SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING (ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC)

EEE8075 – ELECTRICAL POWER AND CONTROL PROJECT

FLEXIBLE INVERTER
DESIGN, TESTING, AND SIMULATION

Abstract:

Research and experimentation work carried out on flexible inverter is presented in the following report
which is briefly divided into two part, flexible inverter testing and simulation. An inverter was constructed
and tested for various modes namely PWM pulse test, three-phase sine wave generator, and BLDC motor
control. A simulation of the system was done on Matlab/Simulink and the results were included and
discussed. Finally, a detailed flowchart of the system working, covering both software and hardware, is also
included in the report.

Lecturer: Dr Mohamed Dahidah

First Name: Abdul Rehman
Surname: Mohammad Hafeez
Student ID: 140456282
Submission Date: 08-Jan-2015
CONTENTS
1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
2 Experimentation ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.1 Test 1 – PWM Pulse Test .................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Test 2 – Three Phase Sine-Wave Generator ........................................................................ 3
2.3 Test 3 – Brushless DC Motor Control .................................................................................. 4
3 Simulation ................................................................................................................................. 5
3.1 Variable DC Supply ............................................................................................................. 6
3.1.1 Effect of Varying Reference Signal Value on the Output Current ................................. 7
3.1.2 Effect of Varying Triangle Carrier Wave Frequency on the Output Current .................. 7
3.1.3 Effect of Varying Load Inductance on the Output Current ........................................... 8
3.2 Variable AC Supply ............................................................................................................. 8
3.2.1 Effect of Varying Reference (Sine Wave) Frequency on the Output Current ................ 9
3.2.2 Effect of Varying Triangle Carrier Wave Frequency on the Output Current .................. 9
3.2.3 Effect of Varying the Load Inductance Wave Frequency on the Output Current ........ 10
4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 10
5 Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 11
5.1 Task 6 – Hardware Based Flowchart ................................................................................. 11
5.2 Task 6 – Software Based Flowchart .................................................................................. 12
5.3 Additional Results ............................................................................................................ 13
5.3.1 Test 1 ....................................................................................................................... 13
6 References............................................................................................................................... 16

i
FIGURES
Figure 1.1 MOSFET ............................................................................................................................ 1
Figure 1.2 Three phase inverter ......................................................................................................... 1
Figure 1.3 BLDC motor connected to an inverter ............................................................................... 1
Figure 2.1 PWM with marked gate on voltage, time on and off, dead time ........................................ 2
Figure 2.2 Sinusoidal current plotted on excel ................................................................................... 3
Figure 2.3 Frequency range of the inverter (Max-left : Min-right) ...................................................... 3
Figure 2.4 PWM Voltage and Frequency ............................................................................................ 3
Figure 2.5 DC Motor operational speed range (Max-Left : Min-Right) ................................................ 4
Figure 2.6 Phase A voltage and Duty cycle at 2000RPM ..................................................................... 4
Figure 2.7 Duty cycle at maximum speed ........................................................................................... 4
Figure 3.1 Output Current Waveform for Standard DC Model ............................................................ 6
Figure 3.2 Output Current Waveform for different duty cycles .......................................................... 7
Figure 3.3 Output Current Waveform for different carrier frequencies .............................................. 7
Figure 3.4 Output Current Waveform for different inductances ......................................................... 8
Figure 3.5 Output Current Waveform for Standard AC Model ............................................................ 8
Figure 3.6 Output Current Waveform for different reference signal frequency .................................. 9
Figure 3.7 Output Current Waveform for different carrier frequencies .............................................. 9
Figure 3.8 Output Current Waveform for different inductances ....................................................... 10

TABLES
Table 1-1 Test 1 PWM Pulse Test Results ........................................................................................... 2
Table 1-2 Hall Sensor Sequence ......................................................................................................... 5
Table 2-1 Specifications of standard model ........................................................................................ 5
Table 2-2 Steady state current (D=0.5)............................................................................................... 6

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1 INTRODUCTION
An inverter is a power electronics device that converts DC (Direct Current) to AC (Alternating Current).
The input of an inverter relies on a DC source which is then converter into a square wave, modified
sine wave, pulsed sine wave, or sine wave depending on the circuit design. The power electronics
components used in an inverter can be either IGBT or MOSFET, which requires a control signal to
switch on and off. This control signal is supplied with the help of a gate driver and a controller.

For constructing our inverter device, MOSFETs are used. MOSFETs are the
workhorse in power electronics at low power. They are switched on and off by
applying the gate (Figure 1.1) with sufficient charge. A PIC (Programmable Interrupt
Controller) is used to control the MOSFETs which works on the principle of Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM). PWM is the process of modifying the width of the pulses
in a pulse drain in direct proportion to a control signal. A comparator is used which
Figure 1.1 MOSFET
compares the carrier wave with the control signal (reference) and the results of this
is used to control the MOSFETs. The PIC chip produces the control signal which is a constant and a sine
wave resulting in a variable DC output and AC output respectively.

A three phase inverter (Figure 1.2) utilizes

three pairs (six) of MOSFETS and each PWM
pulse is used to drive one pair of MOSFET,
therefore controlling one leg of the inverter.
Another important aspect to consider is the
inductive nature of the wirings and
components used in the circuit. As the
MOSFETS will be switching, the current in
these devices are in fact switching between Figure 1.2 Three phase inverter
zero and a finite value. The inductance in the circuit does not allow this to happen instantaneously but
requires a short duration to allow the current to switch on and off. Therefore, to ensure that the both
MOSFETS in a pair are not switched on at the same time, a small dead time is kept with the help of a
gate driver, to allow some time for the current to rise/fall, which otherwise would cause short circuit
and damage the device. Another important function of the gate drive circuit is to provide an isolation
between dc-link voltage and controller voltage, therefore acting as a protection against short circuit.

In addition to converting DC to AC, inverter is also

used to control a BLDC (Brushless DC) motor (Figure
2.2). A BLDC motor relies on electrical commutation
in contrast to traditional mechanical commutation.
Electronic commutation is controlled by the rotor
position, which is sensed by 3 Hall Effect Sensors
positioned at 0°, 120° and 240° around the air gap of
the motor. These sensors provide three bit code to
the controller, which controls the switching pattern
of the MOSFETs. A steady state speed is achieved
Figure 1.3 BLDC motor connected to an inverter
when the motor torque and load torque equalize.

1
2 EXPERIMENTATION

2.1 TEST 1 – PWM PULSE TEST

This test was carried out to ensure proper working of the system by generating three pairs of fixed
duty cycle PWM pulses.

Figure 2.1 PWM with marked gate on voltage, time on and off, dead time

Methodology used for obtaining the results is summarized below. (All the points mentioned refer to
figure above)

1. Gate On voltage for all pairs obtained by measuring the amplitude of each PWM wave. (Point
A)
2. Time on (point B) and time off (point C) obtained by using cursors.
3. PWM frequency and duty cycle acquired by using the “meas” option on the oscilloscope.
4. Dead time obtained by using cursors (Point E).

Using the methodology above, the results for all MOSFET pairs were obtained and are tabulated below.
Table 2-1 Test 1 PWM Pulse Test Results1

Terminal J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6
Gate on voltage 4.9V 4.8V 4.9V 4.8V 4.9V 4.8V
Ton 12 μs 86 μs 44.2 μs 53.8 μs 24.4 μs 73.8 μs
Toff 87.2 μs 12.94 μs 55.2 μs 45 μs 74.8 μs 25.2 μs
PWM frequency 10.092 kHz 10.095 kHz 10.095 kHz 10.095 kHz 10.095 kHz 10.095 kHz
PWM duty cycle 12.22% 82.96% 44.72% 54.44% 24.74% 74.45%
Dead time 408 ns

The results show that this experiment was conducted successfully as three pairs of PWM pluses were
produced with fixed duty cycle. Moreover, the presence of a dead time show that gate driver is
working properly and therefore safety against short circuit is ensured.

1
All the results obtained from the oscilloscope are placed in the appendix for reference
2
2.2 TEST 2 – THREE PHASE SINE-WAVE GENERATOR
During this test, the inverter was operated to produce a 3-phase variable frequency current which was
then supplied to a star connected 3 phase load. The potentiometer was used to change the frequency
of the sinusoidal current. The connected load had a resistance of 47Ω and an inductance of 3.3mH per
phase. Using the data obtained from the oscilloscope and analyzing it on excel, the voltage drop across
the resistor was calculated. As the resistance is known, ohms law was used to calculate the current
across it.

Current Waveform
0.15
0.1
Current (Amps)

0.05
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
Time (Seconds)

Figure 2.2 Sinusoidal current plotted on excel

As can be seen from Figure 2.2, the current follows a sinusoidal wave pattern, an AC output, which
indicates that the inverter is working as desired. From Figure 2.2, following can be deduced

𝑃𝐾 𝑖
Peak Current(iPK)=0.124 A RMS Current(iRMS)= √2 = 0.0878A Power Dissipated(P)=iRMS2R=0.362W
Subsequent to testing the inverter three phase sinusoidal generation, it was required to find the
frequency range of the inverter. It was found by varying the potentiometer. Setting the potentiometer
at minimum gave the maximum frequency and vice versa.

Figure 2.3 Frequency range of the inverter (Max-left : Min-right)

The frequency range of the inverter lies between: 1.6703Hz < Frequency < 19.59Hz. Following this, the
PWM voltage and frequency was obtained using the oscilloscope.

Figure 2.4 PWM Voltage and Frequency

The figure above shows that the frequency of the PWM voltage = 10.13 kHz, which is same as the
triangular carrier wave frequency set by the PIC chip. Moreover, the amplitude of the PWM is 24V
which matches with the voltage input from the DC supply. Obtaining correct results for this test show
that the inverter is successfully producing a variable sinusoidal output.

3
2.3 TEST 3 – BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR CONTROL
The inverter is designed to control a brushless DC motor. To ensure that it can perform this function
correctly, another test was conducted. A 3 phase 8 pole Brushless DC motor was connected to the
inverter as a load and a DC input was supplied. This resulted in the rotation of the DC motor which
showed that the inverter was working as desired. Moreover, the potentiometer controls the duty cycle
of the PWM, therefore varying it altered the average voltage and current supplied to the motor which
in turn controlled the speed of the motor. The motor rotational speed was calculated using one of the
Hall sensor signals, taking into account that this is an 8-pole motor. To find the motor operational
speed range of the inverter, the potentiometer was kept at its extremes and the output frequency
achieved was recorded using oscilloscope, as shown below

Figure 2.5 DC Motor operational speed range (Max-Left : Min-Right)

Maximum motor operational speed Minimum motor operational speed

120 × 𝑓 120 × 171.6 120 × 𝑓 120 × 5.336

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 2574 𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 80.04 𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝑝 8 𝑝 8

It was then required to rotate the motor at 2000RPM and acquire the phase A voltage and duty
cycle.

To rotate the motor at 2000RPM requires a

frequency:
𝑛×𝑝 2000×8
𝑓= 120
= 120
= 133.33𝐻𝑧

From Figure 2.6, it can be seen that rotating the

DC motor at 133.33Hz (2000RPM) resulted in
phase A voltage of 25V and a duty cycle of 58%.
Figure 2.6 Phase A voltage and Duty cycle at 2000RPM

From Figure 2.7, it can be seen that at maximum

speed the duty cycle has increased to 60%. This
indicates that varying the potentiometer
changes the duty cycle, which means that it not
only alters the frequency but also the average
voltage and current supplied to the DC motor.
This in turn varies the speed of commutation in
the brushless DC motor which directly affects
Figure 2.7 Duty cycle at maximum speed
the speed of rotation of the motor.

4
Using the oscilloscope, traces of H1 and H2 and then H1 and H3 were exported to Microsoft® excel
and then processed to obtain the 3-bit hall sequence.
Table 2-2 Hall Sensor Sequence

H1 H2 H3 Angle
1 0 0 0o
1 1 0 600
0 1 0 1200
0 1 1 1800
0 0 1 2400
1 0 1 3000
1 0 0 3600 = 00
From the obtained hall sensor sequence, it is clear that the sensors are working correctly as the hall
they switch on and off in the correct sequence. H2 switches on after H1 and H3 switches on after H2
and this sequence repeats itself over and over again. Obtaining desired results from this test show
that the inverter is able to run and control the bladeless DC motor. The signal from the hall sensor is
able to control the power electronic devices which in turn switches on and off appropriately to result
in a positive torque. As the potentiometer controls the average current supplied to the motor, it
therefore acts as a torque controller as torque is proportional to the current.

3 SIMULATION
A model of the inverter was simulated2 for a variable DC and variable AC supply connected to a first-
order load (RL load). Different parameters of the model were changed in order to analyze their effect
on the output. A standard model, with the specifications shown in Table 3-1, was created and only
one parameter was varied against others at a time, so to see the effect of each parameter on the
output.
Table 3-1 Specifications of standard model

Parameter Variable DC Supply Variable AC Supply

Carrier Wave Triangular wave (f=20kHz, A=0→1) Triangular wave (f=10kHz, A= −1→1)
Reference Signal Constant (D = 0.5) = 50% duty cycle Sine Wave (f=50Hz, A=1)
Resistance R = 47Ω
Inductance L = 3.3 mH

2
Simulation was done on Matlab/Simulink
5
3.1 VARIABLE DC SUPPLY
Using the standard specifications, as mentioned in Table 3-1, following current waveform was
obtained

Figure 3.1 Output Current Waveform for Standard DC Model

By setting the reference signal to 0.5, a duty cycle of 50% is achieved. From Figure 3.1, it is clear that
the current is constantly varying, however its average value increases from zero to a constant value of
0.2553 A. The relational operator (comparator) constantly compares the carrier wave (triangular
wave) with the constant. With the reference signal set to 0.5, the comparator gives an output signal
of 1 when “∆-wave < 0.5” and a zero otherwise. An output signal of 1 means that 24 volts are supplied
and zero means no voltage is supplied to the load, causing the load current to rise and fall. The
presence of an inductor does not allow rapid change in current, as a result the current rises and falls
gradually which can be seen from the triangular nature of the waveform above.

The average value of current obtained using simulation equals 0.2553A (as shown in Figure 3.1). It can
be further verified mathematically as shown below:
Table 3-2 Steady state current (D=0.5)

Given: Vmax = 24V, D = 0.5, T = 0.00005s (20 kHz)

Vavg = D x Vmax => 0.5 x 24 = 12V
𝒅𝒊
Using KCL, Vavg = Ri + L
𝒅𝒕
Method 1 Method 2
Using basic integration =>
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑑𝑖 i(t)=𝑒 −𝐿 𝑡 [ 𝑖(0) + 𝑒 𝐿𝑡 − ]
𝑅 𝑅
Steady state current means =0
𝑑𝑡 It can be assumed that the current reaches a
steady state value after 4 time constants, where
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 12 𝐿
iavg = 𝑅 = 47 = 0.2553𝐴 τ= .
𝑅
Substituting the values gives
i(t) = 0.25A ≈ 0.255A
Value of variation above average obtained from the simulation equals imax – iavg = 0.3002 – 0.2553 =
0.0449A.

Some applications require higher values of current and some require lower variations above average.
In order to meet the requirements, certain parameters of the system are varied. To see the effect of
each parameter on the output, following simulations were done.
6
3.1.1 Effect of Varying Reference Signal Value on the Output Current
Changing the value of reference signal changes the duty cycle of the PWM, as a result the average
voltage and current changes. This can be verified from the results obtained using the simulation.

Figure 3.2 Output Current Waveform for different duty cycles

From Figure 3.2, it is clear that increasing the duty cycle increases the output current. It is so because
the average voltage supplied to the load increases as the duty cycle increases and so does the average
current. At 100% duty cycle, the comparator only produces an output signal of 1 because ∆-wave < 1.
As a result, voltage supplied is in form of a step input instead of a PWM. This results in a smooth rise
in the current output with no ripples, as can be seen from Figure 3.2. Therefore, to increase the current
in the RL circuit, the duty cycle (reference signal) can be increased.

3.1.2 Effect of Varying Triangle Carrier Wave Frequency on the Output Current
A further analysis was carried out to see the effect of varying the carrier frequency. For this purpose,
the carrier frequency was first increased from 20 kHz to 40 kHz and then decreased to 10 kHz.

Figure 3.3 Output Current Waveform for different carrier frequencies

From the figure above, it can be seen that at higher carrier frequency the variation above average is
significantly lesser than at lower carrier frequency. It is so because, at higher frequency the voltage
1
(PWM) is switching faster as the time period has decreased (T = ). This implies that the rising and
𝑓
falling time for current has decreased and therefore the max and min current ripple has reduced
respectively. This is opposite at lower frequency and therefore variation above average has increased
when the carrier wave frequency is set at 10 kHz. Moreover, it is clear that varying the carrier wave
frequency does not affect the steady state current and the time constant.
7
3.1.3 Effect of Varying Load Inductance on the Output Current
To visualize the effect of varying the load inductance on the output current, its value was first
increased from 3.3mH to 33.3mH and then decreased to 0.33mH.

Figure 3.4 Output Current Waveform for different inductances

When the load inductance is larger i.e. 33.3mH, the current not only takes longer to reach a steady
state value but also has significantly less variation above average. This is opposite when a lower
inductance value is used. It is so because, time constant is directly proportional to the inductance (τ
𝐿
= ), when a larger inductance is used the time constant increases and the current takes longer to
𝑅
𝑑𝑖𝑙 𝑉𝑙
reach its steady state value. Moreover, as = the variation above average or the ripple
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
current decreases when a larger inductance value is used. Furthermore, it is clear from Figure
3.4 that the value of inductance has no effect on the steady state current.

3.2 VARIABLE AC SUPPLY

To get an AC output, the triangular carrier wave is compared against a sine wave signal instead of a
constant. This results in a voltage PWM output with constantly changing duty cycle, which when
supplied to RL load produces an output current in form of a sine wave as shown below.

Figure 3.5 Output Current Waveform for Standard AC Model

Keeping the standard values for variable AC supply, shown in Table 3-1, the figure above was obtained.
The PWM voltage supply has the highest duty cycle when the sine wave is maximum (positive
amplitude) which then increases till the sine wave reaches its negative amplitude. The average value
of the output current remains same as earlier i.e. 0.2553A.
8
3.2.1 Effect of Varying Reference (Sine Wave) Frequency on the Output Current

Figure 3.6 Output Current Waveform for different reference signal frequency

From figure above it can be seen that changing the sine wave frequency (reference signal) changes
the current output frequency, however the switching frequency remains unchanged. It is so because,
when the sine wave frequency is increased (100Hz), the fundamental frequency of the output
𝑓𝑠
increases and therefore, the frequency modulation factor decreases, as 𝑚𝑓 = 𝑓1
. Therefore, the
fundamental frequency depends on the sine wave frequency and the switching frequency depends on
the carrier frequency. Hence setting the sine wave (reference) at desired frequency will result the first
harmonic at the same frequency. However, it should be noted that the sine wave frequency does not
affect the average output current and the variation above average (ripple current).

3.2.2 Effect of Varying Triangle Carrier Wave Frequency on the Output Current

Figure 3.7 Output Current Waveform for different carrier frequencies

It can be observed from Figure 3.7 that increasing the triangular carrier wave frequency results in a
smoother sine wave output current. This effect is the same as for variable DC supply, as discussed
earlier.
9
3.2.3 Effect of Varying the Load Inductance Wave Frequency on the Output Current

Figure 3.8 Output Current Waveform for different inductances

The figure above shows that increasing the load inductance results in less variation above average and
also slower time response i.e. current takes longer to complete its sine wave cycle. Both of these
effects are same as for the variable DC supply as discussed earlier.

4 CONCLUSION
The inverter designed is able to produce a PWM with fixed duty cycle, a variable AC output, and control
a BLDC motor, therefore acting as a flexible inverter. The experiment results clearly indicate that PIC,
gate driver, and MOSFETs are working as desired in addition to all other passive and active
components used. Moreover, results from the simulation matches with the experiment, e.g. using the
potentiometer to vary the duty cycle gave similar effect in comparison to when done in simulation. A
conclusion as follows can be drawn from the simulation results.

1. Output current/power is directly proportional to the duty cycle i.e. reference signal value.
2. Ripple or variation above average is inversely proportional to the carrier wave frequency.
3. Ripple or variation above average is inversely proportional to the load inductance.

Therefore, for a higher output increase the duty cycle; for a smoother output (less variation) either
increase the carrier wave frequency or increase the load inductance value. It should be noted that
only an inductive load has been used through the experiment and the simulation, therefore to verify
the above conclusions under different load conditions (e.g. Capacitive load), further experimentation
should be carried out. Finally, it can be concluded that all the objectives of this project were fulfilled.

10
5 APPENDIX

5.1 TASK 6 – HARDWARE BASED FLOWCHART

Start

Power Supply (24 VDC)

Regulate Power Supply for PIC, Gate driver,

MOSFET

10kHz -Carrier Wave

Various
Variable DC Output Mode operating BLDC Control Mode
modes
Variable AC Output Mode Supply
To
Hall Sequence Motor
Constant Reference Sinusoidal obtained from the
Signal Reference Signal motor

Comparator Comparator Comparator

Potentiometer varies duty cycle

Potentiometer varies frequency
(Speed of the motor)

Constant duty cycle Variable duty cycle PWM pulses to

PWM pulses PWM pulses control the phases

Gate Driver Gate Driver Gate Driver

MOSFET MOSFET MOSFET

Control the phases

of the motor (stator
windings)

Output with fixed Motor rotates

Sinusoidal output clockwise or anti-
duty cycle
clockwise

Next hall sequence

and speed of the
motor

End

11
 5.2 TASK 6 – SOFTWARE BASED FLOWCHART
Start

Initialize all the variables

Obtain the hall sequence from the sensors

Potentiometer controls the Duty Cycle of the

PWM (Speed of the motor)

Control MOSFETs based on the hall sequence

(angle) received from the sensors

If angle
equals

0 degrees 60 degrees 120 degrees 180 degrees 240 degrees 300 degrees

Phase A–Positive Phase A–Positive Phase A–Zero Phase A–Negative Phase A–Negative Phase A–Zero
Phase B–Negative Phase B–Zero Phase B–Positive Phase B–Positive Phase B–Zero Phase B–Negative
Phase C-Zero Phase C-Negative Phase C-Negative Phase C–Zero Phase C-Positive Phase C-Positive

Yes Apply to respective phase

windings on the stator

Current
Yes Angle=0 No
degrees?

Motor is Motor is
Motor is Motor is Current
Previous rotating rotating
rotating Yes No rotating Yes Angle>Previous No
angle=300? anti- anti-
clockwise clockwise angle?
clockwise clockwise

Maintain average
RPM

Power Supply
on?

No

End

12
5.3 ADDITIONAL RESULTS
5.3.1 Test 1
J1 and J2
Frequency, duty cycle, and gate on voltage

J1 on and off time repectively

J2 on and off time respectively

13
 J3 and J4
Frequency, duty cycle, and gate on voltage

J3 on and off time repectively

J4 on and off time respectively

14
 J5 and J6
Frequency and duty cycle

J5 on and off time repectively

J6 on and off time respectively

15
6 REFERENCES
Electric Drives - Brushless DC and Reluctance Motors - Description and Applications. 2015 [ONLINE]
Available at: http://www.mpoweruk.com/motorsbrushless.htm. [Accessed 02 January 2015].

Mpoweruk.com, (2015). Electric Drives - Brushless DC and Reluctance Motors - Description and
Applications. [online] Available at: http://www.mpoweruk.com/motorsbrushless.htm [Accessed 2 Jan.
2015].

Ecmweb.com, (2012). Effects of Harmonics on Power Systems | Power Quality content from Electrical
Construction & Maintenance (EC&M) Magazine. [online] Available at: http://ecmweb.com/power-
quality/effects-harmonics-power-systems [Accessed 30 Dec. 2014].

Ewh.ieee.org, (2015). PULSE WIDTH MODULATED INVERTER. [online] Available at:

http://www.ewh.ieee.org/soc/es/Nov1998/08/PWMINV.HTM [Accessed 30 Dec. 2014].

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