to calculate the specific heat of a liquid by the method of mixtures. First the water equivalent of
the calorimeter, K, must be obtained, which is the mass of water that absorbs as much heat as the cup,
thermometer and stirrer.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: calorimeter, digital thermometer, balance, hot plate, beaker and unknown liquid.
THEORY: every substance has a certain internal energy. When contacted two substances at different
temperatures part of that internal energy flows from hot to cold substance. This energy is known as heat, Q.
The ability of each substance to absorb heat is called heat capacity, C, which is defined as
(1)
expressed in J/K in S.I. units. For small differences in temperature, it can be used increments instead of
derivatives. Moreover, the heat capacity depends on the mass of the substance studied so that the specific
heat, c, is defined as
(2)
∆
that is expressed in J/kgK in S.I. but usually in cal/gºC. The specific heat is the amount of heat required to change
the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 ºC. It is a fundamental property of any substance so that its measure
is of great interest.
From equation (2) we see that the heat lost or gained by a particular substance is given as
∆ (3)
By conservation of energy, the heat lost by a substance is equal to the heat gained by another. We use an
adiabatic vessel such as a calorimeter in order to insulate the system from losing heat to the environment so
that the heat lost by a hot substance is equal to that absorbed by a cold one. In this principle is based the
method of measurement of the specific heat we use in this experiment which is called method of mixtures.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
PART A. The water equivalent of the calorimeter (K) is defined as the mass of water that absorbs as much heat
as the calorimeter (cup, thermometer and stirrer) and must be determined in first place following these steps
(do not forget attaching the absolute error to every measure).
A1. Fill a beaker about 125 mL of water and weigh it. Record its mass, mb+w,1. Pour the water into the
calorimeter, insert a thermometer well into the water and use the stirrer gently. All of them are at room
temperature (cool). Record the temperature, Tcool. Finally, weigh the empty beaker and record its mass,
mb,1. Compute the mass of water at room temperature by subtracting both masses, mcool.
A2. Once more fill a beaker about 125 mL of water and weigh it. Record its mass, mb+w,2. Place the beaker on
the hot plate and insert the thermometer in the central point of the water. When the water is about 60
ºC remove the beaker from the hot plate ( use a cloth to avoid burns and be careful not to touch the
hot plate with the cloth) and stir gently the water with the thermometer. Record quickly the temperature
placing the thermometer in the central point of the water, Thot. Pour the hot water into the calorimeter
and put the lid on it. Insert the stirrer and the thermometer. Stir gently (to mix both amounts of water)
3
and record the equilibrium temperature when the reading starts dropping, Teq. Finally, weigh the empty
beaker and record its mass, mb,2. Compute the mass of hot water by subtracting both masses, mhot.
As said, by conservation of energy the heat lost by the hot water (Qhot) is equal to the heat gained by the cool
water (Qcool) and the calorimeter with its complements (Qi)
(4)
Taking into account equation (3)
(5)
where c is the specific heat of water. Solving for K

(6)
Note that the units of K are the same as both masses. Compute both K and its experimental absolute error.
PART B. Measurement of the specific heat of an unknown liquid (cliq). Before starting this part clean and dry
the calorimeter and then follow these steps (do not forget attaching the absolute error to every measure).
B1. Fill a beaker about 125 mL of water and weigh it. Record its mass, mb+w. Pour the water into the
temperature. Record the temperature, Tcool. Finally, weigh the empty beaker and record its mass, mb,1.
Compute the mass of water at room temperature by subtracting both masses, mcool.
B2. Fill a beaker about 125 mL of the unknown liquid and weigh it. Record its mass, mb+liq. Place the beaker
on the hot plate and insert the thermometer in the central point of the liquid. When the temperature is
about 60 ºC remove the beaker from the hot plate ( use a cloth to avoid burns and be careful not to
touch the hot plate with the cloth) and stir gently. Record quickly the temperature placing the
thermometer in the central point of the liquid, Thot. Pour the hot liquid into the calorimeter, insert the
stirrer and the thermometer and close it. Stir gently and record the equilibrium temperature when the
reading starts dropping, Teq. Finally, weigh the empty beaker and record its mass, mb,2. Compute the mass
of the hot liquid by subtracting both masses, mliq.
Similarly as done in part A, the heat lost by the hot liquid is equal to the heat gained by the cool water and the
calorimeter with its complements and it can be expressed as
(7)
Solving cliq

(8)
Compute both cliq and its experimental absolute error.
ADDITIONAL INFORMACION: c = 1.000 ± 0.001 cal/g ºC.

4
B.1. Specific heat of a solid.
OBJECTIVES: to calculate the specific heat of a solid by the method of mixtures. First the water equivalent of
the calorimeter, K, must be obtained, which is the mass of water that absorbs as much heat as the cup,
thermometer and stirrer.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: calorimeter, Noak heater, 2 digital thermometers, balance, hot plate, beaker, Kitasato
flask, retort stand and a solid (glass beads).
THEORY: every substance has a certain internal energy. When contacted two substances at different
temperatures part of that internal energy flows from hot to cold substance. This energy is known as heat, Q.
The ability of each substance to absorb heat is called heat capacity, C, which is defined as
(1)
expressed in J/K in S.I. units. For small differences in temperature, it can be used increments instead of
derivatives. Moreover, the heat capacity depends on the mass of the substance studied so that the specific
heat, c, is defined as
(2)
∆
that is expressed in J/kgK in S.I. but usually in cal/gºC. The specific heat is the amount of heat required to change
the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 ºC. It is a fundamental property of any substance so that its measure
is of great interest.
From equation (2) we see that the heat lost or gained by a particular substance is given as
∆ (3)
By conservation of energy, the heat lost by a substance is equal to the heat gained by another. We use an
adiabatic vessel such as a calorimeter in order to insulate the system from losing heat to the environment so
that the heat lost by a hot substance is equal to that absorbed by a cold one. In this principle is based the
method of measurement of the specific heat we use in this experiment which is called method of mixtures.
PART A. The water equivalent of the calorimeter (K) is defined as the mass of water that absorbs as much heat
as the calorimeter (cup, thermometer and stirrer) and must be determined in first place following these steps
(do not forget attaching the absolute error to every measure).
A1. Fill a beaker about 125 mL of water and weigh it. Record its mass, mb+w,1. Pour the water into the
temperature (cool). Record the temperature, Tcool. Finally, weigh the empty beaker and record its mass,
mb,1. Compute the mass of water at room temperature by subtracting both masses, mcool.
A2. Once more fill a beaker about 125 mL of water and weigh it. Record the mass, mb+w,2. Place the beaker
on the hot plate and insert the thermometer in the central point of the water. When the water is about
60 ºC remove the beaker from the hot plate ( use a cloth to avoid burns and be careful not to touch
the hot plate with the cloth) and stir gently the water with the thermometer. Record quickly the
temperature placing the thermometer in the central point of the water, Thot. Pour the hot water into the
calorimeter and put the lid on it. Insert the stirrer and the thermometer. Stir gently (to mix both amounts
5
of water) and record the equilibrium temperature when the reading starts dropping, Teq. Finally, weigh
the empty beaker and record its mass, mb,2. Compute the mass of hot water by subtracting both masses,
mhot.
As said, by conservation of energy the heat lost by the hot water (Qhot) is equal to the heat gained by the cool
water (Qcool) and the calorimeter with its complements (Qi)
(4)
Taking into account equation (3)
(5)
where c is the specific heat of water. Solving for K

(6)
Note that the units of K are the same as both masses. Compute both K and its experimental absolute error.
PART B. Measurement of the specific heat of a solid (csol). Before starting this part clean and dry the calorimeter
and then follow these steps (do not forget attaching the absolute error to every measure).
B1. Fill the Kitasato flask about two‐thirds full of water and put the lid on it. Place the Kitasato flask on the
hot plate and use the retort stand to hold it. Keep boiling the water throughout the experience ( avoid
burns).
B2. Weigh the solid (glass beads) using its can. Record this mass, mcan+sol. Put the glass beads into the Noak
heater, put the lid on it and insert the digital thermometer. Weigh the empty can and record the mass,
mcan. Compute the mass of the solid by subtracting both masses, msol.
B3. Fill a beaker about 125 mL of water and weigh it. Record the mass, mb+w. Pour the water into the
calorimeter, put the lid on it, insert a thermometer well into the water and use the stirrer gently. All of
them are at room temperature. Record the temperature, Tcool. Finally, weigh the empty beaker and record
its mass, mb. Compute the mass of water at room temperature by subtracting both masses, mcool.
B4. When the glass beads are about 90 degrees let them drop in the calorimeter (previously get its lid off)
and record the exact temperature, Thot. Put the lid on it again, stir gently and record the equilibrium
temperature, Teq.
Similarly as done in part A, the heat lost by the hot solid is equal to the heat gained by the cool water and the
calorimeter with its complements and it can be expressed as
(7)
Solving csol

(8)
Compute both csol and its experimental absolute error.
ADDITIONAL INFORMACION: c = 1.000 ± 0.001 cal/g ºC.

6
A.2. Elasticity of a spring.
OBJECTIVES: to determine the spring constant of a coil spring by a static method and a dynamic method.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: coil spring, hooked weights, retort stand, measuring‐tape, stopwatch and computer.
THEORY: the restoring force (F) in the elongation or compression of a spring is given by
∆ (1)
where k is called the spring constant and x is the increase in length experienced by the spring. The minus sign
indicates that the restoring force acts in a direction opposite to the displacement. The greater the force, the
greater the elongation (or compression). Robert Hooke (a contemporary of Newton) was who first discovered
this relationship and is named Hooke’s law after him. This is an ideal linear relationship within certain limits.
Beyond the elastic limit, the spring is deformed and may eventually break.
If the restoring force is caused by a weight hung on the end of the spring, then we can express
∆ (2)
where m is the hanging mass and g is the acceleration due to gravity. In this case the mass is directly
proportional to elongation.
On the other hand, when an additional force on a stretched spring is exerted, it is generated a restoring force
which tends to restore the system to equilibrium. The restoring force is also given by the equation (1). If the
additional force ceases, the recovery in the spring produces a periodic motion. In the absence of friction, it can
be approximated to a simple harmonic motion. The spring oscillation period, T, is
2 (3)
where m is de hanging mass and k is the spring constant.
PART A. Determining the spring constant of a coil spring, k, by a static method. When a mass is suspended
from the free end of a spring an external force acts on it in the downward direction. This external force is the
weight (F = mg). The support applies an equal force in the upward direction so that the spring has a balanced
system of forces. Internally, a restoring force is generated in the spring. This method is based on the fact that a
hanging mass suspended from the free end of a spring is directly proportional to elongation.
Several masses will be hung on the free end of a spring producing proportional elongations. Using the Hooke’s
law the spring constant can be obtained following these steps (do not forget attaching the absolute error to
every measure).
A1. Measure and record the spring length with no mass attached using a measuring‐tape. This is its “resting”
length, x0.
A2. Attach a mass of 100 g to the spring and measure the spring length with the mass stationary. Repeat the
measurement now hanging masses of 200 g, 300 g, 400 g and 500 g. Record the masses and the
corresponding length in the data table, x1.
7
A3. Similarly, proceed as in step A2 suspending again the same masses (100 g, 200 g, 300 g, 400 g and 500
g). Record the lengths in the data table, x2.
A4. Compute the average length, x .
A5. Compute the elongations (x = xavg – x0) and the weights (F = mg) using appropriate units and record
them in the data table.
A6. Create a graph (x is the quantity to place on the horizontal axis and F is meant to be placed on the
vertical axis). Label the axis (quantity and units).
A7. Determine the straight line (in general, y = ax + b) of best fit for the set of data points (x, F) using the
method of least squares. Use a worksheet (Excel, for instance) and provide the slope of the line and the
y‐intercept. Draw the line. The spring constant, k, is equal to the slope (a = k).
A8. Finally, solve for k from equation (2) and compute a “new” spring constant using the hanging mass of
500 g and the first length of the spring obtained (x1). Compute its absolute error. ADDITIONAL
INFORMATION: m = 1 g, g = (9.82 ± 0.03) m/s2, (X) = 2 mm.
PART B. Determining the spring constant of a coil spring, k, by a dynamic method. Several masses will be hung
on the free end of a spring. By exerting an additional force on the stretched spring a simple harmonic motion
will be generated. The oscillation period can be related to the hanging mass by equation (3). Using this equation
the spring constant can be obtained following these steps (do not forget attaching the absolute error to every
measure).
B1. Attach a mass of 200 g to the spring. Start the mass bouncing so it moves about 10 cm up and down.
After 5 oscillations, time how long it takes to make 20 oscillations. Record the mass and the time, t1, in
the data table.
B2. Similarly, proceed as in step B1 using masses of 300 g and 400 g. Record the time in the data table, t1.
B3. Repeat the measurements recording the time (t2) and compute the average time, tavg.
B4. Compute the oscillation period form the average time (T = tavg/20) and record it in the data table.
B5. Create a graph (T2 is the quantity to place on the horizontal axis and m is meant to be placed on the
vertical axis). Label the axis (quantity and units).
B6. Determine the straight line (in general, y = ax + b) of best fit for the set of data points (T2, m) using the
method of least squares. Use a worksheet (Excel, for instance) and provide the slope of the line and the
y‐intercept. Draw the line. Compute the spring constant, k, from the slope ( .
B7. Finally, solve for k from equation (3) and compute a “new” spring constant using the hanging mass of
400 g and the first time obtained (t1). Compute its absolute error. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: t = 0.2
s, T = (0.2/20) s, m = 1 g.
Compare the k obtained using both methods.

8
B.2. Simple pendulum.
OBJECTIVES: to determine the value of the acceleration due to gravity.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: mass, string, retort stand, measuring‐tape, stopwatch and computer.
THEORY: Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that every particle in the Universe attracts every other
particle with a force (gravitational force) that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Therefore, all objects are attracted to the Earth and the magnitude of the attracted force exerted by the Earth
on an object located near the surface is called weight of the object. Using the physical parameters of the Earth
(its mass and its radius), the gravitational force can be expressed in a simpler form by the product of the mass
of the object and the value of the free‐fall acceleration, g. The magnitude of g depends on elevation and
latitude.
The measurement of g is very important in Mechanics. We will use a simple pendulum to determine it. A simple
pendulum consists of a mass attached to a string that is fastened such that the pendulum assembly can oscillate
freely in a plane. For a simple pendulum, all the mass is considered to be concentrated at a point at the center
of mass. Also, a simple pendulum is not subject to friction and air drag, so the amplitude of their oscillations
does not decline. For small angles (less than 15 º) the period of the simple pendulum oscillating in a plane, T,
(which is the time it takes for a pendulum to swing through a complete oscillation) can be approximated to
2 (1)
where L is the length of the pendulum (distance from the support to the center of the mass) and g is acceleration
due to gravity. Squaring both sides of equation (1)
(2)
Solving for g
(3)
Using this equation, the acceleration due to gravity can be computed with a single couple of data L and T2.
Nevertheless, in order to minimize experimental errors, the period is usually determined for several lengths of
the string. Thus, equation (2) can be plotted as a straight line with the general form y = ax + b by letting L = x
and y = T2. The slope of the line is 4 ⁄ and the y‐intercept is b = 0 theoretically speaking.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: follow these steps and do not forget attaching the absolute error to every
measure.
1. Set the pendulum with the full length of the string. Measure the length, L (distance from the support to
the center of the mass), using the measuring‐tape. Record it in the data table.
2. Pull the mass back to a small angle (less than 15º). After 5 oscillations, time how long it takes to make 25
oscillations. Record it in the data table, t.
3. Compute the corresponding period T = t/25. Record it in the data table.
4. Make shorter the string and repeat the measurements. Use 10 different lengths.
9
5. Create a graph (L is the quantity to place on the horizontal axis and T2 is meant to be placed on the vertical
axis). Label the axis (quantity and units).
6. Determine the straight line (in general, y = ax + b) of best fit for the set of data points (L, T2) using the
method of least squares. Use a worksheet (Excel, for instance) and provide the slope of the line and the y‐
intercept. Draw the line. Compute the acceleration due to gravity, g, from the slope ( 4 ⁄ ).
7. From equation (3) compute a “new” acceleration due to gravity using the greater length of the string.
Compute its absolute error.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: t = 0.2 s, T = (0.2/25) s.

10
A.3. Pycnometer.
OBJECTIVES: to determine density of a solid (glass beads) and an unknown liquid.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: pycnometer (figure 1), balance, set of weights, tweezers, glass beads and an unknown
liquid.
Capillary
Stopper
Flask
Figure 1. Pycnometer.
THEORY: the density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used is the Greek letter
.
The relative density or specific gravity, r, is defined as ratio of the density of the substance (s) to that of a
standard material, usually water (w). Therefore, we can write
(1)
where ms, Vs, mw and Vw are the mass and volume of the substance or water, respectively. Relative density has
no units. If Vs and Vw are equal, the relative density can be expressed as a ratio of masses. The method of the
pycnometer is based on this principle.
measure.
PART A. Density of a solid (glass beads).
A1. Measure the room temperature and record it.
A2. Make sure that the instrument is always level (horizontal) by adjusting the levelling legs until the bubble
in the spirit level is in the center of the black circle. Figure 2 shows a balance in detail.
Figure 2. A laboratory balance in detail.
11
A3. Fill a clean pycnometer with distilled water (let the water run down the wall of the flask to avoid air
bubbles). Fit the stopper on the top of the flask letting out the excess water through the capillary tube.
Dry the pycnometer avoiding the hole of the capillary.
A4. Weigh the pycnometer and record its mass, mp+w.
A5. Weigh the solid and record the mass, ms.
A6. Empty the pycnometer. Put the solid into the flask. Fill the flask with water completely. Fit the stopper
letting out the excess water through the capillary tube. Dry the pycnometer avoiding the hole of the
capillary. Record this mass, mp+s+w.
A7. Compute the relative density of the solid (r,s) as a ratio of masses: the mass of the solid (ms) and the
mass of water displaced by the solid (mdispl)
, (2)
A8. Compute the density of the solid at the same temperature using equation (1) and the table attached
(table 1). Interpolate the density of water, if necessary.
A9. Compute the absolute error of the density and the relative density of the solid.
PART B. Density of an unknown liquid.
B1. Check the room temperature and record it if changed.
B2. Clean and dry the pycnometer. Fit the stopper on the top of the flask and weigh it. Record its mass, mp.
B3. Fill the pycnometer with the liquid (let the liquid run down the wall of the flask to avoid air bubbles). Fit
the stopper on the top of the flask letting out the excess liquid through the capillary tube. Dry the
pycnometer avoiding the hole of the capillarity. Weigh it and record this mass, mp+L.
B4. Compute the relative density of the liquid (r,L) as a ratio of masses: the mass of the liquid (mL) and the
mass of water
, (3)
B5. Compute the density of the liquid at the same temperature using equation (1) and the table attached
(table 1). Interpolate the density of water, if necessary.
B6. Compute the absolute error of the density and the relative density of the liquid.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
Table 1. Density of water at several
temperatures.
T (ºC) w (g/cm3)
5 1.0000
15 0.9991
25 0.9970
35 0.9940
Absolute error of an interpolated value: ∆ ∆T ∆ρ .

12
B.3. Hydrostatic balance.
OBJECTIVES: to determine density of two solids and a liquid.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: hydrostatic balance, set of standard weights, tweezers, two solids and a liquid.
THEORY: Archimedes principle states that an object immersed wholly or partially in a fluid experiences a
buoyant force equal in magnitude to the weight of the volume of the fluid that it displaces. Thus, two external
forces act on a immersed object: a downward force on the object which is simply its weight and an upward, or
buoyant, force on the object which is that stated by Archimedes' principle. In other words, the principle states
that when a body is partially or completely immersed in a fluid, it experiences an apparent loss in weight which
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the immersed part of the body.
The density of an object () can be determined by weighing it in air (to get its mass, m) and immersed in a liquid
(usually water). The difference between the two weights is the weight of water displaced. As the density of
water is known, we can compute the volume (V) occupied by the object. To calculate the density is sufficient to
divide the mass by volume, as
(1)
To obtain the density method we use a hydrostatic balance. This balance has two pans, one of which with a
shorter stirrup and with a hook to suspend the object in air or in a liquid.
In addition, the density of a liquid can be obtained similarly from equation (1) by weighing an object of known
volume in air and immersed in the liquid. By subtracting both weights we can know the weight of the displaced
liquid.
measure.
PART A. Density of two solids.
A1. Measure the room temperature and record it.
A2. Check the balance: 1) adjust the legs to ensure that the instrument is always level, 2) make sure that the
pointer is in ZERO, if not, move the balancing screw (the left or right one) to achieve equilibrium. Figure
1 shows a balance in detail.
Figure 1. A laboratory balance in detail.
A3. Hang the first solid (the sphere) from the hook of the pan with the shorter stirrup.
13
A4. Add standard masses of known weight in the other pan until the beam is as close to equilibrium as
possible. Record the mass of the solid, ms,1.
A5. Fill a beaker with water. Immerse the solid completely in water. Again, add standard masses in the pan
until the beam is as close to equilibrium as possible. Record the mass of the solid immersed, mim,1.
A6. Compute the volume of the solid
, ,
, (2)
where w is the density of water at room temperature. If necessary, interpolate the density of water using
the table attached (table 1).
A7. Compute the density of the first solid from equation (1)
,
, (3)
,
A8. Compute the absolute error of the density.
A9. Obtain the density of the second solid (the square) following the previous steps.
PART B. Density of an unknown liquid.
B1. Check the room temperature and record it if changed.
B2. Hang one of the solids (preferably the sphere) from the hook of the pan with the shorter stirrup.
Remember that its volume was computed in part A, Vs,1. Weigh it wholly immersed in the unknown liquid
and record the mass, mim_unk.
B3. Compute the weight of the displaced liquid by subtracting both weights (munk_liq = ms,1‐mim_unk). Taking
into account that the volume of the displaced liquid is the volume of the sphere, it can be obtained the
density of the unknown liquid as
, _
_ (3)
,
B4. Compute the absolute error of the density.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
Table 1. Density of water at several
temperatures.
T (ºC) w (g/cm3)
5 1.0000
15 0.9991
25 0.9970
35 0.9940

Absolute error of an interpolated value: ∆z ∆x ∆z .

14
A.4. Boyle’s law.
OBJECTIVES: to verify the relationship between the volume and the pressure of a gas (air) at constant
temperature (Boyle’s law). To determine the number of moles of a gas.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Boyle’s law apparatus.
Figure 1. Boyle’s law apparatus in detail:
1. Manometer
2. Screw for aeration and de‐aeration valve.
3. Relief valve to control or limit the pressure.
4. Piston with O‐rings.
5. Protective cylinder.
6. Crank handle
7. Scale.

THEORY: Measurements of the behavior of a gas at low pressures lead to several conclusions:
 The volume (V) is proportional to the number of moles (n), keeping the pressure (p) and temperature
(T) constant.
 The volume varies inversely with the pressure, keeping the amount of gas and temperature constant.
This relation is called Boyle’s law after Robert Boyle a contemporary of Newton
(1)
 The pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature (T), keeping the amount of gas and
volume constant.
Thus, for an ideal gas the product of pressure (p) and volume (V) is proportional to the product of the number
of moles of gas (n) and the absolute temperature (T).
(2)
The proportionality constant R is called the ideal‐gas constant. Equation (1) is called the ideal‐dag equation.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: to verify the Boyle’s law we will use a Boyle’s law apparatus which consists of an
enclosed plexi‐glass cylinder with graduated scale to determine volume and a manometer for pressure readings
and includes an aeration and de‐aeration valve. By turning the crank handle the threaded rod moves the piston
up and down inside the cylinder thus varying the volume. This permits the generation of over‐ and
underpressure. Two O‐rings attached to the piston seal off the air.
Follow these steps to develop the experiment.
1. Read the temperature from the weather station. Record it in ºC (t) and also it in K (T).
2. Ventilate the cylinder by turning the valve screw. Set the piston to the 15 cm mark. Close the valve.
3. The manometer pointer indicates an initial pressure, p1. Avoid a parallax error (ensure that the line of
sight is perpendicular to the scale). Record the length (L1) and the pressure (p1) in the table.
4. Repeat the procedure 14 times increasing the pressure in 0.1 bar steps (it means decreasing length).
Record the 15 (L‐p) data in the table.
15
5. Compute the volume of the gas as
(3)
where the inner diameter of the cylinder d is 5 cm and the dead volume, V0 , is 20 cm3. Record the volumes
in the table and compute the inverse of volume ( ).
6. Use a sheet of graph paper to create a graph ( is the quantity to place on the horizontal axis and p is
meant to be placed on the vertical axis). Label the axis (magnitude and units).
7. Determine the straight line (in general y = ax + b and in this experiment ) of best fit for the set
of data points ( , p) using the method of least squares. Use the table attached in the report sheet.
8. Provide the slope of the line and the y‐intercept. Draw the line. Compute the number of moles, n, from
the slope (a = nRT).
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: R = 83.14 bar∙cm3/mol K.

16
B.4. Gas thermometer.
OBJECTIVES: to verify the relationship between the volume and the pressure of a gas (air) at constant
temperature (Boyle’s law). To determine the number of moles of a gas.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: gas thermometer (figure 1).
3
1 Figure 1. Gas thermometer: gas laws apparatus.
1. Mercury reservoir.
2 2. Measuring tube.
3. Thermometer.
4. Gas (air).

THEORY: Measurements of the behavior of a gas at low pressures lead to several conclusions:
 The volume (V) is proportional to the number of moles (n), keeping the pressure (p) and temperature
(T) constant.
 The volume varies inversely with the pressure, keeping the amount of gas and temperature constant.
This relation is called Boyle’s law after Robert Boyle a contemporary of Newton
(1)
 The pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature (T), keeping the amount of gas and
volume constant.
Thus, for an ideal gas the product of pressure (p) and volume (V) is proportional to the product of the number
of moles of gas (n) and the absolute temperature (T).
(2)
The proportionality constant R is called the ideal‐gas constant. Equation (1) is called the ideal‐dag equation.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: to verify the Boyle’s law we will use a gas thermometer (gas laws apparatus). In
order to investigate the correlation between the pressure p and the volume V, the pressure in the measuring
tube is varied by raising or sinking the mercury reservoir. The length L of the column of air in the measuring
tube and the height difference Δh between the mercury level in the mercury reservoir and the mercury level in
17
the measuring tube can be read off the scale of the device. Both quantities lead to volume (V) and pressure (p),
respectively.
Follow these steps to develop the experiment.
1. Read the temperature from the apparatus. Record it in ºC (t) and also it in K (T).
2. Get the atmospheric pressure patm from the weather station in cm Hg and note the value.
3. Remove the little rubber stopper from the mercury reservoir (right tube).
4. Move the mercury reservoir (right tube) until the levels of the mercury in the mercury reservoir and in the
measuring tube are at the same height (Δh = 0). Measure the length L of the column of air in the
measuring tube (left) in cm and note this value as well as the value for the height difference Δh (0 in this
case, figure 2).
Figure 2
Compute the volume of the gas as
(3)
where the cross‐sectional area A of the measuring tube is 1 cm2. Record the volumes in the table and
compute the inverse of volume ( ).
The pressure of the gas in cm Hg in this case is the atmospheric pressure
(4)
5. Repeat the procedure 7 times raising the mercury reservoir at seven different heights (figure 3). Record
in each case the L in cm and compute the volume using equation (3). Record h and compute the pressure
of the gas in cm Hg as
∆ (5)
18
h
Figure 3
6. Repeat the procedure 7 times sinking the mercury reservoir at seven different heights (figure 4). Record
in each case the L in cm and compute the volume using equation (3). Record h and compute the pressure
of the gas in cm Hg as
∆ (5)
h
Figure 4
7. Use a sheet of graph paper to create a graph ( is the quantity to place on the horizontal axis and p is
meant to be placed on the vertical axis). Label the axis (magnitudes and units).
8. Determine the straight line (in general y = ax + b and in this experiment ) of best fit for the set
of data points ( , p) using the method of least squares. Use the table attached in the report sheet.
9. Provide the slope of the line and the y‐intercept. Draw the line. Compute the number of moles, n, from
the slope (a = nRT).
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: R = 0.082 atm L/mol K.

19
A.5. Series and parallel circuits. B.5. Series and parallel circuits.
OBJECTIVES: to determine the equivalent resistance in series and parallel circuits using four methods.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: set of resistors, connection box, connecting wires, digital multimeter, DC power supply.
THEORY: Resistors are said to be connected in series when connected in line (“head to tail” so to speak,
although there is no distinction between the connecting ends of a resistor). Figure 1 shows three resistors
connected in series:
Figure 1. Resistances in series.
When connected to a voltage source V, the source supplies a current I to the circuit. By conservation of charge,
this current I flows through each resistor. The voltage drop across each resistor is not equal to V, but the sum
of the voltage drops is:
(1)
The voltage drops across each resistor is given by Ohm’s law (Vi IRi). Thus, equation (1) may be written
(2)
For a voltage across a single resistance Rs in a circuit, V = IRs, and by comparison
(3)
where Rs is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in series. That is, the three resistors in series could be
replaced by a single resistor with a value of Rs, with the same current I in the circuit. The absolute error of Rs is
the sum of absolute errors of each resistor.
Resistors are said to be connected in parallel when connected as shows figure 2 (all the “heads” are connected
together, as are all the “tails”).
Figure 2. Resistances in parallel.
The voltage drops across all the resistors are the same and equal to the voltage V of the source. However, the
current I from the source divides among the resistors such that
(4)
The current divides according to the magnitudes of the resistances in the parallel branches (the smaller the
resistance of a given branch, the greater the current through the branch). The current through each resistor is
given by Ohm’s law ( ⁄ ). Equation (3) may be written
(5)
For a current through a single resistance Rp in a circuit, ⁄ , and by comparison
(6)
where Rp is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel. That is, the three resistors in parallel could be
replaced by a single resistor with a value of Rp. The absolute error of Rp can be calculated from
20
∆ ∆ ∆
∆ (7)
where R1, R2, and R3 are the absolute errors of each resistance.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: to determine the equivalent resistance in series and parallel circuits using four
methods, first choose 3 resistors with the same order of magnitude (intuitively speaking, order of magnitude is
the number of powers of 10 contained in the number. Thus, two numbers have the same order of magnitude if
the big one divided by the little one is less than 10).
METHOD A. Examining the resistors using the figure attached (figure 3). The colored bands conform to a colour
code that gives the value of a resistor.
Figure 3. Color code table for resistors. Example.
For example: brown (1), black (0), orange (103), gold (Erel = 5%).
R = 10x103 = 10,000 
A1. Using this code, record the resistance of the three resistors, R1,code, R2,code and R3,code. Compute their
absolute errors from the relative one.
A2. Compute the equivalent resistance of the resistors in series from equation (3), Rs,A. Compute its absolute
error using the rule of addition of absolute errors.
A3. Compute the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel from equation (6), Rp,A. Compute its
absolute error from equation (7).
METHOD B. Examining the resistors using the digital multimeter.
B1. Use the multimeter as an ohmmeter by selecting the resistance scale. Plug in two wires to the ohmmeter
and the other ends to the resistor. CHECK THE CONNECTIONS WITH YOUR TEACHER.
B2. Select the proper range on the ohmmeter (the closest range to each resistance value. Take into account
that the range could be different in some of the three resistors).
B3. Record the resistance of the three resistors, R1,mult, R2,mult and R3,mult. Record their absolute errors that
depend on the digital device (and on the range employed in each resistance).
21
B4. Compute the equivalent resistance of the resistors in series from equation (3), Rs,B. Compute its absolute
error using the rule of addition of absolute errors.
B5. Compute the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel from equation (6), Rp,B. Compute its
absolute error from equation (7).
METHOD C. Using the connection box and the digital multimeter.
C1. Set up a series circuit with the three resistors using the connection box (figure 1). CHECK THE
CONNECTIONS WITH YOUR TEACHER.
C2. Use the multimeter as an ohmmeter by selecting the resistance scale (you have made it in the previous
method).
C3. Select the proper range on the ohmmeter (the closest range to the equivalent resistance value).
C4. Measure directly the equivalent resistance of the three resistors in series, Rs,C, connecting the wires at
both ends of the circuit. Record it and its absolute error that depend on the digital device (and on the
range employed).
C5. Set up a parallel circuit with the three resistors using the connection box (figure 2). CHECK THE
CONNECTIONS WITH YOUR TEACHER.
C6. Use the multimeter as an ohmmeter by selecting the resistance scale (you have made it in the previous
method).
C7. Select the proper range on the ohmmeter (the closest range to the equivalent resistance value).
C8. Measure directly the equivalent resistance of the three resistors in parallel, Rp,C, connecting the wires at
both ends of the circuit. Record it and its absolute error that depend on the digital device (and on the
range employed).
METHOD D. Using the connection box, the power supply and the digital multimeter.
D1. Set up a series circuit with the 3 resistors and the power supply using the connection box (figure 4).
BEFORE YOU PLUG YOUR CIRCUIT INTO THE POWER SUPPLY, MAKE SURE THAT YOU HAVE CONSTRUCTED
IT PROPERLY BY CHECKING IT WITH YOUR TEACHER. Turn on the power supply.
D2. UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF YOUR TEACHER, use the multimeter as a voltmeter by selecting the DC
voltage scale. Plug the two wires as shown in figure 4. Record the voltage drop, Vs, and its absolute error.
Turn off the power supply and disconnect the voltmeter.
D3. UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF YOUR TEACHER, use the multimeter as an ammeter by selecting the DC
amperage scale. Plug the two wires as shown in figure 5. Record the electric current, Is, and its absolute
error. Turn off the power supply and disconnect the ammeter.
D4. Compute the equivalent resistance of the resistors in series from Ohm’s law ( , ) using appropriate
units. Compute its absolute error using the method of logarithms.
D5. Set up a parallel circuit with the three resistors and the power supply using the connection box (figure
6). BEFORE YOU PLUG YOUR CIRCUIT INTO THE POWER SUPPLY, MAKE SURE THAT YOU HAVE
CONSTRUCTED IT PROPERLY BY CHECKING IT WITH YOUR TEACHER. Turn on the power supply.
22
D6. UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF YOUR TEACHER, use the multimeter as a voltmeter by selecting the DC
voltage scale. Plug the two wires as shown in figure 7. Record the voltage drop, Vp, and its absolute error.
Turn off the power supply and disconnect the voltmeter.
D7. UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF YOUR TEACHER, use the multimeter as an ammeter by selecting the DC
amperage scale. Plug the two wires as shown in figure 8. Record the electric current, Ip, and its absolute
error. Turn off the power supply and disconnect the ammeter.
D8. Compute the equivalent resistance of the resistors in series from Ohm’s law ( , ) using
appropriate units. Compute its absolute error using the method of logarithms.
Figure 4. Series circuit. Figure 5. Parallel circuit.
Compare the results obtain using the four methods.
23

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