Drilling Fluid to

Completion Brine
Displacements

New Orleans Technical Center

901 St Charles Avenue
New Orleans, LA 70130
Introduction
The transition from drilling mud to completion fluid is an important component of a
successful completion. Since the mud and brine systems are often inherently
incompatible, designing and implementing an engineered displacement can present a
critical challenge in the completion process. In addition to added costs from lost rig time,
a poor displacement can lead to impeded production due to invasion of solids, to
creation of emulsions or reverse wettability, to excessive losses of expensive drilling
mud or completion brine and/or to an inefficient gravel pack. A competent displacement
operation, therefore, separates the displaced fluid, usually the drilling mud, from the
displacing fluid, usually completion brine, with minimal interface and leaves the pipe in
the hole water-wet and free of emulsion, film or debris. These criteria are weighed with
environmental and economic factors to determine overall success.
This document discusses various methods of performing a displacement, the spacers
used to remove mud and clean casing and tubulars, operations and logistics issues
involved in displacement and some special well conditions that demand unusual
treatment. Each of these methods, materials or tools can be employed in various
combinations to produce the best result. The techniques discussed here represent
current best practices which should be taken into account when designing the
appropriately engineered displacement. Engineering the displacement design for each
specific application will offer the best opportunity for success.

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 INDEX
SECTION 1: DISPLACEMENT DIRECTION AND METHOD .............4
1.1 DIRECTION .......................................................................................................... 4
1.2 METHOD.............................................................................................................. 4
SECTION 2: DISPLACEMENT SPACERS..........................................6
2.1 SPACER TYPE...................................................................................................... 6
2.1.1 Spacers used in OBM/SBM displacements ........................................................................ 6
2.1.2 Spacers used in WBM displacements................................................................................. 7
2.2 DESIGN ............................................................................................................... 8
2.2.1 Lead or Transition spacer .................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Cleaning spacer.................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.3 Pre-blended spacers ..........................................................................................................10
2.3 SPACER SIZE .....................................................................................................10
2.4 CONTACT TIME...................................................................................................12
2.5 FLOW REGIME....................................................................................................13
SECTION 3: MECHANICAL AIDS .....................................................13
3.1 BRUSHES AND SCRAPERS ...................................................................................13
3.2 ROTATION AND RECIPROCATION OF DRILL PIPE ....................................................14
3.3 CIRCULATING PORT ............................................................................................15
SECTION 4: MECHANICAL MODELING ..........................................16
4.1 MODELING.........................................................................................................16
SECTION 5: OPERATIONS AND LOGISTICS .................................20
5.1 MUD CONDITIONING ...........................................................................................20
5.2 PUMP RATE AND PRESSURE ................................................................................21
5.3 PIT CAPACITY....................................................................................................21
5.4 SHUTDOWNS .....................................................................................................22
5.5 HSE .................................................................................................................22
SECTION 6: SPECIAL CONDITIONS ...............................................22
6.1 OPEN -HOLE .......................................................................................................22
6.2 DEEPWATER......................................................................................................23
6.2.1 Spacer chemistry ................................................................................................................23
6.2.2 Sub-sea drilling riser displacements………………………………………… ……………23
6.2.3 Sub-sea open-hole .............................................................................................................24
6.2.4 TCT/PCT .............................................................................................................................24
6.2.5 Gas hydrate.........................................................................................................................25

SECTION 7: POST-JOB EVALUATIONS..........................................25

REFERENCES...................................................................................26
APPENDIX: SAMPLE PROCEDURES..............................................28

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1 Displacement direction and method
There are various ways to perform mud to brine displacements. Fluid flow may be either
down the drill string or down the annulus. The spacers which displace the mud may be
weighted to balance the mud weight, or they may be mixed in water if hydrostatic
balance is not an issue. The fluid which follows the spacers into the hole may be water
or brine. The displacing fluid may be pumped into the well as one entire hole volume or
in increments of a hole volume. These techniques are identified as the displacement
direction and method.
1.1 Direction
Pumping direction refers to the manner in which circulation is established in the hole,
either down the drill pipe or down the casing annulus. The decision of which pump
direction to use can be influenced by whether or not there is communication with the
formation, either through open perforations or open-hole; by whether there is an
exposed liner top; by drilling mud weight and spacer make up; and by pump pressure.
Greater pressure is generally applied at the bottom of the hole when pump direction is
down the annulus.
In the Forward direction, displacing fluids are pumped down the drill string and up the
casing annulus. Open perforations, an open-hole or an exposed liner top experience the
minimum hydraulic pressure when the well in circulated in the forward direction. This is
because friction pressure applied at the pump is from the annulus, which has a larger
flow area and therefore lower friction than similar flow in the drill pipe.
In the Reverse direction, displacing fluids are pumped down the casing annulus and up
the drill string. Exposed areas in the annulus, like open perforations or exposed liner
tops, experience greater applied pressure because the pump must overcome increased
friction pressure generated by flow in the drill pipe.
If the casing is tested and no communication is present with the reservoir, heavy weight
drilling fluid may be more easily displaced in the reverse direction by a lighter fluid. This
may be preferred because there will be less of a tendency for lighter fluid to intermix with
heavy drilling fluid when displacing it down the annulus. However, these advantages are
offset by the likelihood of low pump rates at the beginning of the displacement process,
which can reduce the cleaning efficiency of the displacement spacers at the top of the
hole in the annulus, and by eliminating rotation and reciprocation of the drill pipe
because the annular preventers must remain closed while pumping down the annulus.
For these reasons, by far the largest majority of brine displacements are pumped in the
forward direction.
Forward and reverse directions may be combined in a single displacement, as for
example when high-weight water-base drilling fluid (WBM) is displaced out of the hole in
the reverse direction and cleaning spacers are then pumped in the forward direction.
1.2 Method
Method of displacement refers to the fluid sequence followed in the displacement,
whether drill water, lease water, sea water or brine follows the spacers which displace
the drilling fluid from the hole. The decision as to which fluid chases the drilling fluid and
spacers out of the hole will be determined by the amount of pit space on the rig, by the
availability of a cheap water source, by whether the wellbore can withstand the pressure
differential between the weight of a column of water and that of the drilling mud and by

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pump pressures required to accomplish the displacement. It will help determine how
much fluid may require off-location disposal after the displacement.
In the Direct method, drilling fluid is displaced by cleaning spacers followed by
completion fluid. Direct displacements are preferred in zero discharge areas where
minimizing fluid waste is critical. Logistics and pit management are critical elements of a
direct displacement. Direct displacements require that the entire hole volume of
completion fluid be available on location while drilling fluid is brought to the surface from
the hole. In most displacement applications where drilling fluid and completion fluid
handling issues are manageable, technical and chemical competencies have made the
direct method the preferred option.
In the Indirect method, drilling fluid is displaced by cleaning spacers followed by a hole-
volume of available water (drill water, lease water or sea water). Only later is the
available water displaced out of the hole by completion fluid. Some operators prefer the
indirect displacement method because it offers the opportunity to continuously flush the
casing until clean using an inexpensive fluid that doesn’t need to be filtered and can
treated on location for disposal. However, well conditions may not permit filling the hole
with low density drill water or sea water due either to unacceptable differential pressure
downhole or to pump pressure limitations. It may be neither desirable nor safe to
expose a liner top, open perforations or open-hole to the negative differential of a
column of drill water or seawater relative to that of mud. In these cases, a balanced or
near-balanced method is required.
The Balanced method is a type of direct displacement. Using this method, the spacers
are weighted to balance the density of the drilling fluid so that differential pressures (the
difference between hydrostatic pressure and formation or liner top test pressure) are
minimized during pumping of the displacement. For example, low density spacers made
up in sea water may require pump pressure during circulation that exceeds the formation
fracture pressure or the pressure that an exposed liner top can withstand before
breaking down. Also these spacers may apply insufficient hydrostatic pressure to hold
back the formation during the displacement. Weighting the spacers to a balanced or
near-balanced condition will reduce the pump pressure required to move the spacers
around the hole, as well as keep constant pressure on the reservoir for adequate well
control.
The Staged displacement method is a seldom-used but still important technique in
which an upper section of the hole is displaced completely, usually indirectly, before the
remaining lower sections are displaced. A staged displacement may involve three or
four stages. In the staged method, the drill pipe is lowered one-third or one-half way in
the hole and the upper section of the hole is displaced down the drill pipe or annulus.
Then the drill pipe is lowered further into the hole and that section is displaced. As a
technique, it is usually required when extremely heavy drilling fluid must be displaced by
water or light brine. For the obvious reason that large volumes of contaminated fluid are
expected, this technique should be used when an indirect displacement is possible. For
the same reason, a staged displacement with oil-base drilling fliud (OBM) is usually
impractical.

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2 Displacement Spacers
Displacement spacers are designed for case-specific applications according to the type
of drilling fluid being displaced, the function of the individual spacer in the system and
the volume of spacer that is required to provide adequate contact time at the specified
pump rate.
2.1 Spacer Type
Spacer systems differ from oil-base or synthetic drilling fluid to water-base drilling fluid
displacements. OBM/SBM displacements use solvent/surfactant chemistry as the
primary cleaning agents. WBM displacements use caustic solutions and water-wetting
surfactants. In either case, individual spacers are designed to perform a function, be it
to physically move or dislodge the drilling mud or to clean the mud film from the tubulars
and casing and leave them water-wet. Each spacer must also be compatible with the
drilling mud being displaced. With the exception of open-hole displacements, where it
may be desirable to leave the mud filter cake in tact, the system of spacers should
remove all trace of the mud from the wellbore. Table 1 displays the functions and
qualities of the various spacers that are typically used in both direct and indirect
displacements. The individual spacers are described in detail on the following pages.
Table 1
Spacer Type Function Qualities
Synthetic-

Base oil Thin drilling fluid

Oil- or

base

Transition Displace drilling fluid More viscous and denser than, compatible with drilling fluid.
Cleaning Clean pipe, water-wet Must be able to clean pipe at given contact time and rate.
Viscous Tail Sweep debris from hole Made up with xanthan if possible.
Water-base

Viscous Lead Displace drilling fluid More viscous and denser than drilling fluid.
Caustic Breakdown DF, raise pH May be split into segments separated by seawater pads.
Surfactant Clean pipe, water-wet Fresh water if possible, low surfactant concentration.
Viscous Tail Sweep debris from hole Made up with xanthan if possible.

2.1.1 Spacers used in OBM/SBM displacements

1. Base oil should be used between the drilling fluid and lead (transition)
spacer whenever possible. As a component of the mud system, its
purpose is to thin the mud it contacts and to mobilize it. Because
base oil, whether mineral or synthetic, has density < 7 lb/gal (0.84
SG), pump pressure restrictions may limit the size or use of this
spacer in front of the displacement spacers.
2. The transition spacer is so-called because of its place at the
interface or transition between an oil- or synthetic-base environment
and a water-base environment. It is viscosified with a base of drill
water, sea water or brine, and usually contains a solvent-and-
surfactant blend. It should be weighted with barite or brine to greater
than drilling fluid weight (up to 2 lb/gal [0.24 kg/L] greater) and it
should be more viscous than the drilling fluid. Whether or not base oil
can be used between drilling fluid and transition spacer, compatibility
of the transition spacer and drilling fluid should be guaranteed through
pilot testing.
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 3. The cleaning spacer is composed of drill water, sea water or brine
containing solvent or solvent-and-surfactant blend. It is often pumped
in two stages; solvent first, followed by surfactant. This spacer must
be tailored to fit the application. Testing is performed for specific
displacement conditions to determine that the spacer will effectively
clean the drilling fluid from pipe at the rate and temperatures
anticipated. This is discussed further in Section 2.2 Design that
follows.
4. The viscous tail spacer is made up of viscosified drill water, sea
water or brine. It separates the brine or sea water displacing fluid
from the spacers. It functions as a sweep to carry residual drilling
fluid solids and debris out of the hole.
2.1.2 Spacers used in WBM displacements
1. The lead spacer is a viscous push pill made up in drill water or
seawater that should have more viscosity and density (up to 2 lb/gal
[0.2397 kg/L]) than the drilling fluid it displaces. It may be weighted
with barite. Blending or weighting with brine could create
incompatibilities with the WBM. The spacer’s purpose is to physically
remove the drilling fluid from the wellbore.
2. The first cleaning spacer is a caustic solution blended in drill water or
seawater. It will help breakdown the WBM, making it mobile, and to
create a high-pH environment. The elevated pH encourages iron
precipitation, making it easily filterable. This caustic spacer is often
pumped in several stages separated by drill water or sea water. This
extends the contact time of the caustic environment. Drill water or
sea water pumped ahead of the caustic spacer can minimize negative
effects of the caustic on the rheology of the viscous lead spacer.
3. The second cleaning spacer is a surfactant spacer made up in drill
water, sea water or brine. Surfactant is usually required at low
concentrations to clean and water-wet tubulars and casing.
4. The viscous tail spacer is made up of viscosified drill water, sea
water or brine. Its separates the brine or sea water displacing fluid
from the spacers. It functions as a sweep to carry residual drilling
fluid solids and debris out of the hole.
Fresh water is a superior solvent for water-base drilling fluid. For this reason, a fresh
water spacer is sometimes pumped before the lead viscous spacer to thin the drilling
fluid, much as base oil is used in oil-base or synthetic-base drilling fluid displacements.
A flocculent is sometimes added to the first 100 barrels (16m 3) of drill water, sea water or
brine following the displacement spacers. It functions to agglomerate individual fine
particles into a filterable mass. This can greatly speed up the brine filtration process
following the displacement. In an indirect method, the flocculent may precede the
viscous tail spacer. In a direct method, the flocculent-in-brine follows the viscous tail. If
added to brine, the flocculent fluid can be incorporated back into the working system
once it has been recovered from the well after the displacement.

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2.2 Spacer Design
Spacer design is a critical element of displacement implementation. The lead or
transition spacer may be viscosified with cellulosic linear polymers or with biopolymers.
In OBM/SBM displacements, it may contain any of several combinations of solvent and
surfactant. The objective is compatibility with and removal of the drilling fluid. The
cleaning spacer may require high concentration of surfactant in a brine base for
hydrostatic control, or it may only require low surfactant concentration in drill water or
seawater. General rules are referenced here, but case-specific criteria based on
laboratory testing should always determine spacer design.
2.2.1 Lead or Transition spacer
The viscosity of this spacer should be greater than drilling fluid viscosity to
promote a more efficient sweep of the drilling fluid from casing. It is important to
determine that the interface of lead spacer and drilling fluid does not achieve a
viscosity that challenges the spacer system’s ability to physically and chemically
remove it. In balanced or weighted-spacer OBM/SBM displacements, drilling
fluid and lead transition spacers should be tested for compatibility. It is
recommended that compatibility tests are run for lower weight drilling fluid
displacements, since incompatibilities can also occur in this range.
The lead or transition spacer should be weighted with either barite or high-
density brine to exceed the density of the drilling fluid being displaced by ~ 2
lb/gal (0.2397 kg/L).1 In instances where the drill pipe cannot be rotated, a
weighted spacer (> mud weight) provides superior displacement on the low side
where the drill pipe lays against the casing. This is especially true when velocity
and viscosity are not enough to exceed the yield stress of the drilling fluid.
Weighting the spacer takes advantage of gravity to help move mud in the tight
2-3
annular area where the drill pipe contacts the casing. It is easier and less
costly to achieve a good viscosity profile with a barite-weighted spacer than with
a brine-weighted spacer. Also completion brines may cause major viscosity
increases in water-base mud, resulting in mud paste that can be difficult to move
or remove.

Polymers used for viscosity have temperature limits. It may be very difficult to
maintain sweep efficiency in BHT conditions > 300oF (149oC). Thermal
extenders or synthetic polymers can be used when necessary to enhance
viscosity profile. Above 350oF (177oC), the size of viscous spacers may be
increased by 30% to compensate for efficiency-loss due to thinning.
4-5
Xanthan biopolymer is the preferred viscosifier for displacement spacers. It is
superior to HEC in that it suspends solids while in laminar flow and slips at the
pipe wall, where it forms a turbulent layer that removes solids. Xanthan can be
used in drill water and sea water spacers, in CaCl2 spacers < 10.8 lb/gal (1.294
kg/L) density, in CaBr2, ZnBr2 and formate brine-base spacers, although the yield
will be less than optimum in higher density divalent brines. Xanthan can also be
used in conjunction with HEC in CaCl2 spacers up to 11.4 lb/gal (1.366 kg/L).
For open-hole or open perforation displacements, clarified xanthan should be
used. In cased hole where there is no concern for losses to the formation,
unclarified xanthan can be effective at lower cost, although it will not yield as
efficiently as the clarified biopolymer.

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 HEC may be required when CaCl2 brine > 10.8 lb/gal (1.294 kg/L) is the base
fluid for spacers. HEC easily viscosifies most high-density brines (the exception
being 15.2 lb/gal to ~ 16.5 lb/gal [1.821 kg/L to 1.977 kg/L] zinc bromide brine).
Because of its linear gel structure, HEC has low gel strength (poor suspension
properties) and may leave significant volumes of solids in the hole after
circulation. Multiple sweeps or large circulating volumes may be required to
clean the hole when using HEC.
2.2.2 Cleaning spacer
The ability of a cleaning additive blended in drill water, sea water or brine to
clean mud from tubulars and casing should not be taken for granted. Cleaning
efficiencies change with mud type, base brine, additive concentration, pump rate
and contact time. Temperature also plays a role: a particular spacer may not be
as effective at the mudline of a deepwater location, where the temperature may
be 40oF (4.4oC), than at bottomhole, where it may be 200oF (93.3 oC) warmer.
In most cases involving OBM or SBM removal, the cleaning spacer should
consist of separate, consecutive stages of 1) solvent in drill water, seawater or
brine and 2) surfactant in drill water. seawater or brine. Dispersions of 10% to
20% of solvent in drill water, seawater or brine are quite effective at removing
mud solids and debris. A polishing solution of 3% to 10% surfactant is sufficient
to remove oil-wet film and to water-wet tubulars.
During direct displacements of high-weight drilling fluid, the cleaning spacer may
require weighting to near mud weight, either to enable sufficient pump rate at
acceptable pump pressure or to lessen the negative differential pressure on a
liner, perforations or open-hole. In the cleaning spacer barite solids cannot be
used for weighting up, so high-density brine must be used.

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Figure 1: The cleaning spacer design test is performed on a pre-weighed capped
carbon steel sleeve mounted on the spindle of a Fann 35 rheometer. The sleeve is
immersed in drilling fluid for 15 minutes at 3 rpm to form a consistent coating. Removed
from the mud, the sleeve is allowed to drip for one minute, the bottom cap is wiped clean
and the sleeve weighed. The sleeve is remounted on the spindle and immersed in the
cleaning solution at set rpm (100, 200 or 300) for one, two, four, six and ten minutes.
After each immersion, the sleeve is removed and weighed. The test is complete when
the sleeve is clean, or at ten minutes contact time if the sleeve is not clean. Once a
successful cleaning solution is identified, the entire test is repeated using an identical
cleaning solution contaminated with 25% of the drilling fluid. The test is discussed
further in Sections 2.3 Size and 2.4 Contact Time below.
Laboratory testing has shown that solvent/surfactant combinations usually work
better when blended in base brine that contains some free water than in salt-
saturated solutions. It has also been noted that these combinations in dilute
brine may experience a notable viscosity increase when the spacer picks up
drilling fluid. This added viscosity acts to deter further drilling fluid removal. Prior
testing is recommended on the drilling fluid in question to determine whether a
surfactant or solvent-and-surfactant blend will clean effectively in any brine.
At low bottom hole temperature (< 150oF [65.5oC]) it may be necessary to
increase the concentration of solvent or surfactant in cleaning spacers to enable
removal of synthetic- or oil-mud deposits. Laboratory tests should be run for
specific bottom hole conditions.
Caustic soda is best blended in drill water. It can be blended in sea water, but
magnesium will precipitate out of the seawater as MgO and use up ~ 1 lb/bbl
(0.0029 kg/L) equivalent of caustic. The precipitate can appear as a white paste.
Except in open-hole or open perforation situations, where there may be concern
for losses to the interval, blending caustic pills in seawater should have no
negative impact on the quality of the displacement. Some operators like to use a
secondary cleaning spacer consisting of caustic soda in carrier fluid either before
or after the tail spacer. It should be noted that direct contact of a caustic spacer
with oil-base or synthetic-base drilling fluid can gunk the drilling fluid and cause it
to adhere tenaciously to the tubular surface. For this reason it is not
recommended that caustic spacers are used in direct OBM/SBM displacements.
2.2.3 Pre-blended spacers
Pre-blended spacers may need re-agitation on location prior to pumping because
of phase-separation of some additive chemicals. Also, blends of surfactant in
drill water, sea water or brine (with or without solvent) may slightly increase in
viscosity in the transport tank. This viscosity may interfere with the spacer’s
ability to be pumped in turbulence. In consequence, lower chemical
concentration and larger spacer volume may be required. Surfactants should be
added to spacers on location shortly prior to pumping regardless of whether or
not the rest of the spacer is sent to location pre-blended.
2.3 Spacer Size
Spacer size is regularly determined by application of rule-of-thumb suggestions. One
such suggestion is that a particular spacer should occupy a certain length of space in the
largest annulus of a particular wellbore. This length might be 500 ft (150m), 1000 ft
(300m) or 1500 ft (450m), depending upon the type of spacer and the unique experience
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of the design engineer. Another rule-of-thumb suggestion is that contact time for the
cleaning spacer should be a certain number of minutes, usually 8 or 10, again
depending upon the experience of the designer. Yet another rule-of-thumb suggestion is
that fluid velocity in the largest annulus should be 3 feet per second to affect casing
cleaning and particle removal.
Recently, design engineers are making efforts to move away from rule-of-thumb design
criteria by applying common sense, engineering techniques and displacement fluid
analysis.6-7 The following discussion is based on data provided by displacement
analyses like those in the referenced papers.
As noted earlier, the lead or transition spacer functions as a push pill for removing whole
mud from the wellbore. It should be sized to eliminate intermixing of fluids ahead of and
behind it. Put another way, some portion of the transition or lead spacer should return to
surface after making a circuit of the wellbore in very much the same condition in which it
entered the well. In WBM displacements, this issue is critical when the cleaning spacers
are mixed in brine that may be incompatible with the mud. (Incompatibility in this context
refers to a by-product of intermixing which is more viscous than either of the initial fluids
and may be difficult to displace.) In OBM displacements, the transition spacer must
create a compatible transition from oil-base to water-base, and sizing is always critical.

Conventional practice defines the interval of separation between the oil-base mud and
water-base cleaning spacer, or the space occupied by the transition spacer, as 500 ft
(150m), 1000 ft (300m) or 1500 ft (450m). Accordingly, any wellbore that has as its
largest annulus 9 5/8-in. (245mm) ID by 4-in. (102mm) OD radial area will have the
same size lead spacer in its displacement design. Clearly this calculation ignores the
depth of the well as a factor, although ultimately it will matter whether the well is 5000 ft
(1525m) or 25,000 ft (7620m) deep. After a study of casing displacement efficiency
covering more than 5 years of practice, M-I SWACO proposes that the transition spacer
should be designed to occupy 10% of the volume of the hole with pipe. This overcomes
the difficulty posed by selecting arbitrary numbers (500 ft [150m] and 1000 ft [300m])
with no real basis for deciding between them.
Conventional practice identifies 10 minutes in the largest annulus as the appropriate
contact time for an effective cleaning spacer. However, proponents of this parameter
have no more moral or scientific authority than those who claim 8 minutes or 6 minutes
of contact time as sufficient and appropriate. The sources of all these numbers are
unknown, but they provide an aura of regularity for displacement designers.
To provide some empirical foundation for sizing the cleaning spacer, M-I SWACO made
the effort to measure (and to back-calculate through mathematical correlation) the width
of OBM film adhering to casing following the piston-like displacement of whole mud by
8
the viscous lead spacer. These measurements determined that, depending upon
temperature and mud properties, the width of this film can range from 0.016 to 0.05 cm,
or roughly six-thousandths to two-hundredths of an inch. Analysis of field samples from
displacement flow backs has further determined that a more applicable figure for mud
film width to use for displacement spacer design might be 0.12 cm or 0.047 in. (See
discussion in Section 7 Post-Job Analysis.) Using these figures, the total theoretical
volume of residual mud in a well can be calculated as the product of depth and the sum
of the theoretical volume of mud coating the ID of casing, the ID of workstring and OD of
workstring. This is the theoretical volume of mud residue that should be removed by the
cleaning spacer, and will be referred to here as the Theoretical Mud Film Volume (VTF).

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At sufficient levels of contamination, a well-designed spacer will be ineffective at
cleaning tubulars. M-I SWACO defines an efficient cleaning spacer as one that will
effectively remove mud film and water-wet tubulars when contaminated with up to 25%
drilling mud. Based on this, a displacement design engineer can size cleaning spacers
by calculating VTF and multiplying by 3 (to guarantee no more than 25% dilution of the
cleaning solution). A cleaning spacer designed to this specification will effectively clean
the entire wellbore, providing that sufficient rate and contact time required for cleaning
are met.
The test to determine rate and contact time for a specific cleaning solution, drilling fluid
and temperature is described in Section 2.2.2 Cleaning Spacer above. Spacer testing
may indicate that, at the desired pump rate, the contact time specification is not met by a
spacer designed according to the VTF calculation. In this case, cleaning spacer size
should be adjusted according the calculations in Table 2 below.
Table 2
Cleaning Spacer Size Calculation
VTF barrels (M3) Theoretical calculation of mud or film volume on casing and drill pipe.
TC minutes Contact time required for effective cleaning (Fann 35 sleeve test).
QR barrels/minute (l/min) Required pump rate as determined in cleaning test.
QP barrels/minute (l/min) Proposed pump rate during displacement (from pump schedule).
QR = QP barrels/minute (l/min) Must be true.
3
3VTF barrels (M ) Spacer size for maximum 25% mud contamination.
3
3VTF/QP barrels/[barrels/minute] (M / [l/min]) Contact time at expected displacement flow rate.
3
If T C > 3VTF/QP, then cleaning spacer size = TC x QP barrels (M )
3
If TC < 3VTF/QP, then cleaning spacer size = 3VTF barrels (M )

The mud film volume is calculated using 0.047in (0.12cm) for the width of mud sheath from
surface to TD. Lab testing provides a given contact time (TC minutes) at a set rate (QR bbl/min
or l/min) for effective removal of the mud film. The pump schedule design provides a proposed
rate (QP bbl/min or l/min) in the largest annulus. The spacer is properly designed for efficient
mud removal at up to 25% mud contamination, so that 3VTF is the minimum spacer size. The
formulation suggests that if TC is greater than contact time at proposed flow rate (3VTF/QP),
then cleaning spacer size should be TC (required contact time) times QP (proposed flow rate).
If TC is less than contact time at proposed flow rate, then cleaning spacer size should be 3VTF
(three times the calculated theoretical volume of mud film).
The factor 0.047in (0.12cm) used for calculating VTF was determined from analyses of
well displacements in which pipe rotation and reciprocation, turbulent flow for the
cleaning spacer in all parts of the wellbore and appropriate mud conditioning prior to
displacement were not always attained. This averaging of conditions creates a higher
level of confidence in the VTF determination and provides the design engineer a criterion
for fail-safe performance when optimum design practices are not duplicated in the field.
The calculation in Table 2 disregards the effects of increased turbulence at increased
velocity. The maximum flow rate simulation in the cleaning test is ~ 125 ft/min.
Spacer volume recommendations should always be considered pumpable volume so
that dead space in blending pits and lines does not reduce overall contact time.
2.4 Contact time
Contact time refers to the amount of time a fluid is in direct contact with a given point in
the drill pipe or casing annulus. Determining the appropriate contact time in a particular
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 9
displacement requires knowledge of the cleaning efficiency of the chemicals used. This
is gained by empirical testing. In a typical test, a carbon sleeve mounted on a Fann 35
viscometer spindle is coated with drilling fluid and then immersed in a dilute solvent
and/or surfactant solution. The spindle is rotated at a rate (rpm) that can be equated to
flow through pipe (ft/min or m/min) for a set amount of time. Mud removal efficiency is
determined by weighing the remaining mud on the sleeve and by visual inspection.
Contact time required to remove most or all of a specific drilling fluid with a particular
solvent/surfactant solution at a defined temperature and moving at a certain rate is
recorded for reference. Contact times for complete removal of drilling fluid may range
from < 1 up to 10 minutes, depending upon mud type and weight, chemical composition
and concentration, amount of mud contamination in the cleaning solution, temperature
and fluid velocity. This information determines the type and size of the spacer used to
perform the displacement.
2.5 Flow regime
It is generally recognized that the cleaning spacer will be most effective when it is in
turbulent flow.10 Turbulence is usually attributed to a Newtonian fluid with Reynolds’
Number (NRe) > 4000. To ensure that a particular fluid is in turbulence, however, a
design criterion of NRe ~ 6,000 to 8,000 is advisable. Factors which determine the NRe of
a fluid are density, apparent viscosity (AV), velocity and flow area. High NRe can usually
be achieved with relative ease in non-viscous cleaning spacers, since NRe is inversely
proportional to fluid viscosity.
It is often argued that the faster the pump rate, the better the cleaning efficiency. This is
not necessarily the case, as at least some of the spacers in a displacement are viscous
and are not intended to be pumped in turbulent flow. Additionally, these spacers may be
weighted specifically for the purpose of overcoming the shear stresses of the drilling fluid
at the casing wall. In deviated wellbores, where the effects of eccentricity will be more
notable, the longer the time viscous weighted spacers have to sweep the entire hole,
including the pinched-out annuli of eccentric wellbores, the better the displacement of
whole mud will be. To accomplish this, a slower pump rate would be more desirable
than a faster one. This would suggest that the optimum pump rate might be one that
puts the non-viscous cleaning spacers in turbulent flow in the largest annulus, but at the
same time is slow enough to allow time for the viscous weighted spacers to work on the
whole-mud displacement.

3 Mechanical aids
Down hole tools provide mechanical cleaning and aid the hydraulic and chemical
cleaning process. In every displacement, some kind of mechanical aid is used. In
many, mechanical tools can make the difference between a successful displacement
and a poor one. Tools are used to scrape mud and scale from the casing wall, to mill
out residual cement from liner jobs and squeezes, to jet wash blow-out preventers and
risers and to carry scale and mill debris out of the hole. Circulating ports are used to
enable higher rates of circulation above restrictions in the lower portion of the wellbore.
3.1 Brushes and scrapers
Casing brushes and scrapers are typically made up onto the “clean-up string” that is run
to bottom immediately prior to the displacement. Their purpose is to mechanically
remove mud solids from the casing wall as a precursor to the chemical sweeps and
washes that will push the mud from the hole. One scraper is usually spaced out to land
Displacement Guidelines 13
NOTC March, 2009
at the bottom of each string of casing or liner, and one or several brushes is spaced out
in each size string, depending upon the length of the string. In a short-trip, pipe is pulled
until the top brush is exposed at the surface; at that point, brushes spaced out
throughout the drill string will have swept across each foot of casing as they came up the
hole. The short-trip is completed when the clean-up string is run back to bottom. Often
scrapers will be reciprocated across intervals to remove cement or scale where packers
will be set or perforations made.
Straight wellbores containing freshly conditioned mud may not require the help of
brushes, although scrapers are rarely left out of the drill string on the clean up trip.
However, in holes deviated 30o or more from vertical, brushes and scrapers play an
essential role in removing mud pockets that will form on the low-side of casing.
Other mechanical aids that are used in the displacement string are bits and mills, junk
baskets (for carrying debris out of the hole), magnets (for capturing and transporting to
surface large metal cuttings) and jetting tools (for BOP stacks and deepwater risers).

Figure 2: Bladed
lantern of SPS Razor
Back casing scraper
tool. Tool rides on
mandrel between two
centralizers.

Figure 3: Combination
casing scraper and
brush from Speedwell.
Unit can be configured
to offer multiple brushes,
scrapers or magnets.

3.2 Rotation and reciprocation of drill pipe

Except where it is centralized, drill pipe tends toward one side of the hole, especially so
in angled wellbores. Flow rates on the low side of the hole, where contact or near-
contact occurs between drill pipe and casing, are lower than on the high side. This is
due to increased friction in the reduced flow area and is a primary reason for the build-up
of drilling mud solids beds. Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to achieve the flow
rate required to clean solids from around the drill pipe.11-12 Rotation of the drill pipe
loosens the solids beds and helps break them up. If the rate of rotation is sufficient only
for axial rotation of the drill pipe, this benefit will be minimal, even non-existent. The
rotation rate of drill pipe, therefore, should be great enough to roll the pipe up the casing
wall. The random pipe movement this generates will alter the flow rates in localized
spots where mud solids may have built up, enabling turbulent flow rates and adequate
spacer contact in otherwise inaccessible low-side areas. 50 rpm pipe rotation rate is
suggested as the minimum limit to achieve this type of drill pipe movement. Tests using
drill solids indicate that the benefits from pipe rotation will vary with hole angle and pump
rate.13 At = 40o hole angle, 50 to 75 rpm provides the most benefit to cleaning regardless
of pump rate. At 40o < 90o, 50 to 75 rpm are adequate when the pump rate is 12
Displacement Guidelines 14
NOTC March, 2009
bbl/min, whereas 75 to 100 rpm are recommended when pump rates are 8 < 10 bbl/min
and > 100 rpm when pump rates are 6 < 8 bbl/min. See Table 3 below.
Table 3
Recommendations for pipe rotation and reciprocation
Pipe rotation rate < 40o hole angle 40o < 90o hole angle
all pump rates 6 to 8 bpm 8 to 12 bpm > 12 bpm
950-1270 lpm 1270-1900 lpm > 1900 lpm
50 < 75 rpm > 100 rpm 75 < 100 rpm 50 < 75 rpm

Pipe reciprocation 90' during mud conditioning

30' during displacement, only after spacers enter casing annulus

Reciprocation of the drill pipe while circulating also helps disturb mud solids build-up.
Reciprocation during the displacement should be timed so that the drill pipe is on bottom
when the spacers turn into the annulus from the drill string. This will eliminate the
possibility that whole spacers are pumped into the annulus without contacting lower
sections of the wellbore. For this reason, it may be recommended that reciprocation
begin only after the cleaning spacer has reached the end of the workstring and that
reciprocation is limited to 30’ or 9-10m (one joint) of elevation. A second reason to limit
the reciprocating stroke during displacement to 30’ is that the fluid flow regime,
especially near the top of tool-joint upsets, is altered from the up-stroke to the down-
stroke. Reducing the length of the stroke increases the likelihood of cleaning spacer
contact with each tool joint during the upward stoke of the pipe.
In the majority of completion designs, it is possible to rotate and reciprocate the drill pipe
during displacement. However, in certain high angle conditions it may not be desirable
to reciprocate the drill pipe, and it may not be possible to rotate at high enough rates. In
these instances, increased pump rates and adjustments to spacer design may help
compensate for loss of pipe movement.
3.3 Circulating port
A production liner may be small relative to the intermediate casing or liner above it. In
this case, the reduced-ID drill pipe and small liner annulus will restrict flow rate and
increase pump pressure. A circulating port may be employed in the workstring above
the liner top to enable high rate of fluid circulation and turbulent flow in the upper annuli.
Figure 4 shows one method of displacing through a circulating port.

Displacement Guidelines 15
NOTC March, 2009
 Figure 4. This graphic
demonstrates a potential use
for a circulating port to provide
extra flow rate in upper annuli.
In this application, with the
ports closed spacers displace
mud out of the annulus of the
lower liner (drawings 1 and 2).
These small volume spacers
clean the lower liner. They are
followed by brine and a larger
volume of spacers which clean
the larger annuli of the upper
Drilling casing strings. As the brine
mud fills the lower liner, the second
set of spacers is at the ports
when they are ready to be
opened (drawing 3). This two-
Ports Ports stage process enables
closed open
cleaning of the small lower
liner annulus and the larger
Displacement Completion No flow below upper annuli (drawing 4) at
spacers fluid circulating adequate pump rates, while
ports
minimizing time and materials.

1 2 3 4

4 Mechanical Modeling
Pump rate, pump direction, viscosity and density differences between mud, spacers and
completion fluid are the primary hydraulic considerations for a given wellbore
configuration. These factors require evaluation and optimization of hydraulics in the pre-
planning stage to ensure the written displacement program can actually be pumped in
the field and that pressure differentials do not cause catastrophic mechanical breakdown
of the formation, squeezed perforations, liner tops, etc. It is this pre-planning and design
for which software tools such as M-I SWACO’s displacement simulator, Virtual
Completion Fluids® (VCF®), are critical. VCF incorporates exact tubular configuration
and wellbore geometry and predicts operational parameters such as hydraulic
horsepower required for fluid movement, frictional pressure losses, back pressure
schedules, etc. VCF also accounts for chemical interaction between the spacer system
and drilling fluid and provides a preview of mud removal efficiency during the
displacement pumping operation.
4.1 Modeling
The design engineer inputs relevant data for onshore, offshore and deepwater wells to
simulate hydraulics and mud cleaning requirements. A Well Profile displays directional
data and wellbore graphics. Brine Density Profile charts and graphs the responses of
completion brine to the effects of pressure and temperature from the surface to total
depth (TD), including equivalent static density (ESD) and brine density at depth. It can

Displacement Guidelines 16
NOTC March, 2009
 Figure 5: Geometry is configured for a deepwater well with drilling
riser, BOP stack and two circulating ports (red circled areas).

provide output required for surface density or bottom hole pressure. Well Geometry, as
seen in Figure 5, displays casing and drill string sizes and depths, and tabulates
calculations for pipe inner (ID) and outer diameter (OD), capacity and displacement.
The program calculates the volume of drilling fluid to be removed based on a theoretical
film volume derived from laboratory testing.

Displacement Guidelines 17
NOTC March, 2009
 Figure 6: BOP diagram with choke, kill and boost pump lines and
circulating ports. These are opened and closed in later operations
of the VCF program to accomplish the simulation of the
displacement operation.

Circulating ports are included in drill string data in case they are required. Also, a sub-
sea BOP stack diagram, shown in Figure 6, is generated from the information inputted in
the Well Geometry section of Virtual CF.
In the Displacement Profile segment of the program, the engineer can input data to
control the flow of fluid into the drill pipe, annulus, choke, boost or kill lines, or to open or
close the various circulating ports that may be required for the operation. Fluid design
data includes PV, YP, density and surfactant concentrations in the mud, spacers and
displacing fluid. The displacement design input includes the description and volume of
each fluid used in the stages of the displacement. Finally, the flow rate schedule
indicates the flow rates attained in each stage. The output of this is demonstrated in
Figure 7.

Displacement Guidelines 18
NOTC March, 2009
 TD / TVD: 3150 / 2671.2 m DS Vol: 102.4 bbl Operator: Fearless Operator
Water / Air Gap: 103 / 27 m Ann Vol: 542.8 bbl Well Name: Shelf shallow well
Desired BHP: N/A Act Vol: 645.2 bbl Location: Offshore SA
Displacement: Direct Total: 656 bbl Comments: Casing displacement 9 5/8"
3
Maximum Values Ppump Pchoke (+)dHydro (-)dHydro

Press (1000 psi)

Pump Pressure 1353 psi 2
Flow Rate 350 gal/min
Hyd Horsepower 275 HP 1
Bottomhole Press 4532 psi
Hydro Pressure 4284 psi 0
4
delta Hydro Press 398 psi Q (100 gal/min)
3
Choke Pressure 0 psi
2
ECD @ Shoe 9.95 lb/gal
1
ECD @ TD 9.95 lb/gal
0
Csg OD/ID
22 / 20 TD/TVD
128 / 128
A B C D E F Displacement Design (Regime = Turb)
in m # Fluid Description Vol Dens PV YP LSYP
DIF WBM 645.2 9.4 14 10 5
A Polymer Spacer 50 8.5 22 68 29
B Sea Water 50 8.5 2 0 0

C
Chemical Wash 100 8.4 3 0 0
1 D Sea Water 50 8.5 2 0 0
Work String MD (1000 m)

E Polymer Spacer 25 8.5 22 68 29

F Brine 750 9.1 4 0 0

9.63 / 8.68 1692 / 1549

DIF
3
7 / 6.18 3150 / 2671

4
Design
# Ref
Annulus MD (1000 m), Pressure (2000 psi)

DIF
A
3
B
C
D
E
F 2
3.5

PhWS PhAnn BHP

4.5

0
WS OD 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Volume (bbl)

Figure 7: Displacement Profile (DisPro) output displays a two-dimensional depiction of

fluid flow dynamics. The upper wellbore sketch and colored bars represent flow in the
drill string; the lower set represents flow in the annulus. In this example, Spacer A,
represented by the yellow bar, reaches the end of drill string at 100 barrels pumped. In
the lower graph, Spacer A is shown entering the annulus at 100 barrels pumped. The
green colored background to the left of each graph represents drilling fluid. The fluids
covered by the vertical lines in the graphs are in turbulent flow. (Notice that the two
viscous spacers, A and E, are not in turbulence in the annulus. Spacer E enters
turbulent flow in the lower drill string.) At the top of the page, pump rate and pressure
are tracked on line graphs. This snapshot was taken as the simulation was paused at
500 barrels pumped.

Spacer design in VCF is modeled by the X-Clean module. This simulator uses data
generated in the laboratory to provide feedback on cleaning efficiency of designated
spacers at proposed flow rates in the drill pipe and annulus. The engineer can
manipulate chemical composition and concentration and fluid flow rate to obtain
optimum spacer properties for maximized cleaning efficiency based upon the output.
In the figures below, a spacer containing 10% by volume solvent is contaminated with
25% volume 13.6 lb/gal synthetic mud before it is asked to clean the mud from the
casing wall. Even with this challenge, Figure 8 shows that if the flow rate exceeds 150
ft/min cleaning can occur at > 96% efficiency with only 2 minutes of contact time. The

Displacement Guidelines 19
NOTC March, 2009
 M-I SWACO WELLBORE CLEANING INDEX vs Velocity @ Constant Contact Time
Safe Solv OM / 10% Surf / 25% 13.6 lb/gal NOVAPLUS
1.0

0.9

0.8 Figure 8: Cleaning

0.7
efficiency is graphed vs.
velocity at several
0.6
contact times. Graph
Cleaning Index

0.5 indicates that spacer

0.4
can provide 100%
cleaning efficiency at
0.3
flow rates between 175
0.2
1 min
2 min
and 200 ft/min with
0.1
4 min
6 min
10 min
minimum of two minutes
0
contact time.
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
Velocity (ft/min)

identical system is plotted in Figure 9 to determine the size of the spacer required for
cleaning in an 11 in. x 5 in. annulus. The graph shows that 25 barrels of spacer will
provide the greatest efficiency if the flow rate is at least 150 ft/min.

M-I SWACO WELLBORE CLEANING INDEX vs Pill Volume @ Constant Velocity

Safe Solv OM / 10% Surf / 25% 13.6 lb/gal NOVAPLUS / 11" x 5"
1.0

0.9

0.8

Figure 9: Cleaning
efficiency is graphed vs. 0.7

spacer volume at several 0.6

Cleaning Index

velocities. The graph 0.5

indicates that 100%

0.4
cleaning efficiency can be
attained if a 35 barrel 0.3

spacer is pumped at 200 0.2

50 ft/min

ft/min or greater in the 0.1

100 ft/min
150 ft/min
200 ft/min

specified annulus. 250 ft/min

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Pill Volume (bbl)

Section 5: Operations and Logistics

Issues such as mud conditioning, pump rate and pressure limits and restrictions, rig pit
capacity and procedural shutdowns can affect the quality of displacement or determine
how it is carried out. Each of these must be considered in pre-planning to avoid
surprises that could cost rig time and money. Failure in these areas cause unplanned
shutdowns, increased filtration time and mud and brine losses due to contamination.
5.1 Mud conditioning
Increased viscosity in heavy weight mud can limit pump rate by increasing pump
pressure. Also mud with a high yield point (YP) value can be difficult to remove from the
Displacement Guidelines 20
NOTC March, 2009
 14
reduced side of an eccentric annular area of angled wellbore. Mud should be
conditioned to its minimum plastic viscosity (PV) and YP values before the displacement.
This is accomplished by circulating on bottom at high rate while rotating and
reciprocating the drill pipe.
If the mud has been in the hole for more than a couple of weeks, a short-trip in mud will
be essential for conditioning. In a study of casing displacements, data suggested that
wells which were drilled and completed were less troublesome to displace from drilling
fluid to completion brine than those which had been drilled and suspended prior to
7
completion. The difficulties appeared to be associated with the condition of the drilling
fluid.
5.2 Pump rate and pressure
Pump rate may be pressure or horsepower limited. For example, many rig mud pumps
are set to pop-off at 4200 psi (290 bar). Pump limitations should be known and
accounted for prior to displacement design. It may be necessary to use the cement unit
to perform the displacement or to have additional pump equipment on location. Or it
may be necessary to pump at low rates while getting spacers to the bottom of the drill
pipe and to increase rates later as pressure permits. The goal should be to put the
cleaning spacer in turbulence in each pipe size and annular area. M-I SWACO uses its
VCF® software to provide accurate simulations and guidelines for putting spacers in
turbulent flow while remaining within available pump capacity. With no knowledge of rig
pump capability, it is recommended that displacements are designed to accommodate
pump limitations of 4000 psi (275 bar) and 350 HHP.
Open perforations or open-hole require that the sum of pump and hydrostatic pressure
remain constant throughout the displacement operation. Since fluid density will usually
be limited in range by the necessity for hydrostatic balance, pump rate and spacer
density and viscosity may be adjusted to maintain circulating pressure below reservoir
fracture pressure and to prevent fluid losses or lost circulation. If the fracture gradient is
close to the pore pressure, spacer fluids can be made of equal density (balanced) with
the mud or completion fluid, spacer viscosity can be lowered to reduce pump (friction)
pressure, or spacer size and/or chemical concentration can be increased to compensate
for reduced flow rate. A viscous pill or even low-solids drilling mud may be left across
the open perforations or in the open-hole to limit the amount of fluid loss. This will
enable higher pump pressure during displacement.
Similar guidelines apply to an exposed liner top. There must be assurance that pressure
integrity is maintained inside the annulus above the liner. A positive test of the liner top
(by applying pump pressure) will determine if there are leaks following the cement job. A
negative test of this liner top (by lessening hydrostatic pressure) will determine the
density of fluids that must be placed in the annulus at any time. Such restriction in
density may eliminate the possibility of performing an indirect displacement and may
require weighted spacers for hydrostatic balance. Combined pump and hydrostatic
pressure applied to the annulus (ECDs) should never exceed liner top test pressure.
5.3 Pit capacity
Many offshore rigs are drilling rigs and are not equipped for efficient displacements to
completion fluid. The properly designed displacement procedure will take into account
the size, number and availability of pits. If the procedure is sent to location without
regard to pit capacity, resulting compromises may negatively impact displacement
efficiency. Adjustments can be made to spacer concentration and size to compensate
Displacement Guidelines 21
NOTC March, 2009
for inadequate pit availability, spacers may be sent to location in portable tanks (MPTs)
pre-blended, or if necessary shutdowns can be designed into the pump schedule to
accommodate spacer blending. Offshore, the presence of a boat may be required to
remove oil or synthetic mud from the rig while the displacement is on-going. The
availability of the boat may be critical in implementing the displacement and must be
considered in job planning.
5.4 Shutdowns
It is standard practice to avoid shutdowns if at all possible and not design them into the
displacement procedure. Intermixing of spacers and mud or brine can compromise the
quality of the displacement, causing both high-volume interfaces with increased mud or
brine losses and lengthy filtration time. When necessary, a shutdown is generally
acceptable while the spacers remain in the drill string and have not entered the annulus.
This minimizes the opportunity for fluids to intermingle or swap places during shutdown.
If the displacement is stopped while spacers are in the annulus, shutting in the well by
closing off the drill pipe and casing annulus could prevent spacer migration.
5.5 HSE
Calcium brine is hygroscopic. It will draw water from any available source, including
leather boots and skin. Zinc is toxic and a priority pollutant. Strict health and safety
controls should be employed when these brines are in use. Personal protective
equipment for eyes, skin and clothing should be used. Brine safety films are available
from M-I SWACO which will help educate rig personnel involved in handling high density
brine.

6 Special Conditions
Open-hole completions and deepwater operations are two conditions that require special
consideration by displacement design engineers. Open-hole completions require
balanced fluid weight with reservoir pressure so that the reservoir will neither force fluids
into the wellbore due to underbalance, nor take excessive fluid nor break down due to
overbalance. In shallow gas open-hole completions there may be a very narrow window
between reservoir pore pressure and reservoir fracture pressure, and the reservoir drill-
in and completion fluids must be engineered to work within those limits.
Deepwater operations offer challenges for displacement technique, spacer design and
fluid selection. Large riser volume and low temperature at the mudline require increased
spacer size and cleaning efficiency across a range of temperatures that may vary by
200oF (93.3oC) or more. The potential for gas hydrate formation should be eliminated by
proper brine selection.
6.1 Open-hole
Prior to entering the pay sand, a reservoir drill-in fluid (RDF) may be used to displace the
drilling fluid from the hole after the casing shoe has been drilled out and tested. In this
instance, the open-hole section is drilled with the RDF, which is displaced from the open-
hole after the hole is drilled by a solid-free (SF) version of the same base fluid as the
RDF to guarantee compatibility with the formation, integrity of the filter cake and
minimization of fluid losses.
After the open-hole section is drilled, open-hole displacements are usually performed in
two stages: 1) displace the drilling fluid or RDF out of the open-hole; 2) displace the
drilling fluid or RDF out of the casing. The open-hole displacement requires balanced
Displacement Guidelines 22
NOTC March, 2009
fluid density, pressure maintenance below fracture gradient during displacement,
spacers that will not erode the filter cake in the open-hole, and compatibility between
formation fluids, RDF, spacers and SF system. The casing displacement requires the
same conditions, with the addition of completion fluid.
The hydrostatic density of the column of fluid both during displacement and after
displacement must be great enough to control formation pressure and prevent fluid
ingress into the open-hole. This suggests that an indirect displacement of the casing
usually will not be open to consideration. It may also determine that spacers have to be
weighted with solids or heavy clear brine fluid.
Any fluid circulated into the open-hole must be compatible with fluids already there, with
formation fluids and with formation mineralogy. Compatibility must be maintained
between the drilling fluid and RDF and spacers used in the open hole displacement, and
between the RDF, SF version of the RDF, spacers and completion brine used in the
casing displacement. This is especially true in the casing phase of displacement when
the drill pipe is suspended in casing above the open hole and spacers and brine are
circulated down drill pipe to displace out the SF. The effect is to inject the spacers and
brine into the SF fluid at high rate in the casing below drill pipe. An emulsion formed
below drill pipe during this operation would slowly migrate uphole into completion brine
that is being circulated for filtration, making the brine appear highly turbid even when no
solids are present. In cases when the emulsion cannot be prevented, picking up the drill
pipe several stands into the brine immediately after the displacement could save time
circulating and filtering the brine to NTU spec.
Laboratory tests should confirm that the displacing fluids will not emulsify or sludge with
the drilling fluid or RDF in the open-hole or with the formation water or crude. The RDF
and completion brine should also be selected on the basis of shale stability and clay
inhibition to prevent swelling or dispersion.
6.2 Deepwater
Deepwater completions may be either of two kinds, dry tree or wet tree (sub-sea). Dry
tree completions are usually performed off of a moored tension-leg platform (TLP) or
Spar-type platform to which production-size casing runs from the sea floor. Sub-sea
completions are performed through large (~ 20in or 508mm ID) riser pipe that runs from
the mud line to the offshore vessel from which operations are conducted. The presence
of this large riser pipe and the auxiliary lines that attach to the sub-sea valve tree add
complexity to the displacement process. In either case, the low mud line temperature
found in deepwater impacts fluid selection and performance of spacer chemistry.
Often, the deepwater drilling riser is voluminous, as much as three and four times the
capacity of the casing below the mud line. To attain minimum contact time, spacers
required to clean a riser annulus must be larger than the same spacers used for casing
cleaning. Also, they must be pumped at a much higher rate to achieve turbulent flow. In
any case, care should be taken to clean the riser as well as the production casing and
along with it the choke and kill lines, the boost line, bleed-off line and the sub-sea BOP
stack. Fresh spacers should be used to clean the choke and kill or boost lines of drilling
fluid. Not doing so opens the later possibility of circulating dirty or black water or whole
mud into the completion fluid system and filtration equipment.
6.2.1 Spacer chemistry
The activity of spacer chemicals changes with temperature. The cleaning
efficiency of solvents and surfactants will not be as great at 40oF (4.4oC) as at
Displacement Guidelines 23
NOTC March, 2009
 150oF (65.6 oC). Solvents and surfactants and their blends should be tested
against drilling fluid and crude at lower temperatures to ensure cleaning
efficiency in deepwater displacement applications.
6.2.2 Sub-sea drilling riser displacements

Various techniques are available for displacing deepwater drilling risers and
casing prior to completion. Some operators prefer to displace the riser first to
seawater, then the casing to brine, and finally the riser to brine. This
indirect/direct technique is useful because the riser volume of drilling fluid can be
moved off the rig or platform before the casing displacement to brine is
performed. This greatly reduces the volume of brine required on the surface at
one time, a factor which may attain significance because much of available pit
space is taken up with displacement spacer volume. In the casing displacement,
drilling fluid and spacers are taken to surface up the choke or kill line, keeping
the riser isolated. One negative of this technique is the inability to rotate or
reciprocate the drill pipe during either the riser or casing displacements. Another
is the requirement to jet the BOP stack in drilling fluid or brine. In most cases,
jetting the BOP stack in heavy brine can be very costly. These conditions can be
avoided by displacing the casing as well as the riser indirectly.
Another technique is to displace the casing and riser at the same time, either
directly or indirectly. This technique enables rotation and reciprocation of drill
pipe throughout the displacement operation. If conditions allow for an indirect
displacement, the entire drilling fluid system, in the hole and on surface, can get
removed from the rig or platform prior to bringing completion brine onto location.
This can be critical in certain logistical situations. Also, the BOP stack can be
jetted in brine while the surface pits and lines are being cleaned. If a direct
displacement must be performed, pit volume, on the rig and off, must be
sufficient to handle two entire system volumes, one of drilling fluid and one of
completion fluid, plus the spacers required for cleaning out the wellbore.
6.2.3 Sub-sea open-hole
Balanced pressure must be maintained on the open-hole throughout the
displacement. This will usually require a direct displacement of the production
casing. If the riser is isolated for separate cleaning, care must be taken that the
hydrostatic pressure remaining on the open-hole is sufficient to keep the
reservoir from giving up formation liquids or gases. Failure to do so can result in
well control problems or create conditions favorable to hydrate formation.
6.2.4 TCT/PCT
In the dynamic conditions of a mud-to-brine displacement, True Crystallization
Temperature (TCT) is rarely an issue. However, displacement fluids, including
the completion brine, should be selected on the basis of their ability to keep salts
in solution below the lowest temperature in the well (at the mud line). Increased
pressure tends to drive the TCT of some salt brines upward, so pressure
crystallization (PCT) effects must be considered.15 Completion brines with 11Fo
to 15Fo (6.1Co to 8.3Co) TCT lower than usual for a given temperature are often
selected in deepwater applications to overcome the effects of pressure, which
are greatest during operations like a BOP test.

Displacement Guidelines 24
NOTC March, 2009
 6.2.5 Gas hydrate and inhibition
Gas hydrate is an ice-like substance of water lattice structure that envelops
natural gases under low-temperature, high-pressure conditions. It can form
during extended shut-in periods as a result of mixing methane or other
hydrocarbon gas with water. Gas hydrate can plug choke or kill lines, the BOP
stack, the drill pipe and casing. Temperatures around 40oF are typically
encountered at the sea floor in deepwater environments, and often mere
hydrostatic pressure is required to initiate gas hydrate formation.
When conditions for formation of gas hydrate are favorable, sufficient hydrate
inhibitor must be maintained in the brine system to eliminate the opportunity for
gas hydrate formation. The most commonly used hydrate inhibitors are the
thermodynamic inhibitors, salt, methanol or one of the glycols, usually
monoethylene glycol. These function by lowering the water activity of a brine
solution below the level at which gas hydrate forms. For example, calcium
chloride brine at 10.7 lb/gal is naturally inhibitive of hydrate formation with most
formation gases at pressure exceeding 10,000 psi and 40oF. However, low
density calcium chloride brine and monovalent salt brines require assistance
from glycol or other inhibitor to prevent ice crystals from forming at pressure
greater than about 2000 psi at sea floor temperature. For low density
applications, thermodynamic inhibitors may be added to brine at 40% and
greater.
Kinetic and anti-agglomerate inhibitors are available and have been used in
drilling fluids to inhibit hydrate formation.16-17 These inhibitors are used a much
lower concentrations and are generally less costly to apply. Unlike
thermodynamic inhibitors, these types of inhibitors don’t completely prevent the
formation of gas hydrate. Instead, they delay the time during which gas hydrate
might form, usually in terms of hours (kinetic), or prevent the agglomeration of
the ice crystals which do form (anti-agglomerate). Despite the lower cost of
applying these inhibitors versus thermodynamic, kinetic and anti-agglomerate
inhibitors are not widely used in completion brine applications, likely because
they do not guarantee against hydrate formation, but only present a temporary
barrier.

7 Post-job Evaluations
Records, including mud or brine interface volume, time required for filtration following
displacement, amount of DE used, number of changes of DE media during the filtration
operation or comments on a visual inspection of the drill pipe as it is pulled from the
hole, can form an invaluable data base for improved displacement design.
In addition to these data, M-I SWACO has performed chemical and rheological analyses
of returned drilling fluid, spacer and brine samples from displacements performed in the
Gulf of Mexico for more than 5 years. The results of these analyses are graphed and
examined for trends to gain insight into the effectiveness of specific spacer designs and
pumping techniques. This information is used to modify and improve subsequent
displacement design.
Figure 10 is a graph of the content of fifteen samples taken as returning fluids flowed
back from a wellbore displacement. Samples were taken over about 700 barrels of flow
back. Each data point represents the percentage of a component of the sample, in this
case drilling fluid and other solids, oil, barite, One Pass solvent and the solvent
Displacement Guidelines 25
NOTC March, 2009
component of the transition spacer. When the data points for a particular component are
connected, the connecting line forms a shape. The volume contained within that shape
roughly equates to the volume of that component represented by a rectangle in the
graph. The green line indicating percent mud recovery is of particular interest. Drilling
fluid volume recovered in samples taken after the flow back of base oil is considered to
be the volume that was removed from the pipe surface. In this instance, one would
anticipate up to 40 barrels of mud recovery from the pipe surface if a 3/64ths in. (0.12 cm
or 0.047 in.) sheath of mud were assumed coating the drill pipe and casing wall, as was
suggested in the discussion in Section 2.3: Size. The numbers 0.12 cm and 3/64ths in.
derive from mud volumes that have been recorded during analyses of multiple
displacements. The volume of drilling fluid removal in a typical displacement
approximates 2.5% to 4% of a hole volume with pipe. The area below the green line
representing drilling fluid recovered in Figure 10 shows that about 12 barrels of drilling
fluid was identified in the aqueous spacers (beginning at the base oil - viscous weighted
spacer interface). This number is less than 1% of the volume of the area displaced.
This may indicate that the drilling fluid was well-conditioned prior to the displacement, so
that most of the whole mud was pushed from the wellbore ahead of the viscous,
weighted transition spacer.
To date, about 40 of these analyses have been performed.

80
% mud/mud solids
70 Base Viscous % Barite
% Oil
Oil Weighted
60 Mud One Pass % Solvent
% One Pass
Transition
volume percent

50
Spacer
Spacer 13.1 lb/gal
Hi-Vis
40
Spacer CaBr2
30

20

10

0
1,300 1,350 1,400 1,450 1,500 1,550 1,600 1,650 1,700 1,750 1,800 1,850 1,900 1,950 2,000 2,050 2,100

Barrels

Figure 10

References
1. Power, D.J.; Hight, C.; Weisinger, D.; Rimer, C.: Drilling Practices and Sweep
Selection for Efficient Hole Cleaning in Deviated Wellbores, SPE 62794 APDT
September 2000
2. Couturier, M; Guillot, D.; Hendricks, H.; Callet, F: Design Rules and Associated
Spacer Properties for Optimum Mud Removal in Eccentric Annuli, SPE 21594
1990 International Technical Meeting, Calgary, June 10-13

Displacement Guidelines 26
NOTC March, 2009
 3. Tehrani, A.; Ferguson, J.; Bittleston, S.H.: Laminar Displacement in Annuli: A
Combined Experimental and Theoretical Study, SPE 24569 1992 ATCE,
Washington, D.C., October 4-7.
4. Zamora, Mario; Jefferson, D.T.; Powell, J.W.: Hole-Cleaning Study of Polymer-
Based Drilling Fluids, SPE 26329 1993 ATCE
5. Darring, M.; Shucart, J.; Claiborne, E.; Parks, R.D.; Pillow, D.: Minor
Modifications Make Major Differences in Remote Deepwater Displacement
Operations, SPE 86496 Drilling & Completion Vol. 20, No. 1 March 2005
6. Foxenberg, W.; Darring, M.; Kippie, D.; Zamora, M.: Validating the Quality of
Mud-to-Brine Displacements, AADE 04-DF-HO-39 Drilling Fluids Conference,
Houston, April 2004.
7. Darring, M.; Foxenberg, W.; Niehaus, R. Brad; Stein, T.; Miller, D.M.: Cased-Hole
Cleaning: Do Annular Velocity, Annular Coverage and Contact Time Equal Mud
Removal?, SPE 110589 2007 ATCE, Anaheim, CA, November 11-14, 2007.
8. Horton, Dr. Robert; M-I SWACO laboratory work LM # 20012338, North Course
Technical Center, Houston, TX, 2001.
9. Foxenberg, William: The Role of Chemical and Mechanical Modeling in Wellbore
Displacement, Internal Memorandum, M-I L.L.C. 2001
10. Brand, F.; Peixinho, J.; Nouar, C.: A Quantitative Investigation of the Laminar-to-
Turbulent Transition: Application to Efficient Mud Cleaning, SPE 71375, 2001
ATCE, New Orleans, September-October.
11. Peden, J.M.; Ford, J.T.; Oyeneyin, M.B.: Comprehensive Experimental
Investigation of Drilled Cuttings Transport in Inclined Wells Including the Effects
of Rotation and Eccentricity, SPE 20925 Europec 90, The Hague, October 22-24
1990.
12. Azar, J.J.; Sanchez, R.A.: Important Issues in Cuttings Transport for Drilling
Directional Wells, SPE 39020 LACPECE 1997
13. Sanchez, R.A.; Azar, J.J.; Bassal, A.A.; Martins, A.L.: Effect of Drillpipe Rotation
on Hole Cleaning During Directional-Well Drilling, SPE 56406 SPEJ June 1999
14. Schlumberger Cementing Handbook, chapter 5; Nelson, Eric, Editor, 1990.
15. Freeman, Michael; Slater, Ken; Carminati, John; Lester, Scott; Morganthaler,
Lee: High Pressure Crystallization of Deep-Water Completion Brines, SPE 58729
ISDF 2000.
16. Power, David; Slater, Ken; Aldea, Catalin; Lattanzi, Steve: Gas Hydrate Inhibited
Water-Base Muds for Ultra-Deepwater Drilling, AADE-03-NTCE-48, 2003 AADE
National Technology Conference, Houston, TX, April 1-3.
17. Dzialowski, A; Patel, A; Nordbo, K: The Development of Kinetic Inhibitors to
Suppress Gas Hydrates in Extreme Drilling Conditions, 2001 Offshore
Mediterranean Conference and Exhibition, Revenna, Italy, March 28-30.

Displacement Guidelines 27
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Appendix: Sample procedures
These examples are typical WBM and OBM/SBM displacement procedures. They
include the critical steps for cleaning the wellbore: mud conditioning, short-tripping,
jetting, pumping the spacer sequence, filtering the brine in hole. Reference is made to
both direct and indirect techniques. Spacer design follows the recommendations
included in the discussion of Spacer Type earlier in this section. Other special methods
may be required by specific well conditions; these procedures are basic versions of
those used by M-I SWACO design engineers in daily operations planning.
Water-base mud, indirect displacement:*
Make up clean-up string with bit, scrapers and brushes and go to bottom.
Circulate and condition drilling fluid to minimum PV and YP values.
Short-trip to top casing brush.
Pump displacement spacers.
1. Lead: lease water viscosified with 1.5 lb/bbl xanthan + barite for weight to 1 –
2 lb/gal over mud weight
2. Lease water spacer
3. Lease water with 3 - 5 lb/bbl caustic soda
4. Repeat 2 and 3 as desired
5. Cleaning: lease water with 3% to 5% Safe Surf W or WN
6. Tail: lease water viscosified with 3 lb/bbl xanthan
7. Follow with lease water
Circulate water until NTUs < 75. Short-trip to top casing brush, reverse circulate one
hole volume.
Displace water out with brine and filter brine to < 30 NTU.
Pooh and LD casing cleaning tools.
* Use same procedure for OBM or SBM displacements with appropriate spacers.
Oil-base or synthetic-base mud, direct displacement: (deepwater drilling
riser)
Make up clean-up string with bit, casing scrapers and brushes, riser brush and jetting
tool.
Go to bottom and break circulation down drill pipe.
Circulate and condition drilling fluid to minimum PV and YP values.
Jet BOP stack in drilling mud.
Short-trip drill pipe to top casing scraper.
Spot spacers described in steps 1, 3 and 4 below in the choke, kill and boost (CKB)
lines. Pump base oil (step 1) out of lines into stack.
Pump displacement spacers for casing. Pump down drill pipe, take returns up annulus.

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NOTC March, 2009
 1. Base oil
2. Transition: lease water viscosified with 1.5 lb/bbl xanthan + 5% to 10% Safe
Solv OM or OE + 3% to 10% Safe Surf O or E + barite for weight to 1 – 2
lb/gal over mud weight
3. Cleaning: lease water or completion brine with 10% to 20% Safe Solv OM or
OE
4. Polishing: lease water or completion brine with 3% to 5% Safe Surf O or E
5. Tail: lease water or completion brine viscosified with 3 lb/bbl xanthan
6. Follow with completion brine
When fluids from step 6 enter riser, stop pumping down drill pipe. Pump down choke
and kill lines taking returns up riser annulus and displace the boost line with completion
brine.
7. Cleaning: lease water or completion brine with 10% to 20% Safe Solv OM or
OE
8. Polishing: lease water or completion brine with 3 % to 5% Safe Surf O or E
9. Tail: lease water or completion brine viscosified with 3 lb/bbl xanthan
10. Follow with completion brine
When spacers have cleared the choke and kill lines, shut down choke and kill pumps.
Resume pumping down drill pipe and boost line at maximum rate until riser is displaced.
Jet BOP stack in seawater or brine.
In high-angle well or well that was suspended in drilling fluid prior to completion, pump a
set of spacers in the reverse direction consisting of Steps 4 and 5 above.
Circulate water until NTUs < 75 then displace water out of CBK and hole with brine (for
indirect).
Filter brine to < 30 NTU.
Jet riser to surface and LD tools.
* Use same procedure for WBM displacements with appropriate spacers.

Copyright 2009, M-I L.L.C., all rights reserved.

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